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Laos

January 07, 2023

Not to be confused with Laon or Lao language.
This article is about the country in Southeast Asia. For other uses, see Laos (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 18°N 105°E / 18°N 105°E / 18; 105

Laos (/ˈlɑːoʊs/ (listen)[9][d]), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist state and the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. At the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula, Laos is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest.[12] Its capital and largest city is Vientiane.

Lao People's Democratic Republic
  • ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ (Lao)
  • Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxôn Lao
République démocratique populaire Lao (French)
Motto: ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນະຖາວອນ
Santiphap Ekalat Paxathipatai Ekaphap Vatthanathavon
"Peace, independence, democracy, unity and prosperity"
Anthem: ເພງຊາດລາວ
Pheng Xat Lao
"Hymn of the Lao People"
Location of Laos (green)

in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

Capital
and largest city
Vientiane
17°58′N 102°36′E / 17.967°N 102.600°E / 17.967; 102.600
Official languagesLao
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2015[2])
Religion
Demonym(s)Lao
Laotian
GovernmentUnitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic
Thongloun Sisoulith
Sonexay Siphandone
Bounthong Chitmany
Pany Yathotou
Saysomphone Phomvihane
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
1353–1707
• Kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane & Champasak
1707–1778
• Vassals of Siam
1778–1893
1893–1953
11 May 1947
22 October 1953
2 December 1975
14 August 1991
Area
• Total
236,800 km2 (91,400 sq mi)[5] (82nd)
• Water (%)
2
Population
• 2022 estimate
7,749,595[5] (103rd)
• Density
26.7/km2 (69.2/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
 $68.573 billion[6] (109th)
• Per capita
 $9,166[6] (127th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
 $16.250 billion[6] (131st)
• Per capita
 $2,172[6] (148th)
Gini (2012)36.4[7]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.607[8]
medium · 140th
CurrencyKip (₭) (LAK)
Time zoneUTC+7 (ICT)
Driving sideright
Calling code+856
ISO 3166 codeLA
Internet TLD.la

Present-day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang, which existed from the 13th century to the 18th century as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia.[13] Because of its central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom became a hub for overland trade and became wealthy economically and culturally.[13] After a period of internal conflict, Lan Xang broke into three separate kingdoms: Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, the three territories came under a French protectorate and were united to form what is now known as Laos. It briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation but was re-colonised by France until it won autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong. A post-independence civil war began, which saw the communist resistance, supported by the Soviet Union, fight against the monarchy that later came under influence of military regimes supported by the United States. After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, the communist Pathet Lao came to power, ending the civil war. Laos was then dependent on military and economic aid from the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991.

Laos is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, the ASEAN, East Asia Summit, and La Francophonie. Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997; on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership.[14] It is a one-party socialist republic, espousing Marxism–Leninism and governed by the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, under which non-governmental organisations have routinely characterised the country's human rights record as poor, citing repeated abuses such as torture, restrictions on civil liberties and persecution of minorities.

The politically and culturally dominant Lao people make up 53.2% of the population, mostly in the lowlands. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other indigenous hill tribes live in the foothills and mountains. Laos's strategies for development are based on generating electricity from rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China and Vietnam, as well as its initiative to become a "land-linked" nation, as evidenced by the construction of four new railways connecting Laos and neighbours.[15][16] Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific's fastest growing economies by the World Bank with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009.[17][18]

Etymology

The word Laos was coined by the French, who united the three Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893 and named the country as the plural of the dominant and most common ethnic group, the Lao people.[19] In English, the 's' is pronounced, and not silent.[19][20][21][22][23] In the Lao language, the country's name is Muang Lao (ເມືອງລາວ) or Pathet Lao (ປະເທດລາວ), both of which literally mean 'Lao Country'.[24]

History

Main article: History of Laos

Prehistory and early history

 
Pha That Luang in Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos.

An ancient human skull was recovered in 2009 from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia.[25] Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos.[26] Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC.[27] Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a complex society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the modern territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries.[28]

Lan Xang

Main article: Lan Xang
 
Fa Ngum, founder of the Lan Xang Kingdom

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum,[29]: 223  whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire. Fa Ngum, with 10,000 Khmer troops, conquered many Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane. Ngum was descended from a long line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom.[30] He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion, and Lan Xang prospered. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to the present-day Thai province of Nan in 1373,[31] where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years. Lan Xang became an important trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, but after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century.[32]

In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion. Setthathirath became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of what became the symbol of Laos, That Luang. Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia, and Lan Xang fell into more than seventy years of instability, involving both Burmese invasion and civil war.[33]

In 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers. His reign is often regarded as Laos's golden age. When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into three principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty.[34]

Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826. The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked.[35] Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died.[36]

A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[37]

French Laos (1893–1953)

Main articles: French protectorate of Laos and First Indochina War
 
Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard, c. 1900

In the late 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army.[38] France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina. Shortly after, the Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate. King Sisavang Vong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital.[39] Laos never held any importance for France[40] other than as a buffer state between Thailand and the more economically important Annam and Tonkin.

Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee, but never accounted for more than one percent of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.[41] Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space.[42] By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in the largest cities of Laos and enjoying the right to elect its own leaders.[43] As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek, and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with only the exception of Luang Prabang where the population was predominantly Lao.[43] As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas, i.e., the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, and the Bolaven Plateau, which was only derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.[43] Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.[43]

During World War II in Laos, Vichy France, Thailand, Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos.[44] On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital, but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city.[45] The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the King of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate. The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese.[45] When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including Prince Phetsarath) declared Laotian independence, but by early-1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos.[46]

During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation. The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, the Viet Minh. In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union. France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy.[47][46]

Independence and Communist rule (1953–present)

Main articles: History of Laos since 1945 and Laotian Civil War
 
French General Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953

The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954. In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army (RLA) and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union-backed Pathet Lao guerillas. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 was unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated into large scale civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong.[47][46]

 
Ruins of Muang Khoun, former capital of Xiangkhouang province, destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the late 1960s

Laos was a key part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported Army of the Republic of Vietnam incursions into Laos.[47][46]

In 1968, the PAVN launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the RLA. The attack resulted in the RLA largely demobilising, leaving the conflict to irregular ethnic Hmong forces of the "Secret Army" backed by the United States and Thailand, and led by General Vang Pao.[citation needed]

Massive aerial bombardments against the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government, and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam.[47] Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population; The New York Times notes this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos".[48]

Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swaths of land impossible to cultivate. Currently unexploded ordnance (UXO), including cluster munitions and mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year.[49] Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.[50]

 
Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1972

In 1975 the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died under suspicious circumstances in a re-education camp. Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war.[47][51] The royalists set up a government in exile in the United States.[citation needed]

On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People's Democratic Republic and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. The close ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via a treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at all levels of Lao political and economic life.[47][52] Laos was requested in 1979 by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to isolation in trade by China, the United States, and other countries.[53] In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to the ministries in Vientiane.[54][55]

The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in key areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province. From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.[56]

On 3 December 2021, the 422-kilometre Boten-Vientiane railway, a flagship of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was opened.[57]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Laos
 
Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang
 
Paddy fields in Laos

Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia, and it lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (a small area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E. Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands. There are two plateaux, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas: north, central, and south.[58] Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries.[59]

In 1993 the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation.[60] The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle".[61] According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia, the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006.[62]

Climate

 
Laos map of Köppen climate classification.

The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern.[63] There is a distinct rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition holds that there are three seasons (rainy, cool and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months.[63]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Laos

Laos is divided into 17 provinces (khoueng) and one prefecture (kampheng nakhon), which includes the capital city Vientiane (Nakhon Louang Viangchan).[64] A new province, Xaisomboun province, was established on 13 December 2013.[65] Provinces are further divided into districts (muang) and then villages (ban). An "urban" village is essentially a town.[58]

No. Subdivisions Capital Area (km2) Population
1 Attapeu Attapeu (Samakkhixay district) 10,320 114,300
2 Bokeo Houayxay (Houayxay district) 6,196 149,700
3 Bolikhamsai Paksan (Paksane District) 14,863 214,900
4 Champasak Pakse (Pakse District) 15,415 575,600
5 Houaphanh Xam Neua (Xamneua District) 16,500 322,200
6 Khammouane Thakhek (Thakhek District) 16,315 358,800
7 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha (Namtha District) 9,325 150,100
8 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang district) 16,875 408,800
9 Oudomxay Muang Xay (Xay District) 15,370 275,300
10 Phongsaly Phongsali (Phongsaly District) 16,270 199,900
11 Sainyabuli Sayabouly (Xayabury District) 16,389 382,200
12 Salavan Salavan (Salavan District) 10,691 336,600
13 Savannakhet Savannakhet (Khanthabouly District) 21,774 721,500
14 Sekong Sekong (Lamarm District) 7,665 83,600
15 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane (Chanthabouly district) 3,920 726,000
16 Vientiane Province Phonhong (Phonhong District) 15,927 373,700
17 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan (Pek District) 15,880 229,521
18 Xaisomboun Anouvong (Anouvong district) 8,300 82,000
An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014)
 

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Laos and Foreign relations of Laos
 
Thongloun Sisoulith
General Secretary and President
 
Phankham Viphavanh
Prime Minister

The Lao PDR is one of the world's few socialist states openly endorsing communism. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). With one-party state status of Laos, the General Secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the supreme leader.[47] As of 22 March 2021 the head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith. He has been General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, a position making him the de facto leader of Laos, since January 2021.[66][67] The incumbent head of government is Prime Minister Phankham Viphavanh. Government policies are determined by the party through the eleven-member Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and the 61-member Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.

Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP.[47]

 
Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Laos
 
Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018

The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc, maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union and depending heavily on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance.[68] Laos also maintained a "special relationship" with Vietnam and formalised a 1977 treaty of friendship and cooperation that created tensions with China.[citation needed]

 
Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2016

Laos's emergence from international isolation has been marked through improved and expanded relations with other countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan and Switzerland.[69] Trade relations with the United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation.[70] Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016.[71] In 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.[72]

Military

Main article: Lao People's Army

On 17 May 2014, Defence Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Douangchay Phichit was killed in a plane crash, along with other top ranking officials.[73] The officials were to participate in a ceremony to mark the liberation of the Plain of Jars from the former Royal Lao government forces.[74] Their Russian-built Antonov AN 74-300 with 20 people on board crashed in Xiangkhouang Province.[75]

Hmong conflict

Some Hmong groups fought as CIA-backed units on the royalist side in the Laotian Civil War. After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root".[76] As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand, with many ending up in the US. Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for many years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003.[76]

In 1989, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the US government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process. Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety. After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.[77] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced.[78] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.[79]

 
Hmong girls in Laos, 1973

In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane. According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.[80] Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly, especially in the United States, where it drew strong opposition from many American conservatives and some human rights advocates. In a 23 October 1995 National Review article, Michael Johns, the former Heritage Foundation foreign policy expert and Republican White House aide, labelled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration "betrayal", describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defense of American geopolitical interests".[81] Debate on the issue escalated quickly. In an effort to halt the planned repatriation, the Republican-led US Senate and House of Representatives both appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand-based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the United States; Clinton, however, responded by promising a veto of the legislation.[citation needed]

In their opposition of the repatriation plans, Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. US Representative Steve Gunderson, for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that."[81] Republicans called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong's repatriation to Laos.

Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,[82] thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process.[83] Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin.[84] Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003.[85] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.[86] In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun.[87]

Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals,[88] and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims and was submitted to the UN in May 2006.[89]

The European Union,[90] UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.[90][91][92][93] The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres in Nong Khai, while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.[94] Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of President George W. Bush's Patriot Act and Real ID Act, under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict.[95]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Laos

Human rights violations remain a significant concern in Laos.[96][97] In The Economist's Democracy Index 2016 Laos was classified as an "authoritarian regime", ranking lowest of the nine ASEAN nations included in the study.[98][99] Prominent civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces.[100]

Ostensibly, the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains most key safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The constitution also contains provisions for gender equality, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of press and assembly.[101] On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, nine years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of both the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.[102][103]

However, the government of Laos frequently breaches its own constitution and the rule of law, since the judiciary and judges are appointed by the ruling communist party. According to independent non-profit/non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as Amnesty International,[104] Human Rights Watch,[105] and Civil Rights Defenders,[106] along with the US State Department,[107] serious human rights violations such as arbitrary detentions, disappearances, free speech restrictions, prison abuses and other violations are an ongoing problem. Amnesty International raised concerns about the ratification record of the Lao government on human rights standards and its lack of co-operation with the UN human rights mechanisms and legislative measures—both impact negatively upon human rights.[97] The organisation also raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, poor prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and the death penalty.[104]

In October 1999, 30 young people were arrested for attempting to display posters calling for peaceful economic, political and social change in Laos. Five of them were arrested and subsequently sentenced to up to 10 years imprisonment on charges of treason. They were to have been released by October 2009, but their whereabouts remain unknown.[104] Later reports have contradicted this, claiming they were sentenced to 20 years in prison.[108] In late February 2017, two of those imprisoned were finally released after 17 years.[109]

Laos and Vietnamese (SRV) troops were reported to have raped and killed four Christian Hmong women in Xiangkhouang Province in 2011, according to the US-based non-governmental public policy research organisation The Centre for Public Policy Analysis, which also said other Christian and independent Buddhist and animist believers were being persecuted.[110][111]

Human rights advocates including Vang Pobzeb, Kerry and Kay Danes, and others have also raised concerns about human rights violations, torture, the arrest and detention of political prisoners as well as the detention of foreign prisoners in Laos including at the infamous Phonthong Prison in Vientiane.[citation needed]

According to estimates, around 300,000 people fled to Thailand as a consequence of governmental repressions. Amongst them, 100,000 Hmongs—30% of the entire Hmong population—and 90% of all of Lao intellectuals, specialists, and officials. Moreover, 130,000 deaths can be attributed to the civil war.[112] Laos is an origin country for sexually trafficked persons.[113] A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners, have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos.[114][115][116]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Laos
 
A proportional representation of Laos exports, 2019
 
GDP per capita development in Laos

The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has also experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, despite the fact that the government is still officially communist, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist–Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank.[117][118]

In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in Laos's economy, having invested in US$5.395 billion since 1989, according to Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report. Thailand (invested US$4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$3.108 billion) are the second and third largest investors respectively.[119] The economy receives development aid from the International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and other international sources; and also foreign direct investment for development of the society, industry, hydropower and mining (most notably of copper and gold).

Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. Only 4% of the country is arable land and a mere 0.3% used as permanent crop land,[120] the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[121] The irrigated areas under cultivation account for only 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents only 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012.[122] Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice.[123] Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.[124] Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos.[125]

Laos is rich in mineral resources and imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper, and other valuable metals. The mining industry of Laos has received prominent attention with foreign direct investments. This sector has made significant contributions to the economic condition of Laos. More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper, zinc, lead and other minerals have been identified, explored and mined.[126] In addition, the country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy.[127] Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam.[128] As of 2021, despite cheap hydro power available in the country, Laos continues to also rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in the domestic electricity production.[129]

In 2018, the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating medium development.[130] According to the Global Hunger Index (2018), Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s).[131] In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation "is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised."[132]

The country's most widely recognised product may well be Beerlao, which in 2017 was exported to more than 20 countries worldwide. It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company.[133]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Laos
 
Near the sanctuary on the main upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong River

The tourism sector has grown rapidly, from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010,[134] when tourism had been expected to rise to US$1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, one in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of the total) in 2020.[135] The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the "World Best Tourist Destination" designation for 2013 for architecture and history.[136]

Luang Prabang and Vat Phou are both UNESCO World Heritage sites. Major festivals include Lao New Year celebrated around 13–15 April and involves a water festival similar but more subdued than that of Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries.

The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan. This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasizing the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations.[137]

Infrastructure

Main articles: Transport in Laos and Telecommunications in Laos
 
Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos.

The main international airports are Vientiane's Wattay International Airport and Luang Prabang International Airport with Pakse International Airport also having a few international flights. The national carrier is Lao Airlines. Other carriers serving the country include Bangkok Airways, Vietnam Airlines, AirAsia, Thai Airways and China Eastern Airlines.

The mountainous geography of Laos had impeded Laos's ground transportation development throughout the 20th century. Its first railway line, a short 3-km long metre-gauge railway that connects southern Vientiane to Thailand, only opened in 2009. A major breakthrough occurred in December 2021, when the 414-km long standard-gauge Boten–Vientiane railway that runs from the capital Vientiane to Boten at the northern border with China, built as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, was opened.[138] Two new lines connecting with Vietnam, namely the Vientiane–Vũng Áng and Savannakhet–Lao Bao railways, are also under planning, in line to meet the Laotian government's vision of becoming a land-linked nation.

The major roads connecting to urban centres, in particular Route 13, have been significantly upgraded in recent years. Laos's first expressway, the Vientiane–Boten Expressway, parallels both Route 13 and the Boten–Vientiane railway; the first section from Vientiane to Vang Vieng was opened in 2020, with other sections under construction. However, villages far from major roads can be reached only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year-round.

There is limited external and internal telecommunication, but mobile phones have become widespread. Ninety-three percent of households have a telephone, either fixed line or mobile.[139]: 8  Electricity is available to 93% of the population.[139]: 8  Songthaews are used in the country for long-distance and local public transport.

Water supply

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Laos

According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014, Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme. However, as of 2018, there are approximately 1.9 million of Lao's population who could not access an improved water supply and 2.4 million people without access to improved sanitation.[140]

Laos has made particularly noteworthy progress increasing access to sanitation.[141] Laos's predominantly rural[142] population makes investing in sanitation difficult. In 1990 only 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation.[141] Access rose rapidly from 10 percent in 1995 to 38 percent in 2008. Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas.[141] Laos's progress is notable in comparison to similar developing countries.[141] The authorities in Laos have recently developed an innovative regulatory framework for public–private partnership contracts signed with small enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of state-owned water enterprises.[143]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Laos

The term "Laotian" does not necessarily refer to the Lao language, ethnic Lao people, language or customs. It is a political term that includes the non-ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as "Laotian" because of their political citizenship. Laos has the youngest population of any country in Asia with a median age of 21.6 years.[144]

Laos's population was estimated at 7.45 million in 2020, dispersed unevenly across the country. Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries. Vientiane prefecture, the capital and largest city, had about 683,000 residents in 2020.[144]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Laos
geonames.org
Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Vientiane
 
Savannakhet 		1 Vientiane Vientiane 820,940  
Pakxe
 
Thakhek
2 Savannakhet Savannakhet 120,000
3 Pakxe Champasak 119,848
4 Thakhek Khammouane 85,000
5 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang 55,027
6 Xam Neua Houaphanh 46,800
7 Phonsavan Xianghouang 37,507
8 Muang Pakxan Bolikhamsai 27,404
9 Vang Vieng Vientiane 25,000
10 Muang Xai Oudomxay 25,000

Ethnicity

The people of Laos are often categorised by their distribution by elevation: (lowlands, midlands and upper high lands) as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings. More than half of the nation's population is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants, and the politically and culturally dominant people of Laos.[145] The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group[146] who began migrating south from China in the first millennium CE.[147] Ten percent belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum (lowland people).[145]

In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate their Austroasiatic language affiliation. However, the latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'. They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. Some Vietnamese, Laotian Chinese[148] and Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left after independence in the late 1940s, many of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France. Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population.[149]

Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong, Yao (Mien) (Hmong-Mien), Dao, Shan, and several Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos, which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos. Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians. Lao Soung account for about 10% of the population.[46]

Languages

The official and majority language is Lao, a language of the Tai-Kadai language family. However, only slightly more than half of the population speaks Lao natively. The remainder, particularly in rural areas, speak ethnic minority languages. The Lao alphabet, which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries, was derived from the ancient Khmer script and is very similar to Thai script.[150] Languages like Khmu (Austroasiatic) and Hmong (Hmong-Mien) are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas. A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with high rates of congenital deafness.[46]

French is used in government and commerce, and Laos is a member of the French-speaking organisation of La Francophonie. The organisation estimates that there are 173,800 French speakers in Laos (2010 est.).[151] The French language's decline was slower and occurred later than in Vietnam and Cambodia in Laos as the monarchy of Laos had close political relations with France. At the eve of the Vietnam War, the Secret War was beginning in Laos as political factions between communist Pathet Lao and the government occurred. Pathet Lao held areas used Lao as their sole language and following the end of the Vietnam War, French began its sharp decline in Laos. Additionally, many elite and French-educated Lao immigrated to nations such as the United States and France to escape government persecution. With the end of isolationism in the early 1990s however, the French language rebounded, thanks to the establishment of French, Swiss and Canadian relations and opening of French-language centers in central Laos. Today, French has a healthier status in Laos than the other Francophone nations of Asia and about 35% of all students in Laos receive their education in French, with the language being a required course in many schools. French is also used in public works in central and southern Laos and Luang Prabang and is a language of diplomacy and of the elite classes, higher professions and elders.

English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied in recent years.[152]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Laos
 
Wat Nong Sikhounmuang - buddhist pagoda in Luang Prabang.

Sixty-six percent of Laotians were Theravada Buddhist, 1.5 percent Christian, 0.1 percent Muslim, 0.1 percent Jewish, and 32.3 percent were other or traditional (mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi) in 2010.[153][154] Buddhism has long been one of the most important social forces in Laos. Theravada Buddhism has coexisted peacefully since its introduction to the country with the local polytheism.[46]

Health

Main article: Health in Laos
 
Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane.

Male life expectancy at birth was at 62.6 years and female life expectancy was at 66.7 years in 2017.[154] Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007.[155] Government expenditure on health is about four percent of GDP,[155] about US$18 (PPP) in 2006.[155]

Education

Main article: Education in Laos
See also: National Library of Laos

The adult literacy rate for women in 2017 was 62.9%; for adult men, 78.1%.[139]: 39–40 

In 2004 the net primary enrollment rate was 84%.[155] The National University of Laos is the Lao state's public university. As a low-income country, Laos faces a brain-drain problem as many educated people migrate to developed countries. It is estimated that about 37% of educated Laotians live outside Laos.[156] Laos was ranked 117th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 down from 113rd in 2020.[157][158][159][160][161]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Laos
See also: Lao art, Lao cuisine, Dance and theatre of Laos, Laotian society, List of festivals in Laos, Music of Laos, and Lao cuisine
 
An example of Lao cuisine
 
Lao women wearing sinhs
 
Lao dancers during the New Year celebration

Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture. It is evident throughout the country, expressed in language, temples and the arts and literature. Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism. For example, Laotian music is dominated by its national musical instrument, the khaen, a type of bamboo mouth organ that has prehistoric origins. The khaen traditionally accompanied the singer in mor lam, the dominant style of folk music.

Sticky rice is a staple food and has cultural and religious significance to the Lao people. Sticky rice is generally preferred over jasmine rice, and sticky rice cultivation and production is thought to have originated in Laos. There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments and among many ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety khao kam in small quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.[162]

The sinh is a traditional garment worn by Lao women in daily life. It is a hand-woven silk skirt that can identify the woman who wears it in a variety of ways.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Laos

Since the founding of the Lao PDR in 1975, very few films have been made in Laos.[163] The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished is Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars, directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983, although its release was prevented by a censorship board.[164] One of the first commercial feature-length films was Sabaidee Luang Prabang, made in 2008.[165] The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road was predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government, it was recognised with a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018.[166]

Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. Entitled The Rocket, the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival and won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.[167] One production company's film that has succeeded to produce Lao feature films and gain international recognition is Lao New Wave Cinema's At the Horizon, directed by Anysay Keola, that was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival[168] and Lao Art Media's Chanthaly (Lao: ຈັນທະລີ) directed by Mattie Do, which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest.[169][170] In September 2017, Laos submitted Dearest Sister (Lao: ນ້ອງຮັກ), Mattie Do's second feature film, to the 90th Academy Awards (or the Oscars) for consideration for Best Foreign Language Film, marking the country's first submission for the Oscars.[171]

As of 2018, Laos has three theatres dedicated to showing films.[172]

Festivals

There are some public holidays, festivities and ceremonies in Laos.

  • Hmong New Year (Nopejao)
  • Bun Pha Wet
  • Magha Puja
  • Chinese New Year
  • Boun Khoun Khao
  • Boun Pimai
  • Visakha Puja
  • Pi Mai/Songkran(Lao New Year)
  • Khao Phansaa
  • Haw Khao Padap Din
  • Awk Phansaa
  • Bun Nam
  • Lao National Day (2 December)[173][174]

Media

All newspapers are published by the government, including two foreign language papers: the English-language daily Vientiane Times and the French-language weekly Le Rénovateur. Additionally, the Khao San Pathet Lao, the country's official news agency, publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper. Laos has nine daily newspapers, 90 magazines, 43 radio stations, and 32 TV stations operating throughout the country. As of 2011, Nhân Dân ('The People') and the Xinhua News Agency are the only foreign media organisations permitted to open offices in Laos—both opened bureaus in Vientiane in 2011.[citation needed]

The Lao government controls all media channels to prevent critique of its actions.[175] Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and torture.[176][177]

Polygamy

Polygamy is officially a crime in Laos, though the penalty is minor. The constitution and Family Code bar the legal recognition of polygamous marriages, stipulating that monogamy is the principal form of marriage in the country.[178] Polygamy, however, is still customary among some Hmong people.[179] Only 3.5% of women and 2.1% of men between the ages of 15–49 were in a polygamous union as of 2017.[139]: 19 

Sport

The martial art of muay Lao, the national sport,[180] is a form of kickboxing similar to Thailand's muay Thai, Burmese Lethwei and Cambodian Pradal Serey.[181]

Association football is the most popular sport in Laos.[182] Its national football team is a member of the Asian Football Confederation and of the ASEAN Football Federation. It has failed to qualify for the FIFA World Cup or the AFC Asian Cup, but has participated in minor competitions like the AFC Solidarity Cup and the AFF Championship. The Lao League is the top professional league for association football clubs in the country.[183] Since the start of the league, Lao Army F.C. has been the most successful club with 8 titles, the highest number of championship wins.[184]

Laos has no tradition in other team sports. In 2017, the country sent a team for the first time to the team events at the Southeast Asian Games. The national basketball team competed at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games where it beat Myanmar in the eighth place game.[185]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Including over 100 smaller ethnic groups.
  2. ^ The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people[3]
  3. ^ Laos is a one party Marxist–Leninist communist state. The most powerful political position is General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, not President. The general secretary controls the Politburo and the Secretariat, Laos's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder as de facto leader of Laos.
  4. ^ (/laʊs, ˈlɑːɒs, ˈleɪɒs/;[10][11] Lao: ລາວ, Lāo [láːw])

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External links

 
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January 07, 2023
laos, confused, with, laon, language, this, article, about, country, southeast, asia, other, uses, disambiguation, coordinates, ɑː, listen, officially, people, democratic, republic, ສາທາລະນະລ, ປະຊາທ, ປະໄຕ, ປະຊາຊ, ນລາວ, french, république, démocratique, populai. Not to be confused with Laon or Lao language This article is about the country in Southeast Asia For other uses see Laos disambiguation Coordinates 18 N 105 E 18 N 105 E 18 105 Laos ˈ l ɑː oʊ s listen 9 d officially the Lao People s Democratic Republic Lao ສາທາລະນະລ ດ ປະຊາທ ປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊ ນລາວ French Republique democratique populaire lao is a socialist state and the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia At the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula Laos is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest Vietnam to the east Cambodia to the southeast and Thailand to the west and southwest 12 Its capital and largest city is Vientiane Lao People s Democratic Republicສາທາລະນະລ ດ ປະຊາທ ປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊ ນລາວ wbr Lao Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao Republique democratique populaire Lao French Flag EmblemMotto ສ ນຕ ພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທ ປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວ ດທະນະຖາວອນ Santiphap Ekalat Paxathipatai Ekaphap Vatthanathavon Peace independence democracy unity and prosperity Anthem ເພງຊາດລາວ Pheng Xat Lao Hymn of the Lao People source source track track track track track track track Show globeShow map of ASEANLocation of Laos green in ASEAN dark grey Legend Capitaland largest cityVientiane17 58 N 102 36 E 17 967 N 102 600 E 17 967 102 600Official languagesLaoSpoken languagesLaoFrenchKhmuHmongPhu ThaiTai 1 Ethnic groups 2015 2 53 2 Lao11 Khmu9 2 Hmong3 4 Phu thai3 1 Tai2 5 Makong2 2 Katang2 0 Lue1 8 Akha11 6 Others a Religion66 0 Buddhism b 30 7 Tai folk religion1 5 Christianity1 8 Others None 4 Demonym s LaoLaotianGovernmentUnitary Marxist Leninist one party socialist republic General SecretaryPresident c Thongloun Sisoulith Prime MinisterSonexay Siphandone Vice President s Bounthong ChitmanyPany Yathotou President of the National AssemblySaysomphone PhomvihaneLegislatureNational AssemblyFormation Kingdom of Lan Xang1353 1707 Kingdoms of Luang Prabang Vientiane amp Champasak1707 1778 Vassals of Siam1778 1893 French protectorate1893 1953 Unified Kingdom11 May 1947 Independencefrom France22 October 1953 Monarchy abolished2 December 1975 Current constitution14 August 1991Area Total236 800 km2 91 400 sq mi 5 82nd Water 2Population 2022 estimate7 749 595 5 103rd Density26 7 km2 69 2 sq mi GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 68 573 billion 6 109th Per capita 9 166 6 127th GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 16 250 billion 6 131st Per capita 2 172 6 148th Gini 2012 36 4 7 mediumHDI 2021 0 607 8 medium 140thCurrencyKip LAK Time zoneUTC 7 ICT Driving siderightCalling code 856ISO 3166 codeLAInternet TLD laPresent day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang which existed from the 13th century to the 18th century as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia 13 Because of its central geographical location in Southeast Asia the kingdom became a hub for overland trade and became wealthy economically and culturally 13 After a period of internal conflict Lan Xang broke into three separate kingdoms Luang Phrabang Vientiane and Champasak In 1893 the three territories came under a French protectorate and were united to form what is now known as Laos It briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation but was re colonised by France until it won autonomy in 1949 Laos became independent in 1953 with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong A post independence civil war began which saw the communist resistance supported by the Soviet Union fight against the monarchy that later came under influence of military regimes supported by the United States After the Vietnam War ended in 1975 the communist Pathet Lao came to power ending the civil war Laos was then dependent on military and economic aid from the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991 Laos is a member of the Asia Pacific Trade Agreement the ASEAN East Asia Summit and La Francophonie Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997 on 2 February 2013 it was granted full membership 14 It is a one party socialist republic espousing Marxism Leninism and governed by the Lao People s Revolutionary Party under which non governmental organisations have routinely characterised the country s human rights record as poor citing repeated abuses such as torture restrictions on civil liberties and persecution of minorities The politically and culturally dominant Lao people make up 53 2 of the population mostly in the lowlands Mon Khmer groups the Hmong and other indigenous hill tribes live in the foothills and mountains Laos s strategies for development are based on generating electricity from rivers and selling the power to its neighbours namely Thailand China and Vietnam as well as its initiative to become a land linked nation as evidenced by the construction of four new railways connecting Laos and neighbours 15 16 Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific s fastest growing economies by the World Bank with annual GDP growth averaging 7 4 since 2009 17 18 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory and early history 2 2 Lan Xang 2 3 French Laos 1893 1953 2 4 Independence and Communist rule 1953 present 3 Geography 3 1 Climate 3 2 Administrative divisions 4 Government and politics 4 1 Foreign relations 4 2 Military 4 3 Hmong conflict 4 4 Human rights 5 Economy 5 1 Tourism 5 2 Infrastructure 5 3 Water supply 6 Demographics 6 1 Ethnicity 6 2 Languages 6 3 Religion 6 4 Health 6 5 Education 7 Culture 7 1 Cinema 7 2 Festivals 7 3 Media 7 4 Polygamy 7 5 Sport 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External linksEtymology EditThe word Laos was coined by the French who united the three Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893 and named the country as the plural of the dominant and most common ethnic group the Lao people 19 In English the s is pronounced and not silent 19 20 21 22 23 In the Lao language the country s name is Muang Lao ເມ ອງລາວ or Pathet Lao ປະເທດລາວ both of which literally mean Lao Country 24 History EditMain article History of Laos Prehistory and early history Edit Pha That Luang in Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos An ancient human skull was recovered in 2009 from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos the skull is at least 46 000 years old making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia 25 Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos 26 Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC 27 Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a complex society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC and iron tools were known from 700 BC The proto historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations According to linguistic and other historical evidence Tai speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the modern territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries 28 Lan Xang Edit Main article Lan Xang Fa Ngum founder of the Lan Xang Kingdom Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang million elephants which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince Fa Ngum 29 223 whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire Fa Ngum with 10 000 Khmer troops conquered many Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin culminating in the capture of Vientiane Ngum was descended from a long line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom 30 He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion and Lan Xang prospered His ministers unable to tolerate his ruthlessness forced him into exile to the present day Thai province of Nan in 1373 31 where he died Fa Ngum s eldest son Oun Heuan ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years Lan Xang became an important trade centre during Samsenthai s reign but after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century 32 In 1520 Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion Setthathirath became king in 1548 after his father was killed and ordered the construction of what became the symbol of Laos That Luang Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia and Lan Xang fell into more than seventy years of instability involving both Burmese invasion and civil war 33 In 1637 when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers His reign is often regarded as Laos s golden age When he died without an heir the kingdom split into three principalities Between 1763 and 1769 Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty 34 Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang Under Vietnamese pressure he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826 The rebellion failed and Vientiane was ransacked 35 Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner where he died 36 A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been transformed into slave hunting raids on a large scale 37 French Laos 1893 1953 Edit Main articles French protectorate of Laos and First Indochina War Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard c 1900 In the late 19th century Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army 38 France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina Shortly after the Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate King Sisavang Vong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos and Vientiane once again became the capital 39 Laos never held any importance for France 40 other than as a buffer state between Thailand and the more economically important Annam and Tonkin Laos produced tin rubber and coffee but never accounted for more than one percent of French Indochina s exports By 1940 around 600 French citizens lived in Laos 41 Under French rule the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina wide colonial space 42 By 1943 the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40 000 forming the majority in the largest cities of Laos and enjoying the right to elect its own leaders 43 As a result 53 of the population of Vientiane 85 of Thakhek and 62 of Pakse were Vietnamese with only the exception of Luang Prabang where the population was predominantly Lao 43 As late as 1945 the French drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas i e the Vientiane Plain Savannakhet region and the Bolaven Plateau which was only derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina 43 Otherwise according to Martin Stuart Fox the Lao might well have lost control over their own country 43 During World War II in Laos Vichy France Thailand Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos 44 On 9 March 1945 a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent with Luang Prabang as its capital but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city 45 The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong the King of Luang Phrabang to declare Laotian independence but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos s status as a French protectorate The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese 45 When Japan surrendered some Lao nationalists including Prince Phetsarath declared Laotian independence but by early 1946 French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos 46 During the First Indochina War the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation the Viet Minh In 1950 the French were forced to give Laos semi autonomy as an associated state within the French Union France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953 when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy 47 46 Independence and Communist rule 1953 present Edit Main articles History of Laos since 1945 and Laotian Civil War French General Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang 4 May 1953 The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954 In 1960 amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army RLA and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union backed Pathet Lao guerillas A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 was unsuccessful and the situation steadily deteriorated into large scale civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People s Army of Vietnam PAVN and the Viet Cong 47 46 Ruins of Muang Khoun former capital of Xiangkhouang province destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the late 1960s Laos was a key part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam In response the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions supported regular and irregular anti communist forces in Laos and supported Army of the Republic of Vietnam incursions into Laos 47 46 In 1968 the PAVN launched a multi division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the RLA The attack resulted in the RLA largely demobilising leaving the conflict to irregular ethnic Hmong forces of the Secret Army backed by the United States and Thailand and led by General Vang Pao citation needed Massive aerial bombardments against the PAVN Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam 47 Between 1964 and 1973 the US dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos nearly equal to the 2 1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population The New York Times notes this was nearly a ton for every person in Laos 48 Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country rendering vast swaths of land impossible to cultivate Currently unexploded ordnance UXO including cluster munitions and mines kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year 49 Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010 50 Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane 1972 In 1975 the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975 He later died under suspicious circumstances in a re education camp Between 20 000 and 62 000 Laotians died during the civil war 47 51 The royalists set up a government in exile in the United States citation needed On 2 December 1975 after taking control of the country the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People s Democratic Republic and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country The close ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via a treaty signed in 1977 which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at all levels of Lao political and economic life 47 52 Laos was requested in 1979 by Vietnam to end relations with the People s Republic of China leading to isolation in trade by China the United States and other countries 53 In 1979 there were 50 000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6 000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1 000 directly attached to the ministries in Vientiane 54 55 The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in key areas of Laos including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province From 1975 to 1996 the United States resettled some 250 000 Lao refugees from Thailand including 130 000 Hmong 56 On 3 December 2021 the 422 kilometre Boten Vientiane railway a flagship of the Belt and Road Initiative BRI was opened 57 Geography EditMain article Geography of Laos Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang Paddy fields in Laos Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia and it lies mostly between latitudes 14 and 23 N a small area is south of 14 and longitudes 100 and 108 E Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2 818 metres 9 245 ft with some plains and plateaus The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands There are two plateaux the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas north central and south 58 Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5 59 10 ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries 59 In 1993 the Laos government set aside 21 of the nation s land area for habitat conservation preservation 60 The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the Golden Triangle 61 According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres 5 8 sq mi down from 18 square kilometres 6 9 sq mi in 2006 62 Climate Edit Laos map of Koppen climate classification The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern 63 There is a distinct rainy season from May to October followed by a dry season from November to April Local tradition holds that there are three seasons rainy cool and hot as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months 63 Administrative divisions Edit Main article Administrative divisions of Laos Laos is divided into 17 provinces khoueng and one prefecture kampheng nakhon which includes the capital city Vientiane Nakhon Louang Viangchan 64 A new province Xaisomboun province was established on 13 December 2013 65 Provinces are further divided into districts muang and then villages ban An urban village is essentially a town 58 No Subdivisions Capital Area km2 Population1 Attapeu Attapeu Samakkhixay district 10 320 114 3002 Bokeo Houayxay Houayxay district 6 196 149 7003 Bolikhamsai Paksan Paksane District 14 863 214 9004 Champasak Pakse Pakse District 15 415 575 6005 Houaphanh Xam Neua Xamneua District 16 500 322 2006 Khammouane Thakhek Thakhek District 16 315 358 8007 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha Namtha District 9 325 150 1008 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang Luang Prabang district 16 875 408 8009 Oudomxay Muang Xay Xay District 15 370 275 30010 Phongsaly Phongsali Phongsaly District 16 270 199 90011 Sainyabuli Sayabouly Xayabury District 16 389 382 20012 Salavan Salavan Salavan District 10 691 336 60013 Savannakhet Savannakhet Khanthabouly District 21 774 721 50014 Sekong Sekong Lamarm District 7 665 83 60015 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane Chanthabouly district 3 920 726 00016 Vientiane Province Phonhong Phonhong District 15 927 373 70017 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan Pek District 15 880 229 52118 Xaisomboun Anouvong Anouvong district 8 300 82 000 An updated map of Lao provinces from 2014 Government and politics EditMain articles Politics of Laos and Foreign relations of Laos Thongloun SisoulithGeneral Secretary and President Phankham ViphavanhPrime Minister The Lao PDR is one of the world s few socialist states openly endorsing communism The only legal political party is the Lao People s Revolutionary Party LPRP With one party state status of Laos the General Secretary party leader holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the supreme leader 47 As of 22 March 2021 update the head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith He has been General Secretary of the Lao People s Revolutionary Party a position making him the de facto leader of Laos since January 2021 66 67 The incumbent head of government is Prime Minister Phankham Viphavanh Government policies are determined by the party through the eleven member Politburo of the Lao People s Revolutionary Party and the 61 member Central Committee of the Lao People s Revolutionary Party Laos s first French written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947 and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union though close educational health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975 when a communist people s republic was proclaimed A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a leading role for the LPRP 47 Flag of the ruling Lao People s Revolutionary Party Foreign relations Edit Main article Foreign relations of Laos Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018 The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union and depending heavily on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance 68 Laos also maintained a special relationship with Vietnam and formalised a 1977 treaty of friendship and cooperation that created tensions with China citation needed Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2016 Laos s emergence from international isolation has been marked through improved and expanded relations with other countries including Russia China Thailand Australia Germany Italy Japan and Switzerland 69 Trade relations with the United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation 70 Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016 71 In 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit 72 Military Edit Main article Lao People s Army On 17 May 2014 Defence Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Douangchay Phichit was killed in a plane crash along with other top ranking officials 73 The officials were to participate in a ceremony to mark the liberation of the Plain of Jars from the former Royal Lao government forces 74 Their Russian built Antonov AN 74 300 with 20 people on board crashed in Xiangkhouang Province 75 Hmong conflict Edit Some Hmong groups fought as CIA backed units on the royalist side in the Laotian Civil War After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975 the conflict continued in isolated pockets In 1977 a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the American collaborators and their families to the last root 76 As many as 200 000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand with many ending up in the US Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for many years with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003 76 In 1989 the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR with the support of the US government instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos Vietnam and Cambodia Under the plan refugee status was evaluated through a screening process Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government Laos agreed to repatriate the 60 000 Lao refugees living in Thailand including several thousand Hmong people Very few of the Lao refugees however were willing to return voluntarily 77 Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily with development assistance from UNHCR allegations of forced repatriation surfaced 78 Of those Hmong who did return to Laos some quickly escaped back to Thailand describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities 79 Hmong girls in Laos 1973 In 1993 Vue Mai a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme s success disappeared in Vientiane According to the US Committee for Refugees he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again 80 Following the Vue Mai incident debate over the Hmong s planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly especially in the United States where it drew strong opposition from many American conservatives and some human rights advocates In a 23 October 1995 National Review article Michael Johns the former Heritage Foundation foreign policy expert and Republican White House aide labelled the Hmong s repatriation a Clinton administration betrayal describing the Hmong as a people who have spilled their blood in defense of American geopolitical interests 81 Debate on the issue escalated quickly In an effort to halt the planned repatriation the Republican led US Senate and House of Representatives both appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the United States Clinton however responded by promising a veto of the legislation citation needed In their opposition of the repatriation plans Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration s position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights US Representative Steve Gunderson for instance told a Hmong gathering I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice I will do that 81 Republicans called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong s repatriation to Laos Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied 82 thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached and under mounting political pressure the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process 83 Around 5 000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10 000 Hmong refugees had already been living The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non Lao origin 84 Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government the United States in a significant victory for the Hmong agreed to accept 15 000 of the refugees in 2003 85 Several thousand Hmong people fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century 86 In 2004 and 2005 thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun 87 Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first hand accounts in her documentary Hunted Like Animals 88 and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims and was submitted to the UN in May 2006 89 The European Union 90 UNHCHR and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation 90 91 92 93 The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres in Nong Khai while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia Canada the Netherlands and the United States 94 Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of President George W Bush s Patriot Act and Real ID Act under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War who fought on the side of the United States are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict 95 Human rights Edit Main article Human rights in Laos Human rights violations remain a significant concern in Laos 96 97 In The Economist s Democracy Index 2016 Laos was classified as an authoritarian regime ranking lowest of the nine ASEAN nations included in the study 98 99 Prominent civil society advocates human rights defenders political and religious dissidents and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces 100 Ostensibly the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains most key safeguards for human rights For example Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups The constitution also contains provisions for gender equality freedom of religion freedom of speech and freedom of press and assembly 101 On 25 September 2009 Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights nine years after signing the treaty The stated policy objectives of both the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction 102 103 However the government of Laos frequently breaches its own constitution and the rule of law since the judiciary and judges are appointed by the ruling communist party According to independent non profit non governmental organisations NGOs such as Amnesty International 104 Human Rights Watch 105 and Civil Rights Defenders 106 along with the US State Department 107 serious human rights violations such as arbitrary detentions disappearances free speech restrictions prison abuses and other violations are an ongoing problem Amnesty International raised concerns about the ratification record of the Lao government on human rights standards and its lack of co operation with the UN human rights mechanisms and legislative measures both impact negatively upon human rights 97 The organisation also raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression poor prison conditions restrictions on freedom of religions protection of refugees and asylum seekers and the death penalty 104 In October 1999 30 young people were arrested for attempting to display posters calling for peaceful economic political and social change in Laos Five of them were arrested and subsequently sentenced to up to 10 years imprisonment on charges of treason They were to have been released by October 2009 but their whereabouts remain unknown 104 Later reports have contradicted this claiming they were sentenced to 20 years in prison 108 In late February 2017 two of those imprisoned were finally released after 17 years 109 Laos and Vietnamese SRV troops were reported to have raped and killed four Christian Hmong women in Xiangkhouang Province in 2011 according to the US based non governmental public policy research organisation The Centre for Public Policy Analysis which also said other Christian and independent Buddhist and animist believers were being persecuted 110 111 Human rights advocates including Vang Pobzeb Kerry and Kay Danes and others have also raised concerns about human rights violations torture the arrest and detention of political prisoners as well as the detention of foreign prisoners in Laos including at the infamous Phonthong Prison in Vientiane citation needed According to estimates around 300 000 people fled to Thailand as a consequence of governmental repressions Amongst them 100 000 Hmongs 30 of the entire Hmong population and 90 of all of Lao intellectuals specialists and officials Moreover 130 000 deaths can be attributed to the civil war 112 Laos is an origin country for sexually trafficked persons 113 A number of citizens primarily women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos 114 115 116 Economy EditMain article Economy of Laos A proportional representation of Laos exports 2019 GDP per capita development in Laos The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours Thailand Vietnam and especially in the north China Pakxe has also experienced growth based on cross border trade with Thailand and Vietnam In 2009 despite the fact that the government is still officially communist the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export Import Bank 117 118 In 2016 China was the biggest foreign investor in Laos s economy having invested in US 5 395 billion since 1989 according to Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment s 1989 2014 report Thailand invested US 4 489 billion and Vietnam invested US 3 108 billion are the second and third largest investors respectively 119 The economy receives development aid from the International Monetary Fund Asian Development Bank and other international sources and also foreign direct investment for development of the society industry hydropower and mining most notably of copper and gold Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80 of employment Only 4 of the country is arable land and a mere 0 3 used as permanent crop land 120 the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion 121 The irrigated areas under cultivation account for only 28 of the total area under cultivation which in turn represents only 12 of all of the agricultural land in 2012 122 Rice dominates agriculture with about 80 of the arable land area used for growing rice 123 Approximately 77 of Lao farm households are self sufficient in rice 124 Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion The Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos 125 Laos is rich in mineral resources and imports petroleum and gas Metallurgy is an important industry and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits of coal gold bauxite tin copper and other valuable metals The mining industry of Laos has received prominent attention with foreign direct investments This sector has made significant contributions to the economic condition of Laos More than 540 mineral deposits of gold copper zinc lead and other minerals have been identified explored and mined 126 In addition the country s plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy 127 Of the potential capacity of approximately 18 000 megawatts around 8 000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam 128 As of 2021 despite cheap hydro power available in the country Laos continues to also rely on fossil fuels coal in particular in the domestic electricity production 129 In 2018 the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index HDI indicating medium development 130 According to the Global Hunger Index 2018 Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation s 131 In 2019 the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country s top down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation is all too often counterproductive leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised 132 The country s most widely recognised product may well be Beerlao which in 2017 was exported to more than 20 countries worldwide It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company 133 Tourism Edit Main article Tourism in Laos Near the sanctuary on the main upper level of Vat Phou looking back towards the Mekong River The tourism sector has grown rapidly from 80 000 international visitors in 1990 to 1 876 million in 2010 134 when tourism had been expected to rise to US 1 5857 billion by 2020 In 2010 one in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16 of total exports or US 270 3 million in 2010 growing in nominal terms to US 484 2 million 12 5 of the total in 2020 135 The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the World Best Tourist Destination designation for 2013 for architecture and history 136 Luang Prabang and Vat Phou are both UNESCO World Heritage sites Major festivals include Lao New Year celebrated around 13 15 April and involves a water festival similar but more subdued than that of Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries The Lao National Tourism Administration related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country s National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity providing a source of income to conserve sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites and emphasizing the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations 137 Infrastructure Edit Main articles Transport in Laos and Telecommunications in Laos Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos The main international airports are Vientiane s Wattay International Airport and Luang Prabang International Airport with Pakse International Airport also having a few international flights The national carrier is Lao Airlines Other carriers serving the country include Bangkok Airways Vietnam Airlines AirAsia Thai Airways and China Eastern Airlines The mountainous geography of Laos had impeded Laos s ground transportation development throughout the 20th century Its first railway line a short 3 km long metre gauge railway that connects southern Vientiane to Thailand only opened in 2009 A major breakthrough occurred in December 2021 when the 414 km long standard gauge Boten Vientiane railway that runs from the capital Vientiane to Boten at the northern border with China built as part of China s Belt and Road Initiative was opened 138 Two new lines connecting with Vietnam namely the Vientiane Vũng Ang and Savannakhet Lao Bao railways are also under planning in line to meet the Laotian government s vision of becoming a land linked nation The major roads connecting to urban centres in particular Route 13 have been significantly upgraded in recent years Laos s first expressway the Vientiane Boten Expressway parallels both Route 13 and the Boten Vientiane railway the first section from Vientiane to Vang Vieng was opened in 2020 with other sections under construction However villages far from major roads can be reached only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year round There is limited external and internal telecommunication but mobile phones have become widespread Ninety three percent of households have a telephone either fixed line or mobile 139 8 Electricity is available to 93 of the population 139 8 Songthaews are used in the country for long distance and local public transport Water supply Edit Main article Water supply and sanitation in Laos According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014 Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal MDG targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF WHO Joint Monitoring Programme However as of 2018 there are approximately 1 9 million of Lao s population who could not access an improved water supply and 2 4 million people without access to improved sanitation 140 Laos has made particularly noteworthy progress increasing access to sanitation 141 Laos s predominantly rural 142 population makes investing in sanitation difficult In 1990 only 8 of the rural population had access to improved sanitation 141 Access rose rapidly from 10 percent in 1995 to 38 percent in 2008 Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1 232 900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas 141 Laos s progress is notable in comparison to similar developing countries 141 The authorities in Laos have recently developed an innovative regulatory framework for public private partnership contracts signed with small enterprises in parallel with more conventional regulation of state owned water enterprises 143 Demographics EditMain article Demographics of Laos The term Laotian does not necessarily refer to the Lao language ethnic Lao people language or customs It is a political term that includes the non ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as Laotian because of their political citizenship Laos has the youngest population of any country in Asia with a median age of 21 6 years 144 Laos s population was estimated at 7 45 million in 2020 dispersed unevenly across the country Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries Vientiane prefecture the capital and largest city had about 683 000 residents in 2020 144 Largest cities or towns in Laos geonames orgRank Name Province Pop Vientiane Savannakhet 1 Vientiane Vientiane 820 940 Pakxe Thakhek2 Savannakhet Savannakhet 120 0003 Pakxe Champasak 119 8484 Thakhek Khammouane 85 0005 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang 55 0276 Xam Neua Houaphanh 46 8007 Phonsavan Xianghouang 37 5078 Muang Pakxan Bolikhamsai 27 4049 Vang Vieng Vientiane 25 00010 Muang Xai Oudomxay 25 000 Ethnicity Edit The people of Laos are often categorised by their distribution by elevation lowlands midlands and upper high lands as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings More than half of the nation s population is ethnic Lao the principal lowland inhabitants and the politically and culturally dominant people of Laos 145 The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group 146 who began migrating south from China in the first millennium CE 147 Ten percent belong to other lowland groups which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum lowland people 145 In the central and southern mountains Mon Khmer speaking groups known as Lao Theung or mid slope Laotians predominate Other terms are Khmu Khamu Kammu or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate their Austroasiatic language affiliation However the latter is considered pejorative meaning slave They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos Some Vietnamese Laotian Chinese 148 and Thai minorities remain particularly in the towns but many left after independence in the late 1940s many of whom relocated either to Vietnam Hong Kong or to France Lao Theung constitute about 30 of the population 149 Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong Yao Mien Hmong Mien Dao Shan and several Tibeto Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years Mountain hill tribes of mixed ethno cultural linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos Collectively they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians Lao Soung account for about 10 of the population 46 Languages Edit The official and majority language is Lao a language of the Tai Kadai language family However only slightly more than half of the population speaks Lao natively The remainder particularly in rural areas speak ethnic minority languages The Lao alphabet which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries was derived from the ancient Khmer script and is very similar to Thai script 150 Languages like Khmu Austroasiatic and Hmong Hmong Mien are spoken by minorities particularly in the midland and highland areas A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with high rates of congenital deafness 46 French is used in government and commerce and Laos is a member of the French speaking organisation of La Francophonie The organisation estimates that there are 173 800 French speakers in Laos 2010 est 151 The French language s decline was slower and occurred later than in Vietnam and Cambodia in Laos as the monarchy of Laos had close political relations with France At the eve of the Vietnam War the Secret War was beginning in Laos as political factions between communist Pathet Lao and the government occurred Pathet Lao held areas used Lao as their sole language and following the end of the Vietnam War French began its sharp decline in Laos Additionally many elite and French educated Lao immigrated to nations such as the United States and France to escape government persecution With the end of isolationism in the early 1990s however the French language rebounded thanks to the establishment of French Swiss and Canadian relations and opening of French language centers in central Laos Today French has a healthier status in Laos than the other Francophone nations of Asia and about 35 of all students in Laos receive their education in French with the language being a required course in many schools French is also used in public works in central and southern Laos and Luang Prabang and is a language of diplomacy and of the elite classes higher professions and elders English the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN has become increasingly studied in recent years 152 Religion Edit Main article Religion in Laos Wat Nong Sikhounmuang buddhist pagoda in Luang Prabang Sixty six percent of Laotians were Theravada Buddhist 1 5 percent Christian 0 1 percent Muslim 0 1 percent Jewish and 32 3 percent were other or traditional mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi in 2010 153 154 Buddhism has long been one of the most important social forces in Laos Theravada Buddhism has coexisted peacefully since its introduction to the country with the local polytheism 46 Health Edit Main article Health in Laos Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane Male life expectancy at birth was at 62 6 years and female life expectancy was at 66 7 years in 2017 154 Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007 155 Government expenditure on health is about four percent of GDP 155 about US 18 PPP in 2006 155 Education Edit Main article Education in Laos See also National Library of Laos National University of Laos in Vientiane The adult literacy rate for women in 2017 was 62 9 for adult men 78 1 139 39 40 In 2004 the net primary enrollment rate was 84 155 The National University of Laos is the Lao state s public university As a low income country Laos faces a brain drain problem as many educated people migrate to developed countries It is estimated that about 37 of educated Laotians live outside Laos 156 Laos was ranked 117th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 down from 113rd in 2020 157 158 159 160 161 Culture EditMain article Culture of Laos See also Lao art Lao cuisine Dance and theatre of Laos Laotian society List of festivals in Laos Music of Laos and Lao cuisine An example of Lao cuisine Lao women wearing sinhs Lao dancers during the New Year celebration Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture It is evident throughout the country expressed in language temples and the arts and literature Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism For example Laotian music is dominated by its national musical instrument the khaen a type of bamboo mouth organ that has prehistoric origins The khaen traditionally accompanied the singer in mor lam the dominant style of folk music Sticky rice is a staple food and has cultural and religious significance to the Lao people Sticky rice is generally preferred over jasmine rice and sticky rice cultivation and production is thought to have originated in Laos There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments and among many ethnic groups For example Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety khao kam in small quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive 162 The sinh is a traditional garment worn by Lao women in daily life It is a hand woven silk skirt that can identify the woman who wears it in a variety of ways Cinema Edit Main article Cinema of Laos Since the founding of the Lao PDR in 1975 very few films have been made in Laos 163 The first feature length film made after the monarchy was abolished is Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983 although its release was prevented by a censorship board 164 One of the first commercial feature length films was Sabaidee Luang Prabang made in 2008 165 The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road was predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government it was recognised with a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018 166 Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount s first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language Entitled The Rocket the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival and won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival 167 One production company s film that has succeeded to produce Lao feature films and gain international recognition is Lao New Wave Cinema s At the Horizon directed by Anysay Keola that was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival 168 and Lao Art Media s Chanthaly Lao ຈ ນທະລ directed by Mattie Do which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest 169 170 In September 2017 Laos submitted Dearest Sister Lao ນ ອງຮ ກ Mattie Do s second feature film to the 90th Academy Awards or the Oscars for consideration for Best Foreign Language Film marking the country s first submission for the Oscars 171 As of 2018 Laos has three theatres dedicated to showing films 172 Festivals Edit There are some public holidays festivities and ceremonies in Laos Hmong New Year Nopejao Bun Pha Wet Magha Puja Chinese New Year Boun Khoun Khao Boun Pimai Visakha Puja Pi Mai Songkran Lao New Year Khao Phansaa Haw Khao Padap Din Awk Phansaa Bun Nam Lao National Day 2 December 173 174 Media Edit All newspapers are published by the government including two foreign language papers the English language daily Vientiane Times and the French language weekly Le Renovateur Additionally the Khao San Pathet Lao the country s official news agency publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper Laos has nine daily newspapers 90 magazines 43 radio stations and 32 TV stations operating throughout the country As of 2011 update Nhan Dan The People and the Xinhua News Agency are the only foreign media organisations permitted to open offices in Laos both opened bureaus in Vientiane in 2011 citation needed The Lao government controls all media channels to prevent critique of its actions 175 Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances arbitrary arrests and torture 176 177 Polygamy Edit Polygamy is officially a crime in Laos though the penalty is minor The constitution and Family Code bar the legal recognition of polygamous marriages stipulating that monogamy is the principal form of marriage in the country 178 Polygamy however is still customary among some Hmong people 179 Only 3 5 of women and 2 1 of men between the ages of 15 49 were in a polygamous union as of 2017 139 19 Sport Edit New Laos National Stadium in Vientiane The martial art of muay Lao the national sport 180 is a form of kickboxing similar to Thailand s muay Thai Burmese Lethwei and Cambodian Pradal Serey 181 Association football is the most popular sport in Laos 182 Its national football team is a member of the Asian Football Confederation and of the ASEAN Football Federation It has failed to qualify for the FIFA World Cup or the AFC Asian Cup but has participated in minor competitions like the AFC Solidarity Cup and the AFF Championship The Lao League is the top professional league for association football clubs in the country 183 Since the start of the league Lao Army F C has been the most successful club with 8 titles the highest number of championship wins 184 Laos has no tradition in other team sports In 2017 the country sent a team for the first time to the team events at the Southeast Asian Games The national basketball team competed at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games where it beat Myanmar in the eighth place game 185 See also Edit Laos portal Asia portal Geography portalDrug policy in Laos Laos Memorial Outline of Laos Energy in LaosNotes Edit Including over 100 smaller ethnic groups The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions and mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people 3 Laos is a one party Marxist Leninist communist state The most powerful political position is General Secretary of the Lao People s Revolutionary Party not President The general secretary controls the Politburo and the Secretariat Laos s top decision making bodies making the officeholder as de facto leader of Laos l aʊ s ˈ l ɑː ɒ s ˈ l eɪ ɒ s 10 11 Lao ລາວ Lao laːw References Edit The Languages spoken in Laos Studycountry Retrieved 16 September 2018 Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 PDF Lao Statistics Bureau Retrieved 1 May 2020 Lao People s Democratic Republic s Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2003 PDF constituteproject org Retrieved 29 October 2017 Article 9 The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions and mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people https assets pewresearch org wp content uploads sites 11 2012 12 globalReligion tables pdf bare URL PDF a b Laos The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 24 September 2022 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database April 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund Retrieved 14 October 2022 Gini Index World Bank Retrieved 2 March 2011 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme 8 September 2022 Retrieved 8 September 2022 Laos via The Free Dictionary Oxford Dictionaries UK pronunciations Oxford Dictionaries US pronunciations About Laos Geography Asia Pacific Parliamentary Forum Government of Laos Archived from the original on 16 April 2016 a b Stuart Fox Martin 1998 The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang Rise and Decline White Lotus Press p 49 ISBN 974 8434 33 8 Lao People s Democratic Republic and the WTO World Trade Organization Retrieved 9 August 2014 Janssen Peter China train project runs roughshod over Laos Asia Times Retrieved 19 January 2019 Laos approves Xayaburi mega dam on Mekong BBC News 5 November 2012 Lao PDR Overview World Bank March 2018 Retrieved 26 July 2018 Laos Securities Exchange to start trading Financial Times 10 January 2011 Retrieved 23 January 2011 a b Rodgers Greg How to Say Laos TripSavvy Retrieved 18 March 2020 Ragusa Nina 4 April 2019 10 Things You Need to Know Before Visiting Laos Fodors Retrieved 18 March 2020 Meaning of Laos in English Cambridge Dictionary Retrieved 7 October 2019 Laos definition and synonyms Macmillan Dictionary Retrieved 7 October 2019 Definition of Laos by Merriam Webster Merriam Webster Retrieved 27 March 2020 Kislenko Arne 2009 Culture and customs of Laos ABC CLIO p 20 ISBN 978 0 313 33977 6 Demeter F et al 2012 Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia Laos by 46 ka Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 36 14375 14380 Bibcode 2012PNAS 10914375D doi 10 1073 pnas 1208104109 PMC 3437904 PMID 22908291 White J C Lewis H Bouasisengpaseuth B Marwick B Arrell K 2009 Archaeological Investigations in northern Laos New contributions to Southeast Asian prehistory Antiquity 83 319 Marwick Ben Bouasisengpaseuth Bounheung 2017 History and Practice of Archaeology in Laos In Habu Junko Lape Peter Olsen John eds Handbook of East and Southeast Asian Archaeology Springer Pittayaporn Pittayawat 2014 Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai Archived 27 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine MANUSYA Journal of Humanities Special Issue No 20 47 64 Coedes George 1968 Walter F Vella ed The Indianized States of Southeast Asia trans Susan Brown Cowing University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 0368 1 Fa Ngum Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 23 December 2019 Fa Ngum History com Archived from the original on 8 March 2010 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Sanda Simms ch 3 Through Chaos to a New Order in The Kingdoms of Laos London Taylor amp Francis 2013 ISBN 9781136863370 Sanda Simms ch 6 Seventy Years of Anarchy in The Kingdoms of Laos London Taylor amp Francis 2013 ISBN 9781136863370 see also P C Sinha ed Encyclopaedia of South East and Far East Asia vol 3 Anmol 2006 Askew Marc 2010 2007 Vientiane transformations of a Lao landscape Logan William Stewart 1942 Long Colin 1966 London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 59662 6 OCLC 68416667 Let s hope Laos hangs on to its identity Asianewsnet net Archived from the original on 26 November 2010 Retrieved 23 January 2011 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Imperial Wars 1815 1914 Showalter Dennis London 17 September 2013 ISBN 978 1 78274 125 1 OCLC 1152285624 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Slavery in Nineteenth Century Northern Thailand Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices The Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia Librios Semantic Environment 11 August 2006 Laos Laos under the French Culturalprofiles net Archived from the original on 18 July 2007 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Carine Hahn Le Laos Karthala 1999 pp 69 72 Cummings Joe and Burke 2005 Laos Lonely Planet pp 23 ISBN 978 1 74104 086 9 History of Laos Lonely Planet 9 August 1960 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Ivarsson Soren 2008 Creating Laos The Making of a Lao Space Between Indochina and Siam 1860 1945 NIAS Press p 102 ISBN 978 8 776 94023 2 a b c d Stuart Fox Martin 1997 A History of Laos Cambridge University Press p 51 ISBN 978 0 521 59746 3 Paul Levy Histoire du Laos PUF 1974 a b Savada Andrea Matles editor 1994 Events in 1945 A Country Study Laos Federal Research Division Library of Congress a b c d e f g Laos Encyclopaedia Britannica Overview Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 23 January 2011 a b c d e f g h Laos profile 9 January 2018 Retrieved 26 April 2019 Kiernan Ben Owen Taylor 26 April 2015 Making More Enemies than We Kill Calculating U S Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia and Weighing Their Implications The Asia Pacific Journal Retrieved 18 September 2016 Wright Rebecca 6 September 2016 My friends were afraid of me What 80 million unexploded US bombs did to Laos CNN Retrieved 18 September 2016 Disarmament The United Nations Office at Geneva United Nations November 2011 Retrieved 20 September 2013 Obermeyer Ziad Murray Christopher J L Gakidou Emmanuela 2008 Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia analysis of data from the world health survey programme BMJ 336 7659 1482 1486 doi 10 1136 bmj a137 PMC 2440905 PMID 18566045 See Table 3 Stuart Fox Martin 1980 LAOS The Vietnamese Connection In Suryadinata L Ed Southeast Asian Affairs 1980 Singapore Institute of Southeast Asian Stuides pg 191 Kingsbury Damien 2016 Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia Authority Democracy and Political Change Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 317 49628 1 pg 50 Savada Andrea M 1995 Laos a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress p 271 ISBN 0 8444 0832 8 Prayaga M 2005 Renovation in Vietnam since 1988 a study in political economic and social change PhD thesis Sri Venkateswara University Chapter IV The Metamorphosed Foreign Relations pg 154 Laos 04 09 U S Department of State failed verification The Completed China Laos Railway ASEAN Business News 21 December 2021 a b Nsc Lao Pdr Nsc gov la Archived from the original on 23 January 2012 Grantham H S et al 2020 Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40 of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity Nature Communications 11 1 5978 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 5978G doi 10 1038 s41467 020 19493 3 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 7723057 PMID 33293507 Laos travel guides Indochinatrek com Archived from the original on 10 November 2010 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Mekong Divides Different Worlds In Golden Triangle NPR org Retrieved 1 February 2019 Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia PDF UNODC October 2007 a b Laos Climate Countrystudies us Retrieved 23 January 2011 East Asia Southeast Asia Laos The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Retrieved 23 May 2019 ABOUT XAYSOMBOUN www tourismlaos org Archived from the original on 7 May 2019 Retrieved 23 May 2019 ul Khaliq Riyaz 22 March 2021 Laos parliament elects new president Anadolu Agency Retrieved 23 March 2021 Kishimoto Marimi 15 January 2021 Laos promotes PM Thongloun as leader of communist party Nikkei Asia Retrieved 4 March 2021 Laos Foreign Aid OEC Laos LAO Exports Imports and Trade Partners oec world Retrieved 30 September 2019 Lum Thomas 5 February 2007 Laos Background and U S Relations PDF CRS Report for Congress Laos Trade Agreements export gov www export gov Retrieved 23 May 2019 Q A What is the East Asia Summit all about Reuters 24 October 2009 Retrieved 30 September 2019 Laos Deputy PM Douangchay Phichit dies in plane crash BBC News 17 May 2014 Retrieved 9 June 2019 Williams Martin 17 May 2014 Laos plane crash kills defence minister and senior officials the Guardian Retrieved 27 February 2019 Lao Defense Chief Among Plane Crash Victims Laos News Net 18 May 2014 Archived from the original on 18 May 2014 Retrieved 17 May 2014 a b No way out The Times London 30 July 2006 Laos agrees to voluntary repatriation of refugees in Thailand U P I 5 June 1991 Lao Refugees Return Home Under European Union Repatriation Program Associated Press Worldstream 22 11 1994 Karen J House Panel Hears Concerns About Hmong States News Service 26 April 1994 Hamilton Merritt Jane 1993 Tragic Mountains Indiana University Press pp xix xxi ISBN 0253207568 Hmong Leader s Vanishing In Laos Reverberates in U S Retrieved 6 September 2016 a b Johns Michael 23 October 1995 Acts of Betrayal Persecution of Hmong National Review Reports on results of investigations of allegations concerning the welfare of Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand and Laos Refugee and Migration Affairs Unit United States Embassy Thailand 1992 Retrieved 27 July 2007 Gunderson Steve 18 May 1996 State Department Outlines Resettlement Guidelines for Hmong Refugees Congressional Press Releases Laos refuses to take back Thai based Hmong refugees Deutsche Presse Agentur 20 August 1998 Refugee Admissions Program for East Asia Bureau of Population Refugees and Migration 16 January 2004 archived 17 January 2009 from the original History of the Hmong Resettlement Task Force Hmong Resettlement Task Force 7 March 2012 Archived from the original on October 2008 Hmong refugees pleading to stay BBC News 28 July 2005 Retrieved 4 May 2010 Hunted like animals Archived 5 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine Rebecca Sommer Film Clips Report on the situation in the Xaysomboun Special Zone and 1100 Hmong Lao refugees who escaped to Petchabun Thailand during 2004 2005 Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Rebecca Sommer May 2006 a b Thailand EU Presidency Declaration on the situation of Hmong refugees EU UN 1 February 2007 Hmong refugees facing removal from Thailand The Wire March 2007 Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 Deportation of Hmong Lao refugees stopped in last minute Archived 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Gesellschaft fur bedrohte Volker 30 January 2007 Hmong UNHCR Protests Refugee Deportation Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization 5 February 2007 Thailand halts Hmong repatriation BBC News 30 January 2007 Retrieved 4 May 2010 Xiong T 2008 Bush Signs Law Excluding Hmong From Patriot Act Asianweek Somsanga s Secrets Arbitrary Detention Physical Abuse and Suicide inside a Lao Drug Detention Center Human Rights Watch 11 October 2011 Retrieved 23 May 2019 a b Laos 2017 2018 www amnesty org Retrieved 23 May 2019 Cigaral Ian Nicolas 11 November 2017 In charts How the Philippines fares in Southeast Asia The Philippine Star Philstar Retrieved 12 November 2017 Democracy Index 2016 The Economist Intelligence Unit 2017 Retrieved 12 November 2017 Smith Philip Washington D C 12 December 2014 CPPA Center for Public Policy Analysis Archived 6 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine 2003 Laos Constitution PDF Lao PDR World Bank 14 July 2011 Retrieved 24 July 2011 Constitution of the Lao PDR PDF Retrieved 25 November 2020 a b c Amnesty International May 2010 Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review Eighth session of the UPR Working Group of the Human Rights Council Human Rights Watch Concerns on Laos Submitted in advance of the EU Laos Human Rights Dialogue October 2015 PDF Human Rights Watch 2015 Retrieved 9 July 2017 Human Rights Abuses in Laos Must be Tackled Now Civil Rights Defenders 31 August 2016 Archived from the original on 5 October 2017 Retrieved 9 July 2017 United States Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2016 U S Department of State Free former student leaders arbitrarily detained for 17 years Worldwide Movement for Human Rights October 2016 rsbtws February 2017 Amnesty International Report 2016 17 Laos Laos Vietnam troops kill Hmong Christians The Telegraph 16 April 2011 Archived from the original on 12 February 2013 Retrieved 24 August 2011 AFP 15 April 2011 Laos Vietnam troops kill four Hmong Christians NGO Archived from the original on 19 April 2011 Laos Peoples Democratic Republic Laos Peoples Democratic Republic Communist Crimes Retrieved 29 August 2020 LAO PDR UN ACT UN ACT Archived from the original on 29 July 2020 Retrieved 28 March 2020 Two teenagers rescued from forced prostitution in Laos Thanh Nien News 4 November 2014 Trafficking Racket Smashed Radio Free Asia 14 October 2010 Chinese marriage proposals become prostitution nightmares for some Lao girls Radio Free Asia 13 February 2017 Thomas Fuller 17 September 2009 Communism and Capitalism Are Mixing in Laos The New York Times USA Obama promotes Laos e Cambogia La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno Retrieved 1 June 2019 Lowe Sandra 10 December 2016 Out of obscurity Asia Times Retrieved 14 December 2016 Field Listing Land use Archived 26 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine CIA World Factbook About Greater Mekong Subregion at Asian Development Bank Kyophilavong Phouphet et al Effects of AFTA on poverty Evidence from Laos Journal of Economic Integration 2016 353 376 Rice The Fabric of Life in Laos Lao IRRI Project Barclay Adam and Shrestha Samjhana April June 2006 Genuinely Lao Rice Today A Race Against Time PDF Archived from the original PDF on 14 June 2007 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Kyophilvong Phouphet Mining Sector in Laos PDF Institute of Developing Economies p 69 Archived from the original PDF on 6 January 2013 Retrieved 29 November 2015 Vakulchuk R Chan H Y Kresnawan M R Merdekawati M Overland I Sagbakken H F Suryadi B Utama N A and Yurnaidi Z 2020 Lao PDR How to Attract More Investment in Small Scale Renewable Energy ASEAN Centre for Energy ACE Policy Brief Series No 7 https www researchgate net publication 341793965 Preparing the Cumulative Impact Assessment for the Nam Ngum 3 Hydropower Project Financed by the Japan Special Fund PDF Archived from the original PDF on 15 May 2011 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Overland Indra Sagbakken Haakon Fossum Chan Hoy Yen Merdekawati Monika Suryadi Beni Utama Nuki Agya Vakulchuk Roman December 2021 The ASEAN climate and energy paradox Energy and Climate Change 2 100019 doi 10 1016 j egycc 2020 100019 hdl 11250 2734506 Briefing note for countries on the 2015 Human Development Report Laos PDF HDRO Human Development Report Office United Nations Development Programme Retrieved 26 December 2015 2015 Global Hunger Index Archived 31 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine International Food Policy Research Institute IFPRI Alston Philip 28 March 2019 UN expert Lao PDR s economic strategy entrenches poverty www ohchr org Vientiane Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Archived from the original on 11 June 2019 Retrieved 11 June 2019 The Heart of ASEAN sets pulses racing PDF 14 August 2017 Retrieved 2 August 2020 International visitor data World Travel amp Tourism Council Retrieved 20 January 2011 Laos Key Facts World Travel amp Tourism Council Archived from the original on 11 May 2011 Retrieved 20 January 2011 European Council On Tourism And Trade Delegation Visit To Laos World Best Tourist Destination European Council On Tourism And Trade Ectt webs com Retrieved on 5 July 2015 The Lao People s Democratic Republic s Vision for Ecotourism Archived from the original on 22 November 2010 Retrieved 20 January 2014 China s BRI and its High Speed Railways to Nowhere a b c d Lao Social Indicator Survey II 2017 Survey Findings Report PDF Vientiane Lao Statistics Bureau and UNICEF 2018 Water Supply and Sanitation in Lao PDR PDF www worldbank org Retrieved 10 December 2018 a b c d O Meally Simon 2010 Lao PDR s progress in rural sanitation Archived 17 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine London Overseas Development Institute Department of Statistics Ministry of Planning and Investment 2009 Laponche Bernard et al 2008 Focales n 8 Energy Efficiency Retrofitting of Buildings Challenges and Methods PDF afd fr Retrieved 17 February 2011 a b Laos Central Intelligence Agency The World Factbook 17 February 2019 Retrieved 23 February 2019 a b UN Demographic Yearbooks Diller Anthony Edmondson Jerry Luo Yongxian 2004 The Tai Kadai Languages Routledge 2004 pp 5 6 ISBN 1135791163 Pittayaporn Pittayawat 2014 Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai MANUSYA Journal of Humanities Special Issue No 20 47 64 Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission R o c Archived from the original on 4 January 2011 Retrieved 23 September 2016 Khmu people of Laos OMF International Omf org Archived from the original on 9 November 2007 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Benedict Paul K 1947 Languages and Literatures of Indochina The Far Eastern Quarterly 6 4 379 389 doi 10 2307 2049433 JSTOR 2049433 S2CID 162902327 Laos La Francophonie Retrieved 7 February 2021 Languages of Laos Laval University Archived from the original on 27 October 2012 Retrieved 9 July 2012 Global Religious Landscape Table Religious Composition by Country PDF Pew Research 2010 p 47 Retrieved 16 April 2020 a b Laos CIA The World Factbook Cia gov Retrieved on 28 July 2018 a b c d Human Development Report 2009 Lao People s Democratic Republic HDRstats undp org Archived from the original on 7 July 2010 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Fielding Tony 2015 Asian Migrations Social and Geographical Mobilities in Southeast East and Northeast Asia Routledge p 77 ISBN 978 1 317 95208 4 Global Innovation Index 2021 World Intellectual Property Organization United Nations Retrieved 5 March 2022 Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020 Who Will Finance Innovation www wipo int Retrieved 2 September 2021 Global Innovation Index 2019 www wipo int Retrieved 2 September 2021 RTD Item ec europa eu Retrieved 2 September 2021 Global Innovation Index INSEAD Knowledge 28 October 2013 Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 Retrieved 2 September 2021 Evaluation Synthesis of Rice in Lao PDR PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2 July 2007 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Bounchao Pichit Laos Cinema in David Hanan ed Film in South East Asia Views from the Region Hanoi Vietnam Film Institute 2001 83 91 Southiponh Som Ock Gerow Aaron 1999 Starting an Asian Cinema Laos Past and Present Documentary Box Yamagata International Documentary Film Festival 12 27 Retrieved 1 January 2019 Buncomb Andrew 10 June 2010 Good Good Morning Luang Prabang and hello to Laos s film industry The Independent Retrieved 22 May 2014 Blood Road retrieved 19 April 2020 Q amp A with director Kim Mordaunt The Rocket Melbourne International Film Festival MIFF August 2013 Archived from the original on 5 October 2013 Catt Georgia 22 August 2012 A tale of revenge in Laos challenges censors BBC News Retrieved 22 May 2014 Chanthaly Fantastic Fest 2013 Retrieved 15 May 2014 Marsh James 26 September 2013 Fantastic Fest 2013 Review Chanthaly is A Haunting Portrait of Modern Day Laos ScreenAnarchy Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 7 January 2021 Frater Patrick 19 September 2017 Laos Selects Dearest Sister as First Foreign Language Oscar Submission Variety Retrieved 26 October 2017 Brzeski Patrick 9 May 2018 Cannes Southeast Asia Is Ready for Its Big Screen Close up The Hollywood Reporter Valence Media Retrieved 1 January 2019 Laos un Festivalleri Gezimanya in Turkish 11 November 2016 Retrieved 6 March 2018 Laos Festivals amp Events visit laos com Retrieved 6 March 2018 Laos Crony scheme in control of press and civil society index on censorship 12 May 2014 2012 Human Rights Reports Laos State gov Retrieved 9 August 2014 Off the air in Laos Asia Times Online Archived from the original on 29 March 2014 Retrieved 9 August 2014 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint unfit URL link Social Discrimination in the Lao People s Democratic Republic PDF Retrieved 1 August 2019 Lao PDR Family Code Genderindex org Archived from the original on 9 March 2011 Graceffo Muay Lao the forgotten art of kickboxing GoAbroad Network Archived from the original on 15 April 2018 Thailand Sports and recreation Encyclopaedia Britannica Fuller Thomas 5 October 2009 Laos Stumbles on Path to Sporting Glory The New York Times Retrieved 26 January 2020 Lao League laoleague com Retrieved 26 January 2020 Laos List of Champions RSSSF Retrieved 28 November 2020 FIBA LiveStats FIBA com accessed 24 August 2017 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Laos Laos travel guide from Wikivoyage Laos at Curlie Chief of State and Cabinet Members Archived 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine Country Profile at BBC News Laos at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guides from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Taxa from Wikispecies Data from Wikidata Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Laos amp oldid 1131762965, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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