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New Zealand

January 03, 2023

"NZ" redirects here. For other uses, see NZ (disambiguation) and New Zealand (disambiguation).

New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui) and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island country by area, covering 268,021 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). New Zealand is about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the islands of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps, owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, and its most populous city is Auckland.

New Zealand
Aotearoa (Māori)
Anthems:
"God Defend New Zealand"
(Māori: "Aotearoa")

"God Save the King"[n 1]
Location of New Zealand, including outlying islands, its territorial claim in the Antarctic, and Tokelau
CapitalWellington
41°18′S 174°47′E / 41.300°S 174.783°E / -41.300; 174.783
Largest cityAuckland
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2018)[3]
Religion
(2018)[4]
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Charles III
Cindy Kiro
Jacinda Ardern
LegislatureParliament
(House of Representatives)
Independence 
from the United Kingdom
6 February 1840
7 May 1856
• Dominion
26 September 1907
25 November 1947
Area
• Total
268,021 km2 (103,483 sq mi) (75th)
• Water (%)
1.6[n 4]
Population
• January 2023 estimate
 5,137,190[6] (121st)
• 2018 census
4,699,755[7]
• Density
19.1/km2 (49.5/sq mi) (167th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
 $261 billion[8] (63rd)
• Per capita
 $50,851[8] (32nd)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
 $242 billion[8] (51st)
• Per capita
 $47,278[8] (23rd)
Gini (2019) 33.9[9]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.937[10]
very high · 13th
CurrencyNew Zealand dollar ($) (NZD)
Time zoneUTC+12 (NZST[n 5])
• Summer (DST)
UTC+13 (NZDT[n 6])
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy[12]
Driving sideleft
Calling code+64
ISO 3166 codeNZ
Internet TLD.nz

The islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable land to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and then developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which in its English version declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori tribes resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. New Zealand became a dominion in 1907; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, retaining the monarch as head of state. Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 5.1 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening of culture arising from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori, and New Zealand Sign Language, with the local dialect of English being dominant.

A developed country, New Zealand ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. The country was the first to introduce a minimum wage, and the first to give women the right to vote. New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the national economy, followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture; international tourism is also a significant source of revenue. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the prime minister, currently Jacinda Ardern. King Charles III is the country's monarch and is represented by the governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica.

New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, UKUSA, OECD, ASEAN Plus Six, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Etymology

Further information: New Zealand place names
 
Detail from a 1657 map showing the western coastline of Nova Zeelandia (on this map, north is at the bottom)

The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, named the islands Staten Land, believing they were part of the Staten Landt that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America.[13][14] Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery Nova Zeelandia from Latin, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.[13][15] This name was later anglicised to New Zealand.[16][17]

This was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language. In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni" was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared by Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni, the United Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg.[18][19]

Aotearoa (pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] in Māori and /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/ in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud')[20] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans; Aotearoa originally referred to just the North Island.[21] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui ("the fish of Māui") for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ("the waters of greenstone") or Te Waka o Aoraki ("the canoe of Aoraki") for the South Island.[22] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).[23] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm.[17] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[24] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[24] Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together (Aotearoa New Zealand);[25][26] however, this has no official recognition.[27]

History

Main article: History of New Zealand
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of New Zealand history.
 
The Māori people descend from Polynesians whose ancestors emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia between 3000 and 1000 BCE and then travelled east, reaching the Society Islands c. 1000 CE. After a pause of 200 to 300 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[28][29][30]

New Zealand is one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation[31] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations[32] suggest that Eastern Polynesians first settled the New Zealand archipelago between 1250 and 1300,[22][33] although newer archaeological and genetic research points to a date no earlier than about 1280, with at least the main settlement period between about 1320 and 1350,[34][35] consistent with evidence based on genealogical traditions.[36][37] This represented a culmination in a long series of voyages through the Pacific islands.[38] Over the centuries that followed, the Polynesian settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population formed different iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) which would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.[39] At some point, a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[40][41] The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 in the Moriori genocide, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862, only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.[42]

 
Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769–70. The track of the Endeavour is also shown.

In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman's crew,[43][44] four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[45] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[44] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water.[46] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[47] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[48] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[49] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[50]

 
The Waitangi sheet from the Treaty of Waitangi

The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.[51] His duties were to protect British commerce, mediate between the unruly Pākehā (European) settlers and Māori, and to apprehend escaped convicts.[51][52] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[51] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[53] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[54] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington[55] and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa,[56] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[57] With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[58]

New Zealand was administered as part of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony, the Colony of New Zealand on 3 May 1841.[59][60] Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[61]

 
A meeting of European and Māori inhabitants of Hawke's Bay Province. Engraving, 1863.

The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first Parliament met in 1854.[62] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s).[62] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.[63][64] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[65]

In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands, about 1,000 km (620 mi) northeast of Auckland. Since 1937, the islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude.[66] After the 1982 UNCLOS, the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone.[67]

In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.[68] The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office,[69] passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote[68] and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.[70] The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894, a world first.[71]

In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire,[72] reflecting its self-governing status.[73] In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.[62]

Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars[74] and suffering through the Great Depression.[75] The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.[76] New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War,[77] and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.[78] A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.[79] In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.[54] The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi,[80] although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s.[81][82]

Government and politics

Main articles: New Zealand Government and Politics of New Zealand
 
Charles III, King of New Zealand
 
Jacinda Ardern, Prime Minister of New Zealand

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,[83] although its constitution is not codified.[84] Charles III is the king of New Zealand[85] and thus the head of state.[86] The king is represented by the governor-general, whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister.[87] The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors, and other key public officials,[88] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).[89] The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.[89]

The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives.[90] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.[90] The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.[90] The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.[90] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[91] Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[92] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[93]

A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.[94] Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.[95] Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[84] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate, and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[96] and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[97]

 
A statue of Richard Seddon, the "Beehive" (Executive Wing), and Parliament House (right), in Parliament Grounds, Wellington.

Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.[95] Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land – head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker, and chief justice – were occupied simultaneously by women.[98] The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.[99] She is the country's third female prime minister.[100]

New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice,[101] includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.[102] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.[84] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.[103]

New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.[104] As of 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions,[105] and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.[106] A 2017 human rights report by the US Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.[107] New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 80% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 68%.[108]

See also: International rankings of New Zealand

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of New Zealand and New Zealand Defence Force
 
Māori Battalion haka in Egypt, 1941

Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.[109] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."[110]

In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[111] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[112] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[113] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[114] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[115][116] Despite the United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[117] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[118] In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.[119]

 
Anzac Day service at the National War Memorial

New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries.[120] A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.[121] Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.[122] New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).[118] New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific region,[123] and an emerging power.[124][125] The country is a member of the United Nations,[126] the Commonwealth of Nations[127] and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),[128] and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.[129]

New Zealand's military services—the Defence Force—comprise the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the Royal New Zealand Navy.[130] New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely.[131] However, its military has had a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,[132] El Alamein,[133] and Cassino.[134] The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity[135][136] and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.[137]

In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War,[138] the Korean War,[139] the Malayan Emergency,[140] the Gulf War, and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.[141]

New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement, known formally as the UKUSA Agreement. The five members of this agreement are Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[142]

Local government and external territories

Main articles: Local government in New Zealand and Realm of New Zealand
 
Map of regions (coloured) and territorial authorities (outlined) in New Zealand.

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[143] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[144] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[145] and sporting rivalries.[146]

Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[143][147] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.[148] The 249 municipalities[148] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[149] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[148] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters.[150][151] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[151] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[152]

The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms,[153] is the entire area over which the king of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands, and Niue.[83] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.[154][155] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).[156] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.[157] New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[158][n 7]

Geography and environment

Main articles: Geography of New Zealand and Environment of New Zealand
  See also: Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
 
The snow-capped Southern Alps dominate the South Island, while the North Island's Northland Peninsula stretches towards the subtropics.

New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands.[160] The two main islands (the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu) are separated by Cook Strait, 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point.[161] Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait), Chatham Island, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf),[162] D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds)[163] and Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland).[164]

New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)[165]—with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[166] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[167] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[168]

 
Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest point in New Zealand, at 3,724 metres.
 
The Southern Alps stretch for 500 kilometres down the South Island.

The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.[169] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,724 metres (12,218 ft).[170] Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.[171] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.[172] The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō,[160] nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.[173]

The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates.[174] New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.[175][176] About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches[177] further north.[174]

New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a region known as Australasia.[178] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.[179] Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.[180]

Climate

Main article: Climate of New Zealand

New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.[181] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly, Otago.[182] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.[183][184] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 618 millimetres (24.3 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[185] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[186] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.[187] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[181]

Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand[188]
Location January high January low July high July low Annual rainfall
Auckland 23 °C (73 °F) 15 °C (59 °F) 15 °C (59 °F) 8 °C (46 °F) 1,212 mm (47.7 in)
Wellington 20 °C (68 °F) 14 °C (57 °F) 11 °C (52 °F) 6 °C (43 °F) 1,207 mm (47.5 in)
Hokitika 20 °C (68 °F) 12 °C (54 °F) 12 °C (54 °F) 3 °C (37 °F) 2,901 mm (114.2 in)
Christchurch 23 °C (73 °F) 12 °C (54 °F) 11 °C (52 °F) 2 °C (36 °F) 618 mm (24.3 in)
Alexandra 25 °C (77 °F) 11 °C (52 °F) 8 °C (46 °F) −2 °C (28 °F) 359 mm (14.1 in)

Biodiversity

Main article: Biodiversity of New Zealand
 
The endemic flightless kiwi is a national icon.

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years[189] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[190][191] The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal.[192] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera.[193][194] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[193] and 40% of these are endemic.[195] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[196] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[197]

Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[198] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[199] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[200]

 
The giant Haast's eagle died out when humans hunted its main prey, the moa, to extinction.

The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kākāpō, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness.[201] The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.[202][203]

Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs, [204] such as the protected endangered Hamilton's Frog, spiders,[205] insects (wētā),[206] and snails.[207] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.[208] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[209][210] Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[211] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[212] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species.[213]

Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[202] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas.[214][215][216][217]

Economy

Main article: Economy of New Zealand
See also: List of companies of New Zealand
 
Waterfront along Auckland CBD, a major hub of economic activity

New Zealand has an advanced market economy,[218] ranked 14th in the 2019 Human Development Index[219] and fourth in the 2022 Index of Economic Freedom.[220] It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$36,254.[221] The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.[222]

Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.[223] The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[224] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[225] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community[226] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression.[227] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.[228] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.[229][230] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.[231][232]

 
Milford Sound / Piopiotahi is one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations.[233]

Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[234] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[234] However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[235][236] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[237] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. In the December 2014 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 5.8%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15.6%.[234] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[238] that still continue today.[239] Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[240] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[241][242] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.[243]

Trade

New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[244] particularly in agricultural products.[245] Exports account for 24% of its output,[166] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[246] New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018, are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[247] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[248] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[166] Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[249] In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[249]

 
Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.

Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[223] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[223] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities,[250] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[251] In contrast, dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[252] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[253] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[247] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[254] Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[247] New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[255] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[256][257]

Infrastructure

In 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply.[258] The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power, with major schemes on the Waikato, Waitaki and Clutha / Mata-Au rivers, as well as at Manapouri. Geothermal power is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The five main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy, Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, and TrustPower. State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting the two together.[258]

The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[259][260]

 
A Boeing 787–9 Dreamliner of Air New Zealand, the flag carrier of New Zealand

New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[261] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[166] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[262] The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated by Auckland One Rail and Transdev Wellington respectively.[263] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[264] The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington and Picton, operated by Interislander (part of KiwiRail) and Bluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air.[265] New Zealand has four international airports: Auckland, Christchurch, Queenstown and Wellington; however, only Auckland and Christchurch offer non-stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji.[266]

The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.[267] Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011,[268] still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased.[267] A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022.[269] As of 2017, the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure.[270]

Science and technology

Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māori tohunga accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease.[271] Cook's voyages in the 1700s and Darwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives.[272] The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom, William Pickering for rocket science, Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA, Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation, Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers.[273]

Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand.[274] The total gross expenditure on research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP.[275] New Zealand was ranked 26th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020 and 2021, down from 25th in 2019.[276][277][278]

Demography

Main articles: Demographics of New Zealand and List of cities in New Zealand

The 2018 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,699,755, an increase of 10.8% over the 2013 census figure.[3] As of January 2023, the total population has risen to an estimated 5,137,190.[6] New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census.[279][n 8]

New Zealand's population today is concentrated to the north of the country, with around 76.5% of the population living in the North Island and 23.4% in the South Island as of June 2022.[281] During the 20th century, New Zealand's population drifted north. In 1921, the country's median centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west of Levin in Manawatū-Whanganui; by 2017, it had moved 280 km (170 mi) north to near Kawhia in Waikato.[282]

New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 83.6% of the population living in urban areas, and 50.4% of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100,000.[281] Auckland, with over 1.4 million residents, is by far the largest city.[281] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016, Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[283]

The median age of the New Zealand population at the 2018 census was 37.4 years,[284] with life expectancy in 2017–2019 being 80.0 years for males and 83.5 years for females.[285] While New Zealand is experiencing sub-replacement fertility, with a total fertility rate of 1.6 in 2020, the fertility rate is above the OECD average.[286][287] By 2050, the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[288] In 2016 the leading cause of death was cancer at 30.3%, followed by ischaemic heart disease (14.9%) and cerebrovascular disease (7.4%).[289] As of 2016, total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[290]

 
Largest cities or towns in New Zealand
Statistics New Zealand June 2022 estimate (SSGA18 boundaries)[281]
Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop.
 
Auckland
 
Christchurch 		1 Auckland Auckland 1,440,300 11 Hibiscus Coast Auckland 60,000  
Wellington
 
Hamilton
2 Christchurch Canterbury 377,900 12 New Plymouth Taranaki 58,500
3 Wellington Wellington 212,000 13 Rotorua Bay of Plenty 57,900
4 Hamilton Waikato 179,900 14 Whangārei Northland 54,900
5 Tauranga Bay of Plenty 158,300 15 Nelson Nelson 50,800
6 Lower Hutt Wellington 111,500 16 Hastings Hawke's Bay 50,400
7 Dunedin Otago 102,400 17 Invercargill Southland 49,800
8 Palmerston North Manawatū-Whanganui 81,200 18 Upper Hutt Wellington 44,800
9 Napier Hawke's Bay 66,800 19 Whanganui Manawatū-Whanganui 42,600
10 Porirua Wellington 60,200 20 Gisborne Gisborne 37,700

Ethnicity and immigration

Main articles: New Zealanders and Immigration to New Zealand
 
Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city

In the 2018 census, 71.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 16.5% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (15.3%) and Pacific peoples (9.0%), two-thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region.[n 3][3] The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[291]

While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[292] and by locals.[293] The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[294]

The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.[295] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[296] German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[297][298] Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted.[298][299] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[300] In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the 2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region.[301] The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[302] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[303]

Language

Main article: Languages of New Zealand
 
Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[304]
  Less than 5%
  More than 5%
  More than 10%
  More than 20%
  More than 30%
  More than 40%
  More than 50%

English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population.[3] New Zealand English is a variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon.[305] It is similar to Australian English, and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[306] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-i sound (as in kit) has centralised towards the schwa sound (the a in comma and about); the short-e sound (as in dress) has moved towards the short-i sound; and the short-a sound (as in trap) has moved to the short-e sound.[307]

After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[308] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[309] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[310] and is spoken by 4.0% of the population.[3][n 9] There are now Māori language-immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[312] Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[313]

As recorded in the 2018 census,[3] Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 2.0%), Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%). New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22,986 people (0.5%); it became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[314]

Religion

Main article: Religion in New Zealand
See also: Irreligion in New Zealand
 
A Rātana church on a hill near Raetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.[315]

Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world.[316][317] In the 2018 census, 44.7% of respondents identified with one or more religions, including 37.0% identifying as Christians. Another 48.5% indicated that they had no religion.[n 10][3] Of those who affiliate with a particular Christian denomination, the main responses are Anglicanism (6.7%),[n 11] Roman Catholicism (6.3%), and Presbyterianism (4.7%).[3] The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.2%) are also Christian in origin.[3][315] Immigration and demographic change in recent decades have contributed to the growth of minority religions, such as Hinduism (2.6%), Islam (1.3%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Sikhism (0.9%).[3] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[318]

Education

Main articles: Education in New Zealand and Tertiary education in New Zealand

Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority of children attending from the age of 5.[319] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[320] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[166] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[319] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[321] in addition to private training establishments.[322] In the adult population, 14.2% have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4% have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification, and 22.4% have no formal qualification.[323] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the seventh-best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.[324]

Culture

Main article: Culture of New Zealand
 
Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures

Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[325] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[326][327] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[328] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[329] More recently, American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[330]

The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[331] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[332] At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[333] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[308] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, and cities expanded[334] urban culture began to dominate.[335] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[336]

New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[337] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[337]

Art

Main article: New Zealand art

As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[338] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[339] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[340] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[341]

Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[342] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[343] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[344] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation.[344] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.[345] During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[346] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[338][347]

 
Portrait of Hinepare of Ngāti Kahungunu by Gottfried Lindauer, showing chin moko, pounamu hei-tiki and woven cloak

Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[348] Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[349] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[350] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[351][352] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[352]

Literature

Main article: New Zealand literature

Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[353] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[354] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[355] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[356] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[357]

Media and entertainment

Main articles: Music of New Zealand, Cinema of New Zealand, and Media of New Zealand

New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[358] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.[359] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments[360] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.[361] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[362][363] Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[364] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards, and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[358] Some artists release Māori language songs, and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[365] The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.[366] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.[367]

 
The Hobbiton Movie Set, located near Matamata, was used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy.[368]

Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922.[369] A state-owned television service began in 1960.[370] Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.[371] New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with many Australian and local shows.[372] The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers, and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement.[371] The highest-grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Whale Rider, Once Were Warriors and The Piano.[373] The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,[374] have encouraged some producers to shoot very big-budget and well known productions in New Zealand, including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, Avatar, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong, Wolverine and The Last Samurai.[375] The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations.[376] Since 1994, Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty, with the 19th freest media as of 2015.[377]

Sport

Main article: Sport in New Zealand
 
A haka performed by the national rugby union team ("All Blacks") before a game. The haka is a challenge with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet.

Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[378] Rugby union is considered the national sport[379] and attracts the most spectators.[380] Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people.[380][381] Horse racing is one of the most popular spectator sports in New Zealand and was part of the "rugby, racing, and beer" subculture during the 1960s.[382] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[381] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[383] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby, and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[384] New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism[385] and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary.[386][387] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.[388] New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in the America's Cup regatta since 1995.[389] The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[390]

New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, rugby league, netball, cricket, softball, and sailing. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920.[391] The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games.[392][393] The "All Blacks", the national rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby[394] and have won the World Cup three times.[395]

Cuisine

Main article: New Zealand cuisine
 
Ingredients to be prepared for a hāngi

The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia.[396] New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.[397] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, kōura (crayfish),[398] Bluff oysters, whitebait, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua (types of New Zealand shellfish),[399] kūmara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo, and pavlova (considered a national dessert).[400][396] A hāngī is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions,[401] such as tangihanga.[402]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ "God Save the King" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.[1]
  2. ^ English is a de facto official language due to its widespread use.[2]
  3. ^ a b Ethnicity figures add to more than 100% as people could choose more than one ethnic group.
  4. ^ The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[5] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216)=1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
  5. ^ The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
  6. ^ Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[11] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
  7. ^ A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. People born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[159]
  8. ^ A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020, before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census.[280]
  9. ^ In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of te reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[311]
  10. ^ Religion percentages may not add to 100% as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question.
  11. ^ This is a percentage of total respondents to the census, not a percentage of Christians.

Citations

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January 03, 2023
zealand, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, māori, aotearoa, aɔˈtɛaɾɔa, island, country, southwestern, pacific, ocean, consists, main, landmasses, north, island, māui, south, island, waipounamu, over, smaller, islands, sixth, largest. NZ redirects here For other uses see NZ disambiguation and New Zealand disambiguation New Zealand Maori Aotearoa aɔˈtɛaɾɔa is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean It consists of two main landmasses the North Island Te Ika a Maui and the South Island Te Waipounamu and over 700 smaller islands It is the sixth largest island country by area covering 268 021 square kilometres 103 500 sq mi New Zealand is about 2 000 kilometres 1 200 mi east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and 1 000 kilometres 600 mi south of the islands of New Caledonia Fiji and Tonga The country s varied topography and sharp mountain peaks including the Southern Alps owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions New Zealand s capital city is Wellington and its most populous city is Auckland New ZealandAotearoa Maori Flag Coat of armsAnthems God Defend New Zealand Maori Aotearoa source source source track track track track track track track God Save the King n 1 Location of New Zealand including outlying islands its territorial claim in the Antarctic and TokelauCapitalWellington41 18 S 174 47 E 41 300 S 174 783 E 41 300 174 783Largest cityAucklandOfficial languagesEnglish n 2 MaoriNZ Sign LanguageEthnic groups 2018 3 71 8 European16 5 Maori15 3 Asian9 0 Pacific peoples1 5 ME LA African1 2 Others n 3 Religion 2018 4 48 6 No religion37 3 Christianity2 7 Hinduism1 3 Islam1 1 Buddhism2 3 Others6 7 No answerDemonym s New ZealanderKiwi colloquial GovernmentUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy MonarchCharles III Governor GeneralCindy Kiro Prime MinisterJacinda ArdernLegislatureParliament House of Representatives Independence from the United Kingdom Treaty of Waitangi6 February 1840 Responsible government7 May 1856 Dominion26 September 1907 Statute of Westminster adopted25 November 1947Area Total268 021 km2 103 483 sq mi 75th Water 1 6 n 4 Population January 2023 estimate5 137 190 6 121st 2018 census4 699 755 7 Density19 1 km2 49 5 sq mi 167th GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 261 billion 8 63rd Per capita 50 851 8 32nd GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 242 billion 8 51st Per capita 47 278 8 23rd Gini 2019 33 9 9 mediumHDI 2021 0 937 10 very high 13thCurrencyNew Zealand dollar NZD Time zoneUTC 12 NZST n 5 Summer DST UTC 13 NZDT n 6 Date formatdd mm yyyy 12 Driving sideleftCalling code 64ISO 3166 codeNZInternet TLD nzThe islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable land to be settled by humans Between about 1280 and 1350 Polynesians began to settle in the islands and then developed a distinctive Maori culture In 1642 the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand In 1840 representatives of the United Kingdom and Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which in its English version declared British sovereignty over the islands In 1841 New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire Subsequently a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Maori tribes resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Maori land New Zealand became a dominion in 1907 it gained full statutory independence in 1947 retaining the monarch as head of state Today the majority of New Zealand s population of 5 1 million is of European descent the indigenous Maori are the largest minority followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders Reflecting this New Zealand s culture is mainly derived from Maori and early British settlers with recent broadening of culture arising from increased immigration The official languages are English Maori and New Zealand Sign Language with the local dialect of English being dominant A developed country New Zealand ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance such as quality of life education protection of civil liberties government transparency and economic freedom The country was the first to introduce a minimum wage and the first to give women the right to vote New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free trade economy The service sector dominates the national economy followed by the industrial sector and agriculture international tourism is also a significant source of revenue Nationally legislative authority is vested in an elected unicameral Parliament while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet led by the prime minister currently Jacinda Ardern King Charles III is the country s monarch and is represented by the governor general In addition New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau a dependent territory the Cook Islands and Niue self governing states in free association with New Zealand and the Ross Dependency which is New Zealand s territorial claim in Antarctica New Zealand is a member of the United Nations Commonwealth of Nations ANZUS UKUSA OECD ASEAN Plus Six Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government and politics 3 1 Foreign relations and military 3 2 Local government and external territories 4 Geography and environment 4 1 Climate 4 2 Biodiversity 5 Economy 5 1 Trade 5 2 Infrastructure 5 3 Science and technology 6 Demography 6 1 Ethnicity and immigration 6 2 Language 6 3 Religion 6 4 Education 7 Culture 7 1 Art 7 2 Literature 7 3 Media and entertainment 7 4 Sport 7 5 Cuisine 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 Citations 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymologyFurther information New Zealand place names Detail from a 1657 map showing the western coastline of Nova Zeelandia on this map north is at the bottom The first European visitor to New Zealand Dutch explorer Abel Tasman named the islands Staten Land believing they were part of the Staten Landt that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America 13 14 Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643 and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman s discovery Nova Zeelandia from Latin after the Dutch province of Zeeland 13 15 This name was later anglicised to New Zealand 16 17 This was written as Nu Tireni in the Maori language In 1834 a document written in Maori and entitled He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand It was prepared by Te W h akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni the United Tribes of New Zealand and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg 18 19 Aotearoa pronounced aɔˈtɛaɾɔa in Maori and ˌ aʊ t ɛeˈr oʊ e in English often translated as land of the long white cloud 20 is the current Maori name for New Zealand It is unknown whether Maori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans Aotearoa originally referred to just the North Island 21 Maori had several traditional names for the two main islands including Te Ika a Maui the fish of Maui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu the waters of greenstone or Te Waka o Aoraki the canoe of Aoraki for the South Island 22 Early European maps labelled the islands North North Island Middle South Island and South Stewart Island Rakiura 23 In 1830 mapmakers began to use North and South on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm 17 The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013 This set the names as North Island or Te Ika a Maui and South Island or Te Waipounamu 24 For each island either its English or Maori name can be used or both can be used together 24 Similarly the Maori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together Aotearoa New Zealand 25 26 however this has no official recognition 27 HistoryMain article History of New Zealand For a chronological guide see Timeline of New Zealand history The Maori people descend from Polynesians whose ancestors emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia between 3000 and 1000 BCE and then travelled east reaching the Society Islands c 1000 CE After a pause of 200 to 300 years a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand 28 29 30 New Zealand is one of the last major landmasses settled by humans Radiocarbon dating evidence of deforestation 31 and mitochondrial DNA variability within Maori populations 32 suggest that Eastern Polynesians first settled the New Zealand archipelago between 1250 and 1300 22 33 although newer archaeological and genetic research points to a date no earlier than about 1280 with at least the main settlement period between about 1320 and 1350 34 35 consistent with evidence based on genealogical traditions 36 37 This represented a culmination in a long series of voyages through the Pacific islands 38 Over the centuries that followed the Polynesian settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Maori The population formed different iwi tribes and hapu subtribes which would sometimes cooperate sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other 39 At some point a group of Maori migrated to Rekohu now known as the Chatham Islands where they developed their distinct Moriori culture 40 41 The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 in the Moriori genocide largely because of Taranaki Maori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s although European diseases also contributed In 1862 only 101 survived and the last known full blooded Moriori died in 1933 42 Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769 70 The track of the Endeavour is also shown In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngati Tumatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman s crew 43 44 four of Tasman s crew members were killed and at least one Maori was hit by canister shot 45 Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline 44 Following Cook New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling sealing and trading ships They traded European food metal tools weapons and other goods for timber Maori food artefacts and water 46 The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Maori agriculture and warfare Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns 47 The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 killing 30 000 40 000 Maori 48 From the early 19th century Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand eventually converting most of the Maori population 49 The Maori population declined to around 40 of its pre contact level during the 19th century introduced diseases were the major factor 50 The Waitangi sheet from the Treaty of Waitangi The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Maori 51 His duties were to protect British commerce mediate between the unruly Pakeha European settlers and Maori and to apprehend escaped convicts 51 52 In 1835 following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection 51 Ongoing unrest the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Maori and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Maori 53 The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840 54 In response to the New Zealand Company s attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington 55 and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa 56 Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Maori to sign 57 With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants particularly from the United Kingdom began to increase 58 New Zealand was administered as part of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony the Colony of New Zealand on 3 May 1841 59 60 Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Maori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty These conflicts mainly in the North Island saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars Following these armed conflicts large amounts of Maori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands 61 A meeting of European and Maori inhabitants of Hawke s Bay Province Engraving 1863 The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854 62 In 1856 the colony effectively became self governing gaining responsibility over all domestic matters except native policy which was granted in the mid 1860s 62 Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait 63 64 Wellington was chosen for its central location with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 65 In 1886 New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands about 1 000 km 620 mi northeast of Auckland Since 1937 the islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude 66 After the 1982 UNCLOS the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand s exclusive economic zone 67 In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party 68 The Liberal Government led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office 69 passed many important social and economic measures In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote 68 and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions 70 The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894 a world first 71 In 1907 at the request of the New Zealand Parliament King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire 72 reflecting its self governing status 73 In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand 62 Early in the 20th century New Zealand was involved in world affairs fighting in the First and Second World Wars 74 and suffering through the Great Depression 75 The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy 76 New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War 77 and Maori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work 78 A Maori protest movement developed which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Maori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi 79 In 1975 a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 54 The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi 80 although Maori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s 81 82 Government and politicsMain articles New Zealand Government and Politics of New Zealand Charles III King of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern Prime Minister of New Zealand New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy 83 although its constitution is not codified 84 Charles III is the king of New Zealand 85 and thus the head of state 86 The king is represented by the governor general whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister 87 The governor general can exercise the Crown s prerogative powers such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers ambassadors and other key public officials 88 and in rare situations the reserve powers e g the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law 89 The powers of the monarch and the governor general are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers 89 The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives 90 It also included an upper house the Legislative Council until this was abolished in 1950 90 The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand 90 The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured 90 The governor general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition 91 Cabinet formed by ministers and led by the prime minister is the highest policy making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions 92 Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions 93 A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election 94 Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first past the post voting system 95 Since the 1996 election a form of proportional representation called mixed member proportional MMP has been used 84 Under the MMP system each person has two votes one is for a candidate standing in the voter s electorate and the other is for a party Based on the 2018 census data there are 72 electorates which include seven Maori electorates in which only Maori can optionally vote 96 and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5 of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat 97 A statue of Richard Seddon the Beehive Executive Wing and Parliament House right in Parliament Grounds Wellington Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties National and Labour 95 Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land head of state governor general prime minister speaker and chief justice were occupied simultaneously by women 98 The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern who has been in office since 26 October 2017 99 She is the country s third female prime minister 100 New Zealand s judiciary headed by the chief justice 101 includes the Supreme Court Court of Appeal the High Court and subordinate courts 102 Judges and judicial officers are appointed non politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence 84 This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions 103 New Zealand is identified as one of the world s most stable and well governed states 104 As of 2017 update the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions 105 and first in government transparency and lack of corruption 106 A 2017 human rights report by the US Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Maori population 107 New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process with 80 voter turnout during recent elections compared to an OECD average of 68 108 See also International rankings of New Zealand Foreign relations and military Main articles Foreign relations of New Zealand and New Zealand Defence Force Maori Battalion haka in Egypt 1941 Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy 109 The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming Where she goes we go where she stands we stand 110 In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests 111 while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty 112 The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War 113 the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior 114 disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand s nuclear free policy 115 116 Despite the United States s suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend 117 Close political contact is maintained between the two countries with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit live and work in both countries without restrictions 118 In 2013 update there were about 650 000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia which is equivalent to 15 of the population of New Zealand 119 Anzac Day service at the National War Memorial New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries 120 A large proportion of New Zealand s aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment 121 Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category which allow up to 1 100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8 000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it 122 New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum the Pacific Community Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum including the East Asia Summit 118 New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia Pacific region 123 and an emerging power 124 125 The country is a member of the United Nations 126 the Commonwealth of Nations 127 and the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD 128 and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements 129 New Zealand s military services the Defence Force comprise the New Zealand Army the Royal New Zealand Air Force and the Royal New Zealand Navy 130 New Zealand s national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely 131 However its military has had a global presence The country fought in both world wars with notable campaigns in Gallipoli Crete 132 El Alamein 133 and Cassino 134 The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand s national identity 135 136 and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia 137 In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War 138 the Korean War 139 the Malayan Emergency 140 the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions such as those in Cyprus Somalia Bosnia and Herzegovina the Sinai Angola Cambodia the Iran Iraq border Bougainville East Timor and the Solomon Islands 141 New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement known formally as the UKUSA Agreement The five members of this agreement are Australia Canada New Zealand the United Kingdom and the United States 142 Local government and external territories Main articles Local government in New Zealand and Realm of New Zealand Map of regions coloured and territorial authorities outlined in New Zealand The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces which had a degree of autonomy 143 Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways education land sales and other policies government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876 144 The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays 145 and sporting rivalries 146 Since 1876 various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government 143 147 In 1989 the government reorganised local government into the current two tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities 148 The 249 municipalities 148 that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils 149 The regional councils role is to regulate the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management 148 while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage water local roads building consents and other local matters 150 151 Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils 151 The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils 53 district councils and the Chatham Islands Council While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority it undertakes many functions of a regional council 152 The Realm of New Zealand one of 15 Commonwealth realms 153 is the entire area over which the king of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand Tokelau the Ross Dependency the Cook Islands and Niue 83 The Cook Islands and Niue are self governing states in free association with New Zealand 154 155 The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence Tokelau is classified as a non self governing territory but is administered by a council of three elders one from each Tokelauan atoll 156 The Ross Dependency is New Zealand s territorial claim in Antarctica where it operates the Scott Base research facility 157 New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally so most people born in New Zealand the Cook Islands Niue Tokelau and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens 158 n 7 Geography and environmentMain articles Geography of New Zealand and Environment of New Zealand See also Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons The snow capped Southern Alps dominate the South Island while the North Island s Northland Peninsula stretches towards the subtropics New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands 160 The two main islands the North Island or Te Ika a Maui and the South Island or Te Waipounamu are separated by Cook Strait 22 kilometres 14 mi wide at its narrowest point 161 Besides the North and South Islands the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island across the Foveaux Strait Chatham Island Great Barrier Island in the Hauraki Gulf 162 D Urville Island in the Marlborough Sounds 163 and Waiheke Island about 22 km 14 mi from central Auckland 164 New Zealand is long and narrow over 1 600 kilometres 990 mi along its north north east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres 250 mi 165 with about 15 000 km 9 300 mi of coastline 166 and a total land area of 268 000 square kilometres 103 500 sq mi 167 Because of its far flung outlying islands and long coastline the country has extensive marine resources Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world covering more than 15 times its land area 168 Aoraki Mount Cook is the highest point in New Zealand at 3 724 metres The Southern Alps stretch for 500 kilometres down the South Island The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps 169 There are 18 peaks over 3 000 metres 9 800 ft the highest of which is Aoraki Mount Cook at 3 724 metres 12 218 ft 170 Fiordland s steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island 171 The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism 172 The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau punctuated by the North Island s highest mountain Mount Ruapehu 2 797 metres 9 177 ft The plateau also hosts the country s largest lake Lake Taupō 160 nestled in the caldera of one of the world s most active supervolcanoes 173 The country owes its varied topography and perhaps even its emergence above the waves to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo Australian Plates 174 New Zealand is part of Zealandia a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent 175 176 About 25 million years ago a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region This is now most evident in the Southern Alps formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other producing the Puysegur Trench to the south the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches 177 further north 174 New Zealand together with Australia is part of a region known as Australasia 178 It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia 179 Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent New Zealand and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven continent model 180 Landscapes of New Zealand Rural scene near Queenstown Hokitika Gorge West Coast The Emerald Lakes Mt Tongariro Lake Gunn Pencarrow Head WellingtonClimate Main article Climate of New Zealand New Zealand s climate is predominantly temperate maritime Koppen Cfb with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 C 50 F in the south to 16 C 61 F in the north 181 Historical maxima and minima are 42 4 C 108 32 F in Rangiora Canterbury and 25 6 C 14 08 F in Ranfurly Otago 182 Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland 183 184 Of the seven largest cities Christchurch is the driest receiving on average only 618 millimetres 24 3 in of rain per year and Wellington the wettest receiving almost twice that amount 185 Auckland Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2 000 hours of sunshine The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate with around 1 400 1 600 hours the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2 400 2 500 hours 186 The general snow season is early June until early October though cold snaps can occur outside this season 187 Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country 181 Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand 188 Location January high January low July high July low Annual rainfallAuckland 23 C 73 F 15 C 59 F 15 C 59 F 8 C 46 F 1 212 mm 47 7 in Wellington 20 C 68 F 14 C 57 F 11 C 52 F 6 C 43 F 1 207 mm 47 5 in Hokitika 20 C 68 F 12 C 54 F 12 C 54 F 3 C 37 F 2 901 mm 114 2 in Christchurch 23 C 73 F 12 C 54 F 11 C 52 F 2 C 36 F 618 mm 24 3 in Alexandra 25 C 77 F 11 C 52 F 8 C 46 F 2 C 28 F 359 mm 14 1 in Biodiversity Main article Biodiversity of New Zealand The endemic flightless kiwi is a national icon New Zealand s geographic isolation for 80 million years 189 and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country s species of animals fungi and plants Physical isolation has caused biological isolation resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species 190 191 The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand s fragmentation off from Gondwana however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal 192 About 82 of New Zealand s indigenous vascular plants are endemic covering 1 944 species across 65 genera 193 194 The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand including lichen forming species is not known nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic but one estimate suggests there are about 2 300 species of lichen forming fungi in New Zealand 193 and 40 of these are endemic 195 The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps or by southern beech in cooler climates 196 The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands the majority of which are tussock 197 Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 of the land was covered in forest with only high alpine wet infertile and volcanic areas without trees 198 Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement 199 Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming leaving forest occupying only 23 of the land 200 The giant Haast s eagle died out when humans hunted its main prey the moa to extinction The forests were dominated by birds and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi kakapō weka and takahe evolving flightlessness 201 The arrival of humans associated changes to habitat and the introduction of rats ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species including large birds like the moa and Haast s eagle 202 203 Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles tuatara skinks and geckos frogs 204 such as the protected endangered Hamilton s Frog spiders 205 insects weta 206 and snails 207 Some such as the tuatara are so unique that they have been called living fossils 208 Three species of bats one since extinct were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique mouse sized land mammal at least 16 million years old 209 210 Marine mammals however are abundant with almost half the world s cetaceans whales dolphins and porpoises and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters 211 Many seabirds breed in New Zealand a third of them unique to the country 212 More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country with 13 of the world s 18 penguin species 213 Since human arrival almost half of the country s vertebrate species have become extinct including at least fifty one birds three frogs three lizards one freshwater fish and one bat Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced 202 However New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover including island sanctuaries pest control wildlife translocation fostering and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas 214 215 216 217 EconomyMain article Economy of New Zealand See also List of companies of New Zealand Waterfront along Auckland CBD a major hub of economic activity New Zealand has an advanced market economy 218 ranked 14th in the 2019 update Human Development Index 219 and fourth in the 2022 update Index of Economic Freedom 220 It is a high income economy with a nominal gross domestic product GDP per capita of US 36 254 221 The currency is the New Zealand dollar informally known as the Kiwi dollar it also circulates in the Cook Islands see Cook Islands dollar Niue Tokelau and the Pitcairn Islands 222 Historically extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand s economy focusing at different times on sealing whaling flax gold kauri gum and native timber 223 The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand 224 High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s 225 In 1973 New Zealand s export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community 226 and other compounding factors such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises led to a severe economic depression 227 Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank 228 In the mid 1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three year period 229 230 Since 1984 successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free trade economy 231 232 Milford Sound Piopiotahi is one of New Zealand s most famous tourist destinations 233 Unemployment peaked just above 10 in 1991 and 1992 234 following the 1987 share market crash but eventually fell to a record low since 1986 of 3 7 in 2007 ranking third from twenty seven comparable OECD nations 234 However the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters the longest recession in over thirty years 235 236 and unemployment rising back to 7 in late 2009 237 Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth In the December 2014 quarter the general unemployment rate was around 5 8 while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15 6 234 New Zealand has experienced a series of brain drains since the 1970s 238 that still continue today 239 Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas mostly in Australia and Britain which is the largest proportion from any developed nation 240 In recent decades however a brain gain has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries 241 242 Today New Zealand s economy benefits from a high level of innovation 243 Trade New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade 244 particularly in agricultural products 245 Exports account for 24 of its output 166 making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns Food products made up 55 of the value of all the country s exports in 2014 wood was the second largest earner 7 246 New Zealand s main trading partners as at June 2018 update are China NZ 27 8b Australia 26 2b the European Union 22 9b the United States 17 6b and Japan 8 4b 247 On 7 April 2008 New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand China Free Trade Agreement the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country 248 The service sector is the largest sector in the economy followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction 166 Tourism plays a significant role in the economy contributing 12 9 billion or 5 6 to New Zealand s total GDP and supporting 7 5 of the total workforce in 2016 249 In 2017 international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5 4 annually up to 2022 249 Wool has historically been one of New Zealand s major exports Wool was New Zealand s major agricultural export during the late 19th century 223 Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues 223 but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities 250 and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers 251 In contrast dairy farming increased with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007 252 to become New Zealand s largest export earner 253 In the year to June 2018 dairy products accounted for 17 7 14 1 billion of total exports 247 and the country s largest company Fonterra controls almost one third of the international dairy trade 254 Other exports in 2017 18 were meat 8 8 wood and wood products 6 2 fruit 3 6 machinery 2 2 and wine 2 1 247 New Zealand s wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy the number of vineyards doubling over the same period 255 overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007 256 257 Infrastructure In 2015 renewable energy generated 40 1 of New Zealand s gross energy supply 258 The majority of the country s electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power with major schemes on the Waikato Waitaki and Clutha Mata Au rivers as well as at Manapouri Geothermal power is also a significant generator of electricity with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island The five main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy Genesis Energy Mercury Energy Meridian Energy and TrustPower State owned Transpower operates the high voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands as well as the Inter Island HVDC link connecting the two together 258 The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality Regional authorities provide water abstraction treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas 259 260 A Boeing 787 9 Dreamliner of Air New Zealand the flag carrier of New Zealand New Zealand s transport network comprises 94 000 kilometres 58 410 mi of roads including 199 kilometres 124 mi of motorways 261 and 4 128 kilometres 2 565 mi of railway lines 166 Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services although the private car is the predominant mode of transport 262 The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008 The state owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington which are operated by Auckland One Rail and Transdev Wellington respectively 263 Railways run the length of the country although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers 264 The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll on roll off ferries between Wellington and Picton operated by Interislander part of KiwiRail and Bluebridge Most international visitors arrive via air 265 New Zealand has four international airports Auckland Christchurch Queenstown and Wellington however only Auckland and Christchurch offer non stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji 266 The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed initially as a state owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990 267 Chorus which was split from Telecom now Spark in 2011 268 still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure but competition from other providers has increased 267 A large scale rollout of gigabit capable fibre to the premises branded as Ultra Fast Broadband began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87 of the population by 2022 269 As of 2017 update the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure 270 Science and technology Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Maori tohunga accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease 271 Cook s voyages in the 1700s and Darwin s in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives 272 The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom William Pickering for rocket science Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers 273 Crown Research Institutes CRIs were formed in 1992 from existing government owned research organisations Their role is to research and develop new science knowledge products and services across the economic environmental social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand 274 The total gross expenditure on research and development R amp D as a proportion of GDP rose to 1 37 in 2018 up from 1 23 in 2015 New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R amp D spending as a percentage of GDP 275 New Zealand was ranked 26th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020 and 2021 down from 25th in 2019 276 277 278 DemographyMain articles Demographics of New Zealand and List of cities in New Zealand Population pyramid 2017 The 2018 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4 699 755 an increase of 10 8 over the 2013 census figure 3 As of January 2023 the total population has risen to an estimated 5 137 190 6 New Zealand s population increased at a rate of 1 9 per year in the seven years ended June 2020 In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019 according to population estimates based on the 2018 census 279 n 8 New Zealand s population today is concentrated to the north of the country with around 76 5 of the population living in the North Island and 23 4 in the South Island as of June 2022 281 During the 20th century New Zealand s population drifted north In 1921 the country s median centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west of Levin in Manawatu Whanganui by 2017 it had moved 280 km 170 mi north to near Kawhia in Waikato 282 New Zealand is a predominantly urban country with 83 6 of the population living in urban areas and 50 4 of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100 000 281 Auckland with over 1 4 million residents is by far the largest city 281 New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures For instance in 2016 Auckland was ranked the world s third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey 283 The median age of the New Zealand population at the 2018 census was 37 4 years 284 with life expectancy in 2017 2019 being 80 0 years for males and 83 5 years for females 285 While New Zealand is experiencing sub replacement fertility with a total fertility rate of 1 6 in 2020 the fertility rate is above the OECD average 286 287 By 2050 the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 to 29 288 In 2016 the leading cause of death was cancer at 30 3 followed by ischaemic heart disease 14 9 and cerebrovascular disease 7 4 289 As of 2016 update total expenditure on health care including private sector spending is 9 2 of GDP 290 vte Largest cities or towns in New Zealand Statistics New Zealand June 2022 estimate SSGA18 boundaries 281 Rank Name Region Pop Rank Name Region Pop Auckland Christchurch 1 Auckland Auckland 1 440 300 11 Hibiscus Coast Auckland 60 000 Wellington Hamilton2 Christchurch Canterbury 377 900 12 New Plymouth Taranaki 58 5003 Wellington Wellington 212 000 13 Rotorua Bay of Plenty 57 9004 Hamilton Waikato 179 900 14 Whangarei Northland 54 9005 Tauranga Bay of Plenty 158 300 15 Nelson Nelson 50 8006 Lower Hutt Wellington 111 500 16 Hastings Hawke s Bay 50 4007 Dunedin Otago 102 400 17 Invercargill Southland 49 8008 Palmerston North Manawatu Whanganui 81 200 18 Upper Hutt Wellington 44 8009 Napier Hawke s Bay 66 800 19 Whanganui Manawatu Whanganui 42 60010 Porirua Wellington 60 200 20 Gisborne Gisborne 37 700 Ethnicity and immigration Main articles New Zealanders and Immigration to New Zealand Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland an ethnically diverse city In the 2018 census 71 8 of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European and 16 5 as Maori Other major ethnic groups include Asian 15 3 and Pacific peoples 9 0 two thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region n 3 3 The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades in 1961 the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 European and 7 Maori with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 291 While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander the informal Kiwi is commonly used both internationally 292 and by locals 293 The Maori loanword Pakeha has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent although some reject this name The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non Polynesian New Zealanders 294 The Maori were the first people to reach New Zealand followed by the early European settlers Following colonisation immigrants were predominantly from Britain Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy 295 There was also significant Dutch Dalmatian 296 German and Italian immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia North America South America and South Africa 297 298 Net migration increased after the Second World War in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed and immigration from Asia was promoted 298 299 In 2009 10 an annual target of 45 000 50 000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents 300 In the 2018 census 27 4 of people counted were not born in New Zealand up from 25 2 in the 2013 census Over half 52 4 of New Zealand s overseas born population lives in the Auckland Region 301 The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand s immigrant population with around a quarter of all overseas born New Zealanders born there other major sources of New Zealand s overseas born population are China India Australia South Africa Fiji and Samoa 302 The number of fee paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s with more than 20 000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002 303 Language Main article Languages of New Zealand Speakers of Maori according to the 2013 census 304 Less than 5 More than 5 More than 10 More than 20 More than 30 More than 40 More than 50 English is the predominant language in New Zealand spoken by 95 4 of the population 3 New Zealand English is a variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon 305 It is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart 306 The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels the short i sound as in kit has centralised towards the schwa sound the a in comma and about the short e sound as in dress has moved towards the short i sound and the short a sound as in trap has moved to the short e sound 307 After the Second World War Maori were discouraged from speaking their own language te reo Maori in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas 308 It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation 309 being declared one of New Zealand s official languages in 1987 310 and is spoken by 4 0 of the population 3 n 9 There are now Maori language immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Maori 312 Many places have both their Maori and English names officially recognised 313 As recorded in the 2018 census 3 Samoan is the most widely spoken non official language 2 2 followed by Northern Chinese including Mandarin 2 0 Hindi 1 5 and French 1 2 New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22 986 people 0 5 it became one of New Zealand s official languages in 2006 314 Religion Main article Religion in New Zealand See also Irreligion in New Zealand A Ratana church on a hill near Raetihi The two tower construction is characteristic of Ratana buildings 315 Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand although its society is among the most secular in the world 316 317 In the 2018 census 44 7 of respondents identified with one or more religions including 37 0 identifying as Christians Another 48 5 indicated that they had no religion n 10 3 Of those who affiliate with a particular Christian denomination the main responses are Anglicanism 6 7 n 11 Roman Catholicism 6 3 and Presbyterianism 4 7 3 The Maori based Ringatu and Ratana religions 1 2 are also Christian in origin 3 315 Immigration and demographic change in recent decades have contributed to the growth of minority religions such as Hinduism 2 6 Islam 1 3 Buddhism 1 1 and Sikhism 0 9 3 The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity 318 Education Main articles Education in New Zealand and Tertiary education in New Zealand Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16 with the majority of children attending from the age of 5 319 There are 13 school years and attending state public schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person s 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday 320 New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 166 and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification 319 There are five types of government owned tertiary institutions universities colleges of education polytechnics specialist colleges and wananga 321 in addition to private training establishments 322 In the adult population 14 2 have a bachelor s degree or higher 30 4 have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 4 have no formal qualification 323 The OECD s Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand s education system as the seventh best in the world with students performing exceptionally well in reading mathematics and science 324 CultureMain article Culture of New Zealand Late 20th century house post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures Early Maori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment eventually developing their own distinctive culture Social organisation was largely communal with families whanau subtribes hapu and tribes iwi ruled by a chief rangatira whose position was subject to the community s approval 325 The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Maori culture 326 327 particularly with the introduction of Christianity 328 However Maori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity and Maori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples 329 More recently American Australian Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand Non Maori Polynesian cultures are also apparent with Pasifika the world s largest Polynesian festival now an annual event in Auckland 330 The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged industrious problem solvers 331 Modesty was expected and enforced through the tall poppy syndrome where high achievers received harsh criticism 332 At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country 333 From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Maori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Maori into British New Zealanders 308 In the 1960s as tertiary education became more available and cities expanded 334 urban culture began to dominate 335 However rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand s art literature and media 336 New Zealand s national symbols are influenced by natural historical and Maori sources The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms 337 Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called Kiwiana 337 Art Main article New Zealand art As part of the resurgence of Maori culture the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Maori artists are increasing in number and influence 338 Most Maori carvings feature human figures generally with three fingers and either a natural looking detailed head or a grotesque head 339 Surface patterns consisting of spirals ridges notches and fish scales decorate most carvings 340 The pre eminent Maori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses wharenui decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt changing and adapting to different whims or needs 341 Maori decorated the white wood of buildings canoes and cenotaphs using red a mixture of red ochre and shark fat and black made from soot paint and painted pictures of birds reptiles and other designs on cave walls 342 Maori tattoos moko consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel 343 Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand 344 Portraits of Maori were also common with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation 344 The country s isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism 345 During the 1960s and 1970s many artists combined traditional Maori and Western techniques creating unique art forms 346 New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the Paradise Now exhibition in New York in 2004 338 347 Portrait of Hinepare of Ngati Kahungunu by Gottfried Lindauer showing chin moko pounamu hei tiki and woven cloak Maori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black red and white triangles diamonds and other geometric shapes 348 Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces with the most well known design being the hei tiki a distorted human figure sitting cross legged with its head tilted to the side 349 Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions 350 Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual practical and lacklustre 351 352 However the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000 doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels with some labels gaining international recognition 352 Literature Main article New Zealand literature Maori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form 353 Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known 354 Although still largely influenced by global trends modernism and events the Great Depression writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit 355 Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post war expansion of universities local literature flourished 356 Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature 357 Media and entertainment Main articles Music of New Zealand Cinema of New Zealand and Media of New Zealand New Zealand music has been influenced by blues jazz country rock and roll and hip hop with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation 358 Maori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins and after centuries of isolation created a unique monotonous and doleful sound 359 Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments 360 or as signalling devices during war or special occasions 361 Early settlers brought over their ethnic music with brass bands and choral music being popular and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s 362 363 Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century 364 The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States 358 Some artists release Maori language songs and the Maori tradition based art of kapa haka song and dance has made a resurgence 365 The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt amp Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards 366 Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country s official weekly record charts 367 The Hobbiton Movie Set located near Matamata was used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy 368 Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922 369 A state owned television service began in 1960 370 Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations 371 New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming along with many Australian and local shows 372 The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film makers and many films attained a world audience some receiving international acknowledgement 371 The highest grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople Boy The World s Fastest Indian Whale Rider Once Were Warriors and The Piano 373 The country s diverse scenery and compact size plus government incentives 374 have encouraged some producers to shoot very big budget and well known productions in New Zealand including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies Avatar The Chronicles of Narnia King Kong Wolverine and The Last Samurai 375 The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies most of which are foreign owned although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations 376 Since 1994 Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand s press freedom in the top twenty with the 19th freest media as of 2015 update 377 Sport Main article Sport in New Zealand A haka performed by the national rugby union team All Blacks before a game The haka is a challenge with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins 378 Rugby union is considered the national sport 379 and attracts the most spectators 380 Golf netball tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation while netball rugby union and football soccer are particularly popular among young people 380 381 Horse racing is one of the most popular spectator sports in New Zealand and was part of the rugby racing and beer subculture during the 1960s 382 Around 54 of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school 381 Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity 383 Maori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country s team performs a haka a traditional Maori challenge before international matches 384 New Zealand is known for its extreme sports adventure tourism 385 and strong mountaineering tradition as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary 386 387 Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling fishing swimming running tramping canoeing hunting snowsports surfing and sailing are also popular 388 New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in the America s Cup regatta since 1995 389 The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s 390 New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union rugby league netball cricket softball and sailing New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia before first participating on its own in 1920 391 The country has ranked highly on a medals to population ratio at recent Games 392 393 The All Blacks the national rugby union team are the most successful in the history of international rugby 394 and have won the World Cup three times 395 Cuisine Main article New Zealand cuisine Ingredients to be prepared for a hangi The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim incorporating the native Maori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe Polynesia and Asia 396 New Zealand yields produce from land and sea most crops and livestock such as maize potatoes and pigs were gradually introduced by the early European settlers 397 Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb salmon kōura crayfish 398 Bluff oysters whitebait paua abalone mussels scallops pipi and tuatua types of New Zealand shellfish 399 kumara sweet potato kiwifruit tamarillo and pavlova considered a national dessert 400 396 A hangi is a traditional Maori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven still used for large groups on special occasions 401 such as tangihanga 402 See also New Zealand portal Oceania portalList of New Zealand related topics Outline of New ZealandFootnotes God Save the King is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions 1 English is a de facto official language due to its widespread use 2 a b Ethnicity figures add to more than 100 as people could choose more than one ethnic group The proportion of New Zealand s area excluding estuaries covered by rivers lakes and ponds based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database 5 is 357526 81936 26821559 92499 26033 19216 1 6 If estuarine open water mangroves and herbaceous saline vegetation are included the figure is 2 2 The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April 11 Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands 45 minutes ahead of NZDT A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident People born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth jus soli 159 A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020 before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census 280 In 2015 55 of Maori adults aged 15 years and over reported knowledge of te reo Maori Of these speakers 64 use Maori at home and 50 000 can speak the language very well or well 311 Religion percentages may not add to 100 as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question This is a percentage of total respondents to the census not a percentage of Christians Citations Protocol for using New Zealand s National Anthems Ministry for Culture and Heritage Retrieved 17 February 2008 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand PDF Report New Zealand Government 21 December 2007 p 89 Archived from the original PDF on 24 January 2015 Retrieved 18 November 2015 In addition to the Maori language New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use English the medium for teaching and learning in most schools is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use For these reasons these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum a b c d e f g h i j 2018 Census totals by topic national highlights Spreadsheet Statistics New Zealand 23 September 2019 Retrieved 26 February 2020 2018 Census totals by topic national highlights XLSX Statistics New Zealand table 26 Archived from the original on 13 April 2020 Retrieved 30 March 2020 The New Zealand Land Cover Database New Zealand Land Cover Database 2 Ministry for the Environment 1 July 2009 Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 26 April 2011 a b Population clock Statistics New Zealand Retrieved 15 May 2021 The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00 00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation 2018 Census population and dwelling counts Statistics New Zealand 23 September 2019 Retrieved 25 September 2019 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund October 2022 Retrieved 11 October 2022 Household income and housing cost statistics Year ended June 2019 Statistics New Zealand Table 9 Archived from the original XLSX on 24 February 2020 Retrieved 24 February 2020 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme 8 September 2022 Retrieved 8 September 2022 New Zealand Daylight Time Order 2007 SR 2007 185 New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office 6 July 2007 Retrieved 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