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Wikipedia

Canada

Coordinates: 60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest binational land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Canada
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
CapitalOttawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667
Largest cityToronto
Official languages
Ethnic groups
See below
Religion
See below
Demonym(s)Canadian
GovernmentFederal parliamentary
constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Charles III
Mary Simon
Justin Trudeau
LegislatureParliament
Senate
House of Commons
Independence 
July 1, 1867
December 11, 1931
April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)
11.76 (as of 2015)[2]
• Total land area
9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• Q4 2022 estimate
39,292,355[3] (37th)
• 2021 census
36,991,981[4]
• Density
4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$2.240 trillion[5] (15th)
• Per capita
$57,827[5] (23rd)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$2.200 trillion[5] (8th)
• Per capita
$56,794[5] (11th)
Gini (2018) 30.3[6]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.936[7]
very high · 15th
CurrencyCanadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zoneUTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)
UTC−2.5 to −7
Date formatyyyy-mm-dd (AD)[8]
Driving sideright
Calling code+1
Internet TLD.ca

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons, and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, education, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.

A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per capita income globally and the fifteenth-highest ranking on the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the eighth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, G7, Group of Ten, G20, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization (WTO), Commonwealth of Nations, Arctic Council, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and Organization of American States.

Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[12]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".[14] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[15][16][17]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[19]

History

Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[20] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.[20]

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[21][22] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[23] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[24][25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[26]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million,[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[27][31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[32][33]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[34] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[35] The Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.[36] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western culture.[37] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[38] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[39]

European colonization

 
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France (blue), and Spain (orange, California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)

It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[40][41] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[42] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[43] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[44] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[45] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[46][47]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[48] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[42] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[49] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[50] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[51]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[52][53] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[54] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[55]

British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[18] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[56] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[57] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[58] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[59] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[18]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[60] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[61] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[62]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[63] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[64] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[65] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[27]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[66] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[18] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[67] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[68] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.[69]

Confederation and expansion

 
Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[70][71] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[72] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[73] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[74] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[74] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the U.S.[75]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[76][77] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",[78] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[79] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[80] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[81] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[82] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[83]

Early 20th century

1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses.
 
French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".
 
The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[84] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[85] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[86] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[87] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[87] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[85] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.[88]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[89] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[90] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[85]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.[91] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[85] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[92]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[85] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[93]

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[94] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[95]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[96] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[97] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[98] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[99]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[100][101][102] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the monarch is retained as sovereign.[103][104] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[105]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[106] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[107] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[108] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[109][110] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[111] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[108]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[112] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[113] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[114] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.[115] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[116] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[117]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War,[118] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[119] The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with wide social and economic disruption.[120] In 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.[121] Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.[122]

Geography

 
A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.[123] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes.[124] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[125] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[126][127] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast on Hans Island[128] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[129] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[130]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago.[131] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[125] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.[125] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.[132][133] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.[134] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[135]

Climate

 
Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[136] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[137]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[138] Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[139] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[139] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.[140]

Biodiversity

 
Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[141] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[142] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[143] due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[144] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".[145] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[146] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[147] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,[148] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).[149]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[150] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[150] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi)[151] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.[152] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.[153] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland.[154] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi)[155] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's seabirds.[156] Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).[157]

Government and politics

 
Parliament Hill, home of the federal government in Canada's capital city, Ottawa

Canada is described as a "full democracy",[158] with a tradition of liberalism,[159] and an egalitarian,[160] moderate political ideology.[161] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[162][163] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.[164][165]

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics",[a] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[172] Historically, the Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,[173][174] with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.[175][176] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[177][178][179] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.[180]

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[181][182][183][184] The reigning monarch is King Charles III, who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch, although the two institutions are separate.[185] The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister to carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada.[186][187]

While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic.[184][188][189] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),[190] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[188] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[191] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[188] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[192]

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections in Canada must be called by the governor general, triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[193][194] The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[195]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[189] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[196] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[197]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[198] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[199] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[200]

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[201] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[202] The Statute of Westminster, 1931 granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982 ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[203] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[204]

 
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.[205] The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[206]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[207] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[208] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[209] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[210]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[211] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[212] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[213] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.[214] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[212] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[215]

Foreign relations and military

 
The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[216] Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.[217][218] Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[219][220] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[221]

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[216] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[222] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[223] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.[224] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[225]

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[226][227] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.[228] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[229]

Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[230] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[92]

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945).[231] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[232][233] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[234]

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[235] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[236] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[85] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[237]

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[238] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[239]

The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel, increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged" with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.[240][b] In 2021, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.4 billion, or around 1.3 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).[242] Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach $32.7 billion by 2027.[243] Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations, such as Operation Snowgoose in Cyprus, Operation Unifier supporting Ukraine, Operation Caribbe in the Caribbean Sea, and Operation Impact, a coalition for the military intervention against ISIL.[244]

Provinces and territories

 
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories

Canada is a federation composed of ten federated states called provinces and three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[245] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare,[246] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[247]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[248] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867 are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[249] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[250]

Economy

 
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.[251]

Canada has a highly developed mixed-market economy,[252][253] with the world's eighth-largest economy as of 2022, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion.[254] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world[255] and is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[256] Canada's economy ranks above the U.S. and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom[257] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.[258] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[259] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[260]

In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[261] Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[261] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[261]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[262] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[263] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[264]

 
  Canada
  Countries and territories with free-trade agreements

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[265] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[266] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[267] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment.[268] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[269] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[270]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[264][271] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[272] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[273] The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[274] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[275]

Science and technology

In 2019, Canada spent approximately $40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[276] As of 2020, the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[277] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[278] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[279] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[280] Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.[281]

 
The Canadian-built Space Shuttle robotic arm (left), referred to as Canadarm, transferred the P5 truss segment over to the Canadian-built space station robotic arm, referred to as Canadarm2.

Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[282] Insulin,[283] and the polio vaccine[284] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[285] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[286][287] the development of the electron microscope,[288][289] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[290] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[287][291]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[292] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[293] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[294] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[295] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[296]

Demographics

 
The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada and spans 1,200 km (750 mi).[297]

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[298] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[299] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[300] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[301][302] A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021.[303] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[304] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[305][306]

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[298] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[307] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[308] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[297][307]

The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6.8 percent.[309] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[309]

 
Largest metropolitan areas in Canada
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
1 Toronto Ontario 6,202,225 11 London Ontario 543,551
2 Montreal Quebec 4,291,732 12 Halifax Nova Scotia 465,703
3 Vancouver British Columbia 2,642,825 13 St. Catharines–Niagara Ontario 433,604
4 Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,488,307 14 Windsor Ontario 422,630
5 Calgary Alberta 1,481,806 15 Oshawa Ontario 415,311
6 Edmonton Alberta 1,418,118 16 Victoria British Columbia 397,237
7 Quebec City Quebec 839,311 17 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 317,480
8 Winnipeg Manitoba 834,678 18 Regina Saskatchewan 249,217
9 Hamilton Ontario 785,184 19 Sherbrooke Quebec 227,398
10 Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo Ontario 575,847 20 Kelowna British Columbia 222,162

Health

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[310][311] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[312] and is universal.[313] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[314] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[315] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[315] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[316][315]

 
Health expenditure and financing by country. Total health expenditure per capita in US dollars (PPP).

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age in Canada was 39.5 years;[317] it rose to 42.4 years by 2018[318] before falling slightly to 41.9 in 2021.[309] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[319] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[320] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[321] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[321] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[322][323]

In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[324] Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 4th among health-care systems in the OECD.[325] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[326][327] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[328] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[328] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals.[329][330][331]

Education

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[332] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[333][334] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[335] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[336] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[337] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[338] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[339]

According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[340] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[340] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[341] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[342] As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[343]

The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[344] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[318] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[345][346] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world, although these scores have been declining in recent years. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[347][348]

Ethnicity

 
A map showing the largest ethnic or cultural origins in Canada by census division in 2021:

According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins" were self-reported by Canadians.[349] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).[349][350] Statistics Canada reports that 35.5 percent of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.[349]

The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[c] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[354]

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[355] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[356] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[357][d] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).[355]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[359] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[360] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[361] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[362]

Languages

 
Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:[363]
  English – 56.9%
  English and French – 16.1%
  French – 21.3%
  Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.[364] As of the 2021 Census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), and German (272,865).[364] Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[365]

The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[366] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[367] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[368] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[369]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[370] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[371] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[372] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[373]

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[374] American Sign Language (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[375] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[376]

Religion

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Although the Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of "Defender of the Faith", Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[377] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[378]

The "Fundamental Freedoms" section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states:[379]

2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:

(a) freedom of conscience and religion;
(b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;
(c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
(d) freedom of association.

The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[380] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[381] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[382][383][384][385] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[386] but still believe in God.[387]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Christians, representing 53.3 percent of the population in 2021, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.[388] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).[389][390] Rates of religious adherence are steadily decreasing.[391][392] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.[393][394]

Culture

 
Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[395][396][397] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[398][399] The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[400] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[401][402] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[403] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[404][405]

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[406] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBTQ rights, legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[407][408][409] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[410][411]

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[412] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[413] Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[414]

Symbols

 
The mother beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower.[415] The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—Tudor rose: English; Fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and leek: Welsh.

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[416] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[417] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[418] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[419] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[420]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto "A mari usque ad mare" ("From Sea to Sea"),[421] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[418] and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk.[422] Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.[422][423] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.[424] The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[425] An image of the previous monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.[424]

Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[426] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[427] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[428] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[429] Since the 1980s, Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature.[430] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[430]

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,[431] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;[432] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;[433] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[434] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.[435]

Media

 
A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse and very regionalized.[436][437] The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich and strengthen the cultural, political, social and economic fabric of Canada".[438] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[439] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[440]

Canadian mass media, both print and digital and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[441] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[442] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[443]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[444] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[445] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[446]

Visual arts

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples.[447] Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec,[448] and in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[449] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[450]

 
The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada.

The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,[451] as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts (established in 1957), the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works.[452] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[453]

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven.[454] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.[455] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[456]

Music

 
Original publication of O Canada, 1908

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[457] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations and television music video channels.[458] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[459] The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[460] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[461] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[462] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[463]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.[464] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem.[465] The official national anthem, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980.[466] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[467]

Sports

 
The Canadian men's national ice hockey team celebrates shortly after winning the gold medal final at the 2010 Winter Olympics.

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,[468] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, curling, basketball, baseball, association football and Canadian football.[469] Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[470] Other sports such as volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[471] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame,[472] while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists.[473] There are numerous other sport "halls of fame" in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.[472]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[474] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.[475]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics,[476] though particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation", and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,[477] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[478] the 2010 Winter Olympics[479][480] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.[481] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting events hosted by the country.[482] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.[483]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[166][167] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology"[168][169][170][171]
  2. ^ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Canadian Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 Reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[241]
  3. ^ a b All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[351] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[352][353]
  4. ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[358]

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canada, other, uses, disambiguation, coordinates, country, north, america, provinces, three, territories, extend, from, atlantic, ocean, pacific, ocean, northward, into, arctic, ocean, covering, over, million, square, kilometres, million, square, miles, making. For other uses see Canada disambiguation Coordinates 60 N 110 W 60 N 110 W 60 110 Canada is a country in North America Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean covering over 9 98 million square kilometres 3 85 million square miles making it the world s second largest country by total area Its southern and western border with the United States stretching 8 891 kilometres 5 525 mi is the world s longest binational land border Canada s capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto Montreal and Vancouver CanadaFlag Coat of armsMotto A mari usque ad mare Latin From Sea to Sea Anthem O Canada source source track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track Royal anthem God Save the King 1 source source track track track track track CapitalOttawa45 24 N 75 40 W 45 400 N 75 667 W 45 400 75 667Largest cityTorontoOfficial languagesEnglishFrenchEthnic groupsSee belowReligionSee belowDemonym s CanadianGovernmentFederal parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy MonarchCharles III Governor GeneralMary Simon Prime MinisterJustin TrudeauLegislatureParliament Upper houseSenate Lower houseHouse of CommonsIndependence from the United Kingdom ConfederationJuly 1 1867 Statute of Westminster 1931December 11 1931 PatriationApril 17 1982Area Total area9 984 670 km2 3 855 100 sq mi 2nd Water 11 76 as of 2015 2 Total land area9 093 507 km2 3 511 023 sq mi Population Q4 2022 estimate39 292 355 3 37th 2021 census36 991 981 4 Density4 2 km2 10 9 sq mi 236th GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 2 240 trillion 5 15th Per capita 57 827 5 23rd GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 2 200 trillion 5 8th Per capita 56 794 5 11th Gini 2018 30 3 6 mediumHDI 2021 0 936 7 very high 15thCurrencyCanadian dollar CAD Time zoneUTC 3 5 to 8 Summer DST UTC 2 5 to 7Date formatyyyy mm dd AD 8 Driving siderightCalling code 1Internet TLD caIndigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years Beginning in the 16th century British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast As a consequence of various armed conflicts France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 In 1867 with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982 which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition The country s head of government is the prime minister who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general representing the monarch of Canada the head of state The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual English and French at the federal level It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency civil liberties quality of life economic freedom education gender equality and environmental sustainability It is one of the world s most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations the product of large scale immigration Canada s long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture A highly developed country Canada has the 24th highest nominal per capita income globally and the fifteenth highest ranking on the Human Development Index Its advanced economy is the eighth largest in the world relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well developed international trade networks Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations NATO G7 Group of Ten G20 Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD World Trade Organization WTO Commonwealth of Nations Arctic Council Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum and Organization of American States Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Indigenous peoples 2 2 European colonization 2 3 British North America 2 4 Confederation and expansion 2 5 Early 20th century 2 6 Contemporary era 3 Geography 3 1 Climate 3 2 Biodiversity 4 Government and politics 4 1 Law 4 2 Foreign relations and military 4 3 Provinces and territories 5 Economy 5 1 Science and technology 6 Demographics 6 1 Health 6 2 Education 6 3 Ethnicity 6 4 Languages 6 5 Religion 7 Culture 7 1 Symbols 7 2 Literature 7 3 Media 7 4 Visual arts 7 5 Music 7 6 Sports 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksEtymologyMain article Name of Canada While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada the name is now accepted as coming from the St Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata meaning village or settlement 9 In 1535 Indigenous inhabitants of the present day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona 10 Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona the chief at Stadacona 10 by 1545 European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada 10 From the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River 11 In 1791 the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841 12 Upon Confederation in 1867 Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word Dominion was conferred as the country s title 13 By the 1950s the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom which considered Canada a Realm of the Commonwealth 14 The government of Louis St Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951 15 16 17 The Canada Act 1982 which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control referred only to Canada Later that year the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day 18 The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion 19 HistoryMain article History of Canada Further information Timeline of Canadian history and Historiography of Canada Indigenous peoples Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European contact Indigenous peoples in present day Canada include the First Nations Inuit and Metis 20 the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid 17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity 20 The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14 000 years ago 21 22 The Paleo Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada 23 The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements agriculture complex societal hierarchies and trading networks 24 25 Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations 26 The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200 000 27 and two million 28 with a figure of 500 000 accepted by Canada s Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 29 As a consequence of European colonization the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent and several First Nations such as the Beothuk disappeared 30 The decline is attributed to several causes including the transfer of European diseases such as influenza measles and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity 27 31 conflicts over the fur trade conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations self sufficiency 32 33 Although not without conflict European Canadians early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful 34 First Nations and Metis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade 35 The Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period though the Inuit in general had more limited interaction with European settlers 36 From the late 18th century European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western culture 37 These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations 38 A period of redress is underway which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008 39 European colonization Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750 before the French and Indian War which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years War 1756 to 1763 Possessions of Britain pink New France blue and Spain orange California Pacific Northwest and Great Basin not indicated It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson 40 41 In approximately 1000 AD the Norse built a small short lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland 42 No further European exploration occurred until 1497 when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada s Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England 43 In 1534 French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where on July 24 he planted a 10 metre 33 ft cross bearing the words Long Live the King of France and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I 44 The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast 45 In general early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short lived due to a combination of the harsh climate problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia 46 47 In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I founded St John s Newfoundland as the first North American English seasonal camp 48 In 1600 the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence 42 French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year round European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608 49 Among the colonists of New France Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present day Maritimes while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes Hudson Bay and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana 50 The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid 17th century over control of the North American fur trade 51 The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south 52 53 A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763 the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years War 54 Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years War 55 British North America Benjamin West s The Death of General Wolfe 1771 dramatizes James Wolfe s death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights created the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia 18 St John s Island now Prince Edward Island became a separate colony in 1769 56 To avert conflict in Quebec the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774 expanding Quebec s territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley 57 More importantly the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule 58 It re established the French language Catholic faith and French civil law there staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies 59 The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies further fuelling anti British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution 18 After the successful American War of Independence the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country 60 The American war of independence also caused a large out migration of Loyalists the settlers who had fought against American independence Many moved to Canada particularly Atlantic Canada where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes which led to the incorporation of Saint John New Brunswick as Canada s first city 61 To accommodate the influx of English speaking Loyalists in Central Canada the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French speaking Lower Canada later Quebec and English speaking Upper Canada later Ontario granting each its own elected legislative assembly 62 War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom Peace came in 1815 no boundaries were changed 63 Immigration resumed at a higher level with over 960 000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850 64 New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances 65 Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 27 The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837 66 The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture 18 The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855 67 The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute extending the border westward along the 49th parallel This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island 1849 and in British Columbia 1858 68 The Anglo Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg 1825 established the border along the Pacific coast but even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867 disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska Yukon and Alaska BC border 69 Confederation and expansion Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada s provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867 Following several constitutional conferences the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1 1867 initially with four provinces Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 70 71 Canada assumed control of Rupert s Land and the North Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories where the Metis grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870 72 British Columbia and Vancouver Island which had been united in 1866 joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years 73 while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873 74 In 1898 during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories Parliament created the Yukon Territory Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905 74 Between 1871 and 1896 almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the U S 75 To open the West and encourage European immigration Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways including the Canadian Pacific Railway opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act and establishing the North West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory 76 77 This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to Indian reserves 78 clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements 79 This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land 80 The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands 81 The federal government did provide emergency relief on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves 82 During this time Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education government and legal rights 83 Early 20th century 1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses French version of the poster roughly translates as They serve France Everyone can serve Buy Victory Bonds The same poster in English with subtle differences in text They serve France How can I serve Canada Buy Victory Bonds Because Britain still maintained control of Canada s foreign affairs under the British North America Act 1867 its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I 84 Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war 85 Out of approximately 625 000 Canadians who served in World War I some 60 000 were killed and another 172 000 were wounded 86 The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet s proposal to augment the military s dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French speaking Quebecers 87 The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service though it coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party 87 In 1919 Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain 85 and the Statute of Westminster 1931 affirmed Canada s independence 88 The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn leading to hardship across the country 89 In response to the downturn the Co operative Commonwealth Federation CCF in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas in the 1940s and 1950s 90 On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King war with Germany was declared effective September 10 1939 by King George VI seven days after the United Kingdom The delay underscored Canada s independence 85 The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939 In all over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42 000 were killed and another 55 000 were wounded 91 Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid the Allied invasion of Italy the Normandy landings the Battle of Normandy and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944 85 Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany 92 The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada Britain China and the Soviet Union 85 Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944 Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy 93 Contemporary era The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor 94 After two referendums Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province 95 Canada s post war economic growth combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965 96 the implementation of official bilingualism English and French in 1969 97 and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971 98 Socially democratic programs were also instituted such as Medicare the Canada Pension Plan and Canada Student Loans though provincial governments particularly Quebec and Alberta opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions 99 A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Finally another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK s Canada Act 1982 the patriation of Canada s constitution from the United Kingdom concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 100 101 102 Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country although the monarch is retained as sovereign 103 104 In 1999 Nunavut became Canada s third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government 105 At the same time Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s giving birth to a secular nationalist movement 106 The radical Front de liberation du Quebec FLQ ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970 107 and the sovereignist Parti Quebecois was elected in 1976 organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty association in 1980 Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990 108 This led to the formation of the Bloc Quebecois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West 109 110 A second referendum followed in 1995 in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50 6 to 49 4 percent 111 In 1997 the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation 108 In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985 the largest mass murder in Canadian history 112 the Ecole Polytechnique massacre in 1989 a university shooting targeting female students 113 and the Oka Crisis of 1990 114 the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups 115 Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia 116 Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States led invasion of Iraq in 2003 117 In 2011 Canadian forces participated in the NATO led intervention into the Libyan Civil War 118 and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid 2010s 119 The COVID 19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27 2020 with wide social and economic disruption 120 In 2021 the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools 121 Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997 these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro Canadian culture 122 GeographyMain article Geography of Canada A topographic map of Canada in polar projection for 90 W showing elevations shaded from green to brown higher By total area including its waters Canada is the second largest country in the world after Russia 123 By land area alone Canada ranks fourth due to having the world s largest area of fresh water lakes 124 Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east along the Arctic Ocean to the north and to the Pacific Ocean in the west the country encompasses 9 984 670 km2 3 855 100 sq mi of territory 125 Canada also has vast maritime terrain with the world s longest coastline of 243 042 kilometres 151 019 mi 126 127 In addition to sharing the world s largest land border with the United States spanning 8 891 km 5 525 mi Canada shares a land border with Greenland and hence the Kingdom of Denmark to the northeast on Hans Island 128 and a maritime boundary with France s overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast 129 Canada is also home to the world s northernmost settlement Canadian Forces Station Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island latitude 82 5 N which lies 817 kilometres 508 mi from the North Pole 130 Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions the Canadian Shield the interior plains the Great Lakes St Lawrence Lowlands the Appalachian region the Western Cordillera Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago 131 Boreal forests prevail throughout the country ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture 125 The Great Lakes feed the St Lawrence River in the southeast where the lowlands host much of Canada s economic output 125 Canada has over 2 000 000 lakes 563 of which are larger than 100 km2 39 sq mi containing much of the world s fresh water 132 133 There are also fresh water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera 134 Canada is geologically active having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes notably Mount Meager massif Mount Garibaldi Mount Cayley and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex 135 Climate Main article Temperature in Canada Koppen climate classification types of Canada Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces which experience a continental climate where daily average temperatures are near 15 C 5 F but can drop below 40 C 40 F with severe wind chills 136 In non coastal regions snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year while in parts of the north snow can persist year round Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter On the east and west coasts average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s C 70s F while between the coasts the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 C 77 to 86 F with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 C 104 F 137 Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada 138 Canada s annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1 7 C 3 1 F with changes ranging from 1 1 to 2 3 C 2 0 to 4 1 F in various regions since 1948 139 The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies 139 In the southern regions of Canada air pollution from both Canada and the United States caused by metal smelting burning coal to power utilities and vehicle emissions has resulted in acid rain which has severely impacted waterways forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada 140 Biodiversity Main article Wildlife of Canada Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada Ecozones are identified with a unique colour Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones 141 These ecozones encompass over 80 000 classified species of Canadian wildlife with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered 142 Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries 143 due to human activities invasive species and environmental issues in the country there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost 144 About 65 percent of Canada s resident species are considered Secure 145 Over half of Canada s landscape is intact and relatively free of human development 146 The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth with approximately 3 000 000 km2 1 200 000 sq mi undisturbed by roads cities or industry 147 Since the end of the last glacial period Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions 148 with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests approximately 8 percent of the world s forested land 149 Approximately 12 1 percent of the nation s landmass and freshwater are conservation areas including 11 4 percent designated as protected areas 150 Approximately 13 8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved including 8 9 percent designated as protected areas 150 Canada s first National Park Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6 641 square kilometres 2 564 sq mi 151 of mountainous terrain with many glaciers and ice fields dense coniferous forest and alpine landscapes 152 Canada s oldest provincial park Algonquin Provincial Park established in 1893 covers an area of 7 653 45 square kilometres 2 955 01 sq mi It is dominated by old growth forest with over 2 400 lakes and 1 200 kilometres of streams and rivers 153 Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world s largest freshwater protected area spanning roughly 10 000 square kilometres 3 900 sq mi of lakebed its overlaying freshwater and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres 23 sq mi of islands and mainland 154 Canada s largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11 570 65 square kilometres 4 467 45 sq mi 155 and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia s seabirds 156 Canada s 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235 000 square kilometres 91 000 sq mi 157 Government and politicsMain articles Government of Canada and Politics of Canada Parliament Hill home of the federal government in Canada s capital city Ottawa Canada is described as a full democracy 158 with a tradition of liberalism 159 and an egalitarian 160 moderate political ideology 161 An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada s political culture 162 163 Peace order and good government alongside an Implied Bill of Rights are founding principles of the Canadian government 164 165 At the federal level Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising brokerage politics a the centre left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre right leaning Conservative Party of Canada or its predecessors 172 Historically the Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum 173 174 with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left 175 176 Far right and far left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society 177 178 179 Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election the Liberal Party who currently form a minority government the Conservative Party who are the Official Opposition the New Democratic Party the Bloc Quebecois and the Green Party of Canada 180 Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive legislative and judicial branches 181 182 183 184 The reigning monarch is King Charles III who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada s 10 provinces The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch although the two institutions are separate 185 The monarch appoints a representative the governor general with the advice of the prime minister to carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada 186 187 While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada in practice its position is symbolic 184 188 189 The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister at present Justin Trudeau 190 the head of government The governor general or monarch may though in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice 188 To ensure the stability of government the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons 191 The Prime Minister s Office PMO is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown besides the aforementioned the governor general lieutenant governors senators federal court judges and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies 188 The leader of the party with the second most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check 192 The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding General elections in Canada must be called by the governor general triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House 193 194 The Constitution Act 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October The 105 members of the Senate whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis serve until age 75 195 Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons 189 Canada s three territories also have legislatures but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces 196 The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts 197 The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country The minister of finance and minister of innovation science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development 198 The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes 199 The bank does not issue Canadian coins they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint 200 Law Main article Law of Canada The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions 201 The Constitution Act 1867 known as the British North America Act 1867 prior to 1982 affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments 202 The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act 1982 ended all legislative ties to Britain as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 203 The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over ridden by any government though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years 204 The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa west of Parliament Hill Canada s judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18 2017 by Richard Wagner the chief justice of Canada 205 The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non governmental legal bodies The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions 206 Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec where civil law predominates 207 Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada 208 Law enforcement including criminal courts is officially a provincial responsibility conducted by provincial and municipal police forces 209 In most rural and some urban areas policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police 210 Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada 211 Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples 212 Most notably a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921 213 These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown in Council with the duty to consult and accommodate 214 The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act 1982 212 These rights may include provision of services such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy and exemption from taxation 215 Foreign relations and military Main articles Foreign relations of Canada Canadian Armed Forces and Military history of Canada The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization San Francisco May 1945 Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions 216 Canada s foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations and through the work of numerous federal institutions 217 218 Canada s peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image 219 220 The strategy of the Canadian government s foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises 221 Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD 216 Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs 222 Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976 223 Canada joined the Organization of American States OAS in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001 224 Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum APEC 225 Canada and the United States share the world s longest undefended border co operate on military campaigns and exercises and are each other s largest trading partner 226 227 Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy 228 For example it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq 229 Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada s membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie 230 Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands owing in part to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II 92 Canada s strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War 1899 1902 World War I 1914 1918 and World War II 1939 1945 231 Since then Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations 232 233 During the Cold War Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command NORAD in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union 234 A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF 18 Hornet in Cold Lake Alberta During the Suez Crisis of 1956 future prime minister Lester B Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize 235 As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept 236 Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989 85 and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda the former Yugoslavia and elsewhere Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries notably in the 1993 Somalia affair 237 In 2001 Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the U S stabilization force and the UN authorized NATO led International Security Assistance Force 238 In August 2007 Canada s territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925 239 The unified Canadian Forces CF comprise the Royal Canadian Navy Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force The nation employs a professional volunteer force of approximately 68 000 active personnel and 27 000 reserve personnel increasing to 71 500 and 30 000 respectively under Strong Secure Engaged with a sub component of approximately 5 000 Canadian Rangers 240 b In 2021 Canada s military expenditure totalled approximately 26 4 billion or around 1 3 percent of the country s gross domestic product GDP 242 Canada s total military expenditure is expected to reach 32 7 billion by 2027 243 Canada s military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations such as Operation Snowgoose in Cyprus Operation Unifier supporting Ukraine Operation Caribbe in the Caribbean Sea and Operation Impact a coalition for the military intervention against ISIL 244 Provinces and territories Main article Provinces and territories of Canada See also Canadian federalism Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories Canada is a federation composed of ten federated states called provinces and three federal territories In turn these may be grouped into four main regions Western Canada Central Canada Atlantic Canada and Northern Canada Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together 245 Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care education and welfare 246 as well as administration of justice but not criminal law Together the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government a rarity among other federations in the world Using its spending powers the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care the provinces can opt out of these cost share programs but rarely do so in practice Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces 247 The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act 1867 whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada 248 The powers flowing from the Constitution Act 1867 are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively 249 As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution any changes require a constitutional amendment The territories being creatures of the federal government changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada 250 EconomyMain article Economy of Canada The Toronto financial district is the second largest financial centre in North America the seventh largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada s finance industry 251 Canada has a highly developed mixed market economy 252 253 with the world s eighth largest economy as of 2022 update and a nominal GDP of approximately US 2 221 trillion 254 It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world 255 and is one of the world s largest trading nations with a highly globalized economy 256 Canada s economy ranks above the U S and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation s Index of Economic Freedom 257 and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity 258 The country s average household disposable income per capita is well above the OECD average 259 The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization listing over 1 500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US 2 trillion 260 In 2021 Canadian trade in goods and services reached 2 016 trillion 261 Canada s exports totalled over 637 billion while its imported goods were worth over 631 billion of which approximately 391 billion originated from the United States 261 In 2018 Canada had a trade deficit in goods of 22 billion and a trade deficit in services of 25 billion 261 Since the early 20th century the growth of Canada s manufacturing mining and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized industrial one 262 Like many other developed countries the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry which employs about three quarters of the country s workforce 263 Among developed countries Canada has an unusually important primary sector of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components 264 Canada Countries and territories with free trade agreements Canada s economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II 265 The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada s borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry 266 In the 1970s concerns over energy self sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau s Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program NEP and the Foreign Investment Review Agency FIRA 267 In the 1980s Prime Minister Brian Mulroney s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment 268 The Canada United States Free Trade Agreement FTA of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries while the North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA expanded the free trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 later replaced by the Canada United States Mexico Agreement 269 Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector with the world s highest per capita membership in credit unions 270 Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy 264 271 Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves comprising the world s third largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia 272 Canada is additionally one of the world s largest suppliers of agricultural products the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat canola and other grains 273 The country is a leading exporter of zinc uranium gold nickel platinoids aluminum steel iron ore coking coal lead copper molybdenum cobalt and cadmium 274 Many towns in northern Canada where agriculture is difficult are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries 275 Science and technology Main article Science and technology in Canada In 2019 Canada spent approximately 40 3 billion on domestic research and development of which over 7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments 276 As of 2020 update the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics chemistry and medicine 277 and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists 278 It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms 279 Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world with over 33 million users equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population 280 Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022 281 The Canadian built Space Shuttle robotic arm left referred to as Canadarm transferred the P5 truss segment over to the Canadian built space station robotic arm referred to as Canadarm2 Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery 282 Insulin 283 and the polio vaccine 284 and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus 285 Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker mapping the visual cortex 286 287 the development of the electron microscope 288 289 plate tectonics deep learning multi touch technology and the identification of the first black hole Cygnus X 1 290 Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics which include stem cells site directed mutagenesis T cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia cystic fibrosis and early onset Alzheimer s disease among numerous other diseases 287 291 The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program conducting deep space planetary and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites 292 Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch 293 Canada is a participant in the International Space Station ISS and is a pioneer in space robotics having constructed the Canadarm Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA s Space Shuttle 294 Since the 1960s Canada s aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite including Radarsat 1 and 2 ISIS and MOST 295 Canada has also produced one of the world s most successful and widely used sounding rockets the Black Brant over 1 000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket s introduction in 1961 296 DemographicsMain articles Demographics of Canada and List of cities in Canada The Quebec City Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada and spans 1 200 km 750 mi 297 The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36 991 981 an increase of around 5 2 percent over the 2016 figure 298 The main drivers of population growth are immigration and to a lesser extent natural growth 299 Canada has one of the highest per capita immigration rates in the world 300 driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification 301 302 A record number of 405 000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021 303 New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country such as Toronto Montreal and Vancouver 304 Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements it resettled more than 28 000 in 2018 305 306 Canada s population density at 4 2 inhabitants per square kilometre 11 sq mi is among the lowest in the world 298 Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north 307 About four fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres 93 mi of the border with the contiguous United States 308 The most densely populated part of the country accounting for nearly 50 percent is the Quebec City Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River 297 307 The majority of Canadians 81 1 percent live in family households 12 1 percent report living alone and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6 8 percent 309 Fifty one percent of households are couples with or without children 8 7 percent are single parent households 2 9 percent are multigenerational households and 29 3 percent are single person households 309 vte Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian censusRank Name Province Pop Rank Name Province Pop 1 Toronto Ontario 6 202 225 11 London Ontario 543 5512 Montreal Quebec 4 291 732 12 Halifax Nova Scotia 465 7033 Vancouver British Columbia 2 642 825 13 St Catharines Niagara Ontario 433 6044 Ottawa Gatineau Ontario Quebec 1 488 307 14 Windsor Ontario 422 6305 Calgary Alberta 1 481 806 15 Oshawa Ontario 415 3116 Edmonton Alberta 1 418 118 16 Victoria British Columbia 397 2377 Quebec City Quebec 839 311 17 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 317 4808 Winnipeg Manitoba 834 678 18 Regina Saskatchewan 249 2179 Hamilton Ontario 785 184 19 Sherbrooke Quebec 227 39810 Kitchener Cambridge Waterloo Ontario 575 847 20 Kelowna British Columbia 222 162 Health Main article Healthcare in Canada Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care informally called Medicare 310 311 It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984 312 and is universal 313 Universal access to publicly funded health services is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country 314 Around 30 percent of Canadians healthcare is paid for through the private sector 315 This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare such as prescription drugs dentistry and optometry 315 Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics such as seniors minors and those with disabilities 316 315 Health expenditure and financing by country Total health expenditure per capita in US dollars PPP In common with many other developed countries Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population with more retirees and fewer people of working age In 2006 the average age in Canada was 39 5 years 317 it rose to 42 4 years by 2018 318 before falling slightly to 41 9 in 2021 309 Life expectancy is 81 1 years 319 A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries indicated that they had good or very good health 320 Eighty percent of Canadian adults self report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease smoking physical inactivity unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use 321 Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD countries contributing to approximately 2 7 million cases of diabetes types 1 and 2 combined 321 Four chronic diseases cancer leading cause of death cardiovascular diseases respiratory diseases and diabetes account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada 322 323 In 2021 the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached 308 billion or 12 7 percent of Canada s GDP for that year 324 Canada s per capita spending on health expenditures ranked 4th among health care systems in the OECD 325 Canada has performed close to or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait times and access to care with average scores for quality of care and use of resources 326 327 The Commonwealth Fund s 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second to last 328 Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate the prevalence of chronic conditions long wait times poor availability of after hours care and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage 328 An increasing problem in Canada s health system is a lack of healthcare professionals 329 330 331 Education Main articles Education in Canada and Higher education in Canada 14th G7 summit leaders at the University of Toronto left to right Jacques Delors Ciriaco De Mita Margaret Thatcher Ronald Reagan Brian Mulroney Francois Mitterrand Helmut Kohl and Noboru Takeshita Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly funded and overseen by federal provincial and local governments 332 Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province 333 334 Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education followed by secondary education and post secondary Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada 335 Canada has a large number of universities almost all of which are publicly funded 336 Established in 1663 Universite Laval is the oldest post secondary institution in Canada 337 The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85 000 students 338 Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world wide namely University of Toronto University of British Columbia McGill University and McMaster University with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide 339 According to a 2019 report by the OECD Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world 340 the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree 340 Canada spends about 5 3 percent of its GDP on education 341 The country invests heavily in tertiary education more than US 20 000 per student 342 As of 2014 update 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high school degree compared to an OECD average of 75 percent 343 The mandatory education age ranges between 5 7 to 16 18 years 344 contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent 318 Just over 60 000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016 The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average particularly in mathematics science and reading 345 346 ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15 year olds as the sixth best in the world although these scores have been declining in recent years Canada is a well performing OECD country in reading literacy mathematics and science with the average student scoring 523 7 compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015 347 348 Ethnicity Main article Ethnic origins of people in Canada A map showing the largest ethnic or cultural origins in Canada by census division in 2021 Canadian Canadien c English Irish Scottish French German Chinese Indian Ukrainian Metis Acadian Mennonite Inuit Cree Ojibway Dene Heiltsuk According to the 2021 Canadian census over 450 ethnic or cultural origins were self reported by Canadians 349 The major panethnic groups chosen were European 52 5 percent North American 22 9 percent Asian 19 3 percent North American Indigenous 6 1 percent African 3 8 percent Latin Central and South American 2 5 percent Caribbean 2 1 percent Oceanian 0 3 percent and other 6 percent 349 350 Statistics Canada reports that 35 5 percent of the population reported multiple ethnic origins thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent 349 The country s ten largest self reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian c accounting for 15 6 percent of the population followed by English 14 7 percent Irish 12 1 percent Scottish 12 1 percent French 11 0 percent German 8 1 percent Chinese 4 7 percent Italian 4 3 percent Indian 3 7 percent and Ukrainian 3 5 percent 354 Of the 36 3 million people enumerated in 2021 approximately 25 4 million reported being White representing 69 8 percent of the population 355 The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1 8 million individuals grew by 9 4 percent compared to the non Indigenous population which grew by 5 3 percent from 2016 to 2021 356 One out of every four Canadians or 26 5 percent of the population belonged to a non White and non Indigenous visible minority 357 d the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian 2 6 million people 7 1 percent Chinese 1 7 million 4 7 percent and Black 1 5 million 4 3 percent 355 Between 2011 and 2016 the visible minority population rose by 18 4 percent 359 In 1961 about 300 000 people less than two percent of Canada s population were members of visible minority groups 360 The 2021 census indicated that 8 3 million people or almost one quarter 23 0 percent of the population reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada above the 1921 census previous record of 22 3 percent 361 In 2021 India China and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada 362 Languages Main article Languages of Canada Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French 363 English 56 9 English and French 16 1 French 21 3 Sparsely populated area lt 0 4 persons per km2 A multitude of languages are used by Canadians with English and French the official languages being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians respectively 364 As of the 2021 Census just over 7 8 million Canadians listed a non official language as their mother tongue Some of the most common non official first languages include Mandarin 679 255 first language speakers Punjabi 666 585 Cantonese 553 380 Spanish 538 870 Arabic 508 410 Tagalog 461 150 Italian 319 505 and German 272 865 364 Canada s federal government practices official bilingualism which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act English and French have equal status in federal courts Parliament and in all federal institutions Citizens have the right where there is sufficient demand to receive federal government services in either English or French and official language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories 365 The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec 366 Although more than 82 percent of French speaking Canadians live in Quebec there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick Alberta and Manitoba Ontario has the largest French speaking population outside Quebec 367 New Brunswick the only officially bilingual province has a French speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population 368 There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia on Cape Breton Island and through central and western Prince Edward Island 369 Other provinces have no official languages as such but French is used as a language of instruction in courts and for other government services in addition to English Manitoba Ontario and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages In Ontario French has some legal status but is not fully co official 370 There are 11 Indigenous language groups composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects 371 Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories 372 Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory 373 Additionally Canada is home to many sign languages some of which are Indigenous 374 American Sign Language ASL is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools 375 Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture Quebec Sign Language LSQ is spoken primarily in Quebec although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick Ontario and Manitoba 376 Religion Main article Religion in Canada Canada is religiously diverse encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs Although the Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of Defender of the Faith Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism 377 Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference 378 The Fundamental Freedoms section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states 379 2 Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms a freedom of conscience and religion b freedom of thought belief opinion and expression including freedom of the press and other media of communication c freedom of peaceful assembly and d freedom of association The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state 380 With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life 381 Canada has become a post Christian secular state 382 383 384 385 The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives 386 but still believe in God 387 According to the 2021 census Christianity is the largest religion in Canada with Roman Catholics having the most adherents Christians representing 53 3 percent of the population in 2021 are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34 6 percent 388 Other faiths include Islam 4 9 percent Hinduism 2 3 percent Sikhism 2 1 percent Buddhism 1 0 percent Judaism 0 9 percent and Indigenous spirituality 0 2 percent 389 390 Rates of religious adherence are steadily decreasing 391 392 Canada has the second largest national Sikh population behind India 393 394 CultureMain article Culture of Canada Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli in Toronto Canada s culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected 395 396 397 Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people 398 399 The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada s significant accomplishments 400 and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity 401 402 In Quebec cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture 403 As a whole Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures 404 405 Canada s approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism which is based on selective immigration social integration and suppression of far right politics has wide public support 406 Government policies such as publicly funded health care higher taxation to redistribute wealth the outlawing of capital punishment strong efforts to eliminate poverty strict gun control a social liberal attitude toward women s rights like pregnancy termination and LGBTQ rights legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada s political and cultural values 407 408 409 Canadians also identify with the country s foreign aid policies peacekeeping roles the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 410 411 Historically Canada has been influenced by British French and Indigenous cultures and traditions Through their language art and music Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity 412 During the 20th century Canadians with African Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture 413 Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore literature music art and media The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony parody and satire 414 Symbols Main article National symbols of Canada The mother beaver on the Canadian parliament s Peace Tower 415 The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity Tudor rose English Fleur de lis French thistle Scottish shamrock Irish and leek Welsh Themes of nature pioneers trappers and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism 416 Modern symbols emphasize the country s geography cold climate lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols 417 The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century The maple leaf is depicted on Canada s current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada 418 Canada s official tartan known as the maple leaf tartan has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons green in the spring gold in the early autumn red at the first frost and brown after falling 419 The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version 420 Other prominent symbols include the national motto A mari usque ad mare From Sea to Sea 421 the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse the beaver Canada goose common loon Canadian horse the Royal Canadian Mounted Police the Canadian Rockies 418 and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk 422 Material items such as Canadian beer maple syrup tuques canoes nanaimo bars butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian 422 423 Canadian coins feature many of these symbols the loon on the 1 coin the Arms of Canada on the 50 piece and the beaver on the nickel 424 The penny removed from circulation in 2013 featured the maple leaf 425 An image of the previous monarch Queen Elizabeth II appears on 20 bank notes and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins 424 Literature Main article Canadian literature Canadian literature is often divided into French and English language literatures which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain respectively 426 The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration 427 This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature nature frontier life and Canada s position within the world all three of which tie into the garrison mentality 428 In recent decades Canada s literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world 429 Since the 1980s Canada s ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature 430 By the 1990s Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world s best 430 Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards 431 including novelist poet and literary critic Margaret Atwood who received two Booker Prizes 432 Nobel laureate Alice Munro who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English 433 and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje who wrote the novel The English Patient which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture 434 L M Montgomery produced a series of children s novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables 435 Media Main article Media of Canada A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation CBC satellite truck used for live television broadcasts Canada s media is highly autonomous uncensored diverse and very regionalized 436 437 The Broadcasting Act declares the system should serve to safeguard enrich and strengthen the cultural political social and economic fabric of Canada 438 Canada has a well developed media sector but its cultural output particularly in English films television shows and magazines is often overshadowed by imports from the United States 439 As a result the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs laws and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation CBC the National Film Board of Canada NFB and the Canadian Radio television and Telecommunications Commission CRTC 440 Canadian mass media both print and digital and in both official languages is largely dominated by a handful of corporations 441 The largest of these corporations is the country s national public broadcaster the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French 442 In addition to the CBC some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well such as TVOntario and Tele Quebec 443 Non news media content in Canada including film and television is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States the United Kingdom Australia and France 444 In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign made media government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing 445 Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising 446 Visual arts Main article Canadian art Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples 447 Historically the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada especially Quebec 448 and in later times artists have combined British French Indigenous and American artistic traditions at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism 449 The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada 450 The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson Oil on canvas 1916 in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage by giving grants to art galleries 451 as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country and through the Canada Council for the Arts established in 1957 the national public arts funder helping artists art galleries and periodicals and thus contributing to the development of Canada s cultural works 452 Since the 1950s works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government 453 Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven 454 The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920 Though referred to as having seven members five artists Lawren Harris A Y Jackson Arthur Lismer J E H MacDonald and Frederick Varley were responsible for articulating the group s ideas They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael A J Casson became part of the group in 1926 455 Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist Emily Carr known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast 456 Music Main article Music of Canada Original publication of O Canada 1908 Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes 457 Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls chamber halls conservatories academies performing arts centres record companies radio stations and television music video channels 458 Government support programs such as the Canada Music Fund assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create produce and market original and diverse Canadian music 459 The Canadian music industry is the sixth largest in the world producing internationally renowned composers musicians and ensembles 460 Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC 461 The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada s music industry awards the Juno Awards which were first awarded in 1970 462 The Canadian Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements 463 Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada The Bold Canadian was written in 1812 464 The Maple Leaf Forever written in 1866 was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem 465 The official national anthem O Canada was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec Theodore Robitaille for the 1880 St Jean Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980 466 Calixa Lavallee wrote the music which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe Basile Routhier The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906 467 Sports Main article Sports in Canada The Canadian men s national ice hockey team celebrates shortly after winning the gold medal final at the 2010 Winter Olympics The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s 468 culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey lacrosse curling basketball baseball association football and Canadian football 469 Canada s official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse 470 Other sports such as volleyball skiing cycling swimming badminton tennis bowling and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels 471 Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada s Sports Hall of Fame 472 while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada s top athlete by a panel of journalists 473 There are numerous other sport halls of fame in Canada such as the Hockey Hall of Fame 472 Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States 474 Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League National Lacrosse League the Canadian Premier League and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada 475 Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics 476 though particularly the Winter Games as a winter sports nation and has hosted several high profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics 477 the 1988 Winter Olympics 478 the 2010 Winter Olympics 479 480 and the 2015 FIFA Women s World Cup 481 Most recently Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto the former being one of the largest sporting events hosted by the country 482 The country is scheduled to co host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States 483 See also Canada portalIndex of Canada related articles Outline of Canada Topics by provinces and territoriesNotes Brokerage politics A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe 166 167 The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology 168 169 170 171 The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8 400 full time sailors and 5 100 part time sailors The Canadian Army is composed of approximately 22 800 full time soldiers 18 700 Reservists and 5 000 Canadian Rangers The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13 000 Regular Force personnel and 2 400 Air Reserve personnel 241 a b All citizens of Canada are classified as Canadians as defined by Canada s nationality laws Canadian as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent Canadian was included as an example on the English questionnaire and Canadien as an example on the French questionnaire 351 The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled Respondents generally are visibly European Anglophones and Francophones and no longer self identify with their ethnic ancestral origins This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage 352 353 Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as persons other than aboriginal peoples who are non Caucasian in race or non white in colour 358 References Royal Anthem Government of Canada August 11 2017 Retrieved October 8 2022 Surface water and surface water change Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD Retrieved October 11 2020 Population estimates quarterly December 21 2022 Archived from the original on December 21 2022 Retrieved September 30 2022 Census Profile 2021 Census of Population February 9 2022 Archived from the original on February 9 2022 Retrieved February 9 2022 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database International Monetary Fund April 2022 Retrieved 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Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada and for the Government of Canada J C Fisher amp W Kimble 1841 p 20 O Toole Roger 2009 Dominion of the Gods Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context In Hvithamar Annika Warburg Margit Jacobsen Brian Arly eds Holy Nations and Global Identities Civil Religion Nationalism and Globalisation Brill p 137 ISBN 978 90 04 17828 1 Morra Irene 2016 The New Elizabethan Age Culture Society and National Identity after World War II I B Tauris p 49 ISBN 978 0 85772 867 8 November 8 1951 21st Parliament 5th Session Canadian Hansard Dataset Retrieved April 9 2019 Bowden J W J 2015 Dominion A Lament The Dorchester Review 5 2 58 64 McLean Janet Quentin Baxter Alison December 11 2017 This Realm of New Zealand The Sovereign the Governor General the Crown Auckland University Press ISBN 978 1 77558 963 1 OCLC 1007929877 a b c d Buckner Philip ed 2008 Canada and the British Empire Oxford University Press pp 37 40 56 59 114 124 125 ISBN 978 0 19 927164 1 Courtney John Smith David 2010 The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics Oxford University Press p 114 ISBN 978 0 19 533535 4 a b Graber Christoph Beat Kuprecht Karolina Lai Jessica C 2012 International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage Legal and Policy Issues Edward Elgar Publishing p 366 ISBN 978 0 85793 831 2 Dillehay Thomas D 2008 The Settlement of the Americas A New Prehistory Basic Books p 61 ISBN 978 0 7867 2543 4 Fagan Brian M Durrani Nadia 2016 World Prehistory A Brief Introduction Routledge p 124 ISBN 978 1 317 34244 1 Rawat Rajiv 2012 Circumpolar Health Atlas University of Toronto Press p 58 ISBN 978 1 4426 4456 4 Hayes Derek 2008 Canada An Illustrated History Douglas amp Mcintyre pp 7 13 ISBN 978 1 55365 259 5 Macklem Patrick 2001 Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada University of Toronto Press p 170 ISBN 978 0 8020 4195 1 Sonneborn Liz January 2007 Chronology of American Indian History Infobase Publishing pp 2 12 ISBN 978 0 8160 6770 1 a b c Wilson Donna M 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to 1914 Canadian Museum of Immigration Retrieved December 18 2020 Armitage Derek Plummer Ryan 2010 Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance Springer Science amp Business Media pp 183 184 ISBN 978 3 642 12194 4 Daschuk James William 2013 Clearing the Plains Disease Politics of Starvation and the Loss of Aboriginal Life University of Regina Press pp 99 104 ISBN 978 0 88977 296 0 Hall David John 2015 From Treaties to Reserves The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta 1870 1905 McGill Queen s University Press pp 258 259 ISBN 978 0 7735 4595 3 Jackson Robert J Jackson Doreen Koop Royce 2020 Canadian Government and Politics 7th ed Broadview Press p 186 ISBN 978 1 4604 0696 0 Tennyson Brian Douglas 2014 Canada s Great War 1914 1918 How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation Scarecrow Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 8108 8860 9 a b c d e f Morton Desmond 1999 A military history of Canada 4th ed McClelland amp Stewart pp 130 158 173 203 233 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