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Gold Coast (British colony)

April 05, 2023

This article is about the British colony in West Africa. For other places with the name Gold Coast, see Gold Coast.

The Gold Coast was a British Crown colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957 as Ghana.[3] The term Gold Coast is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Governor of the Gold Coast. These were the Gold Coast itself, Ashanti, the Northern Territories Protectorate and the British Togoland trust territory.[4]

Colony of the Gold Coast
1821–1957
Badge
Anthem: God Save the King (1821–1837; 1901–1952)
God Save the Queen (1837–1901; 1952–1957)
The Gold Coast in 1922
StatusBritish colony
CapitalCape Coast (1821–1877)
Accra (1877–1957)
Common languagesEnglish (official)
French, Ga, Akan, Ewe language, Dangme, Dagbani, Dagaare, Gonja, Kasena, Nzema widely spoken
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Traditional African religions
GovernmentColonial
Monarch 
• 1821–1830 (first)
George IV
• 1952–1957 (last)
Elizabeth II
Governor 
• 1821–1822 (first)
John Hope Smith
• 1949–1957 (last)
Charles Arden-Clarke
History 
• Colony established
1821
• Incorporation of the Danish Gold Coast
1850
• Incorporation of the Dutch Gold Coast
6 April 1872
• Combination with local kingdoms
1901
• Admission of British Togoland
27 December 1916
• New constitution establishing the Legislative Assembly[a]
1951
• Incorporation of British Togoland
11 December 1956
• Independence as the Dominion of Ghana
6 March 1957
Area
1924[2]207,199 km2 (80,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1924[2]
2,080,208
CurrencyGold Coast ackey British West African pound
Today part ofGhana

The first European explorers to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471. They encountered a variety of African kingdoms, some of which controlled substantial deposits of gold in the soil.[5] In 1483, the Portuguese came to the continent for increased trade.[6] They built the Castle of Elmina, the first European settlement on the Gold Coast. From here they acquired slaves and gold in trade for European goods, such as metal knives, beads, mirrors, rum, and guns.[7] News of the successful trading spread quickly, and British, Dutch, Danish, Prussian and Swedish traders arrived as well.[8] The European traders built several forts along the coastline.[9] The Gold Coast had long been a name for the region used by Europeans because of the large gold resources found in the area.[10] The slave trade was the principal exchange and major part of the economy for many years. In this period, European nations began to explore and colonize the Americas.[11] Soon the Portuguese and Spanish began to export African slaves to the Caribbean, and North and South America. The Dutch and British also entered the slave trade, at first supplying slaves to markets in the Caribbean and on the Caribbean coast of South America.[12]

The Royal Trading Company was established by the Crown in 1752 to lead its trading in Africa. It was replaced by the African Company of Merchants, which led the British trading efforts into the early 19th century.[13] In 1821, the British government withdrew their charter and seized privately held lands along the coast.[14] In 1821, the government formed the British Gold Coast colony, after having taken over the remaining interests of other European countries.[15] They purchased and incorporated the Danish Gold Coast in 1850 and the Dutch Gold Coast, including Fort Elmina, in 1872.[16] Britain steadily expanded its colony through the invasion and subjection of local kingdoms as well, particularly the Ashanti and Fante confederacies.[17]

The Ashanti people had controlled much of the territory of Ghana before the Europeans arrived and were often in conflict with them.[18] In the 21st century they continue to constitute the largest ethnic community in Ghana. Four wars, the Anglo-Ashanti Wars, were fought between the Ashanti (Asante) and the British, who were sometimes allied with the Fante.[19]

During the First Anglo-Ashanti War (1822–24), the two groups fought because of a disagreement over an Ashanti chief and slavery. The British had abolished the Atlantic slave trade but kept the institution in its colonies until 1834.[20] Tensions increased in 1874 during the Second Ashanti War (1873–74) when the British sacked the Ashanti capital of Kumasi. The Third Ashanti War (1893–94) occurred because the new Ashanti ruler Asantehene wanted to exercise his new title.[21] From 1895 to 1896 the British and Ashanti fought in the Fourth and final Ashanti War, where the Ashanti fought for and lost their independence.[22] In 1900 the Ashanti Uprising took place. The British suppressed the violence and captured the city of Kumasi.[23] At the end of this last Ashanti War, the territory of the Ashanti people became a British protectorate on 1 January 1902.[24]

By 1901, the British had established a colony incorporating all of the Gold Coast, with its kingdoms and tribes considered a single unit. The British exploited and exported a variety of natural resources such as gold, metal ores, diamonds, ivory, pepper, timber, grain and cocoa.[25] The British colonists built railways and a complex transport infrastructure to support the shipment of these commodities. This formed the basis for the transport infrastructure in modern-day Ghana.[26]

By 1945, in the wake of a major colonial role in the Second World War, nationalists in the Gold Coast took a leadership role in demanding more autonomy.[27] In 1951–55 they shared power with Britain. By 1956, British Togoland, the Ashanti protectorate, and the Fante protectorate were merged with the Gold Coast to create one colony, which became known as the Gold Coast.[28] The Ghana Independence Act 1957 constituted the Gold Coast Crown Colony as part of the new dominion of Ghana.[29]

History

British rule

By the late 19th century, the British, through conquest or purchase, occupied most of the forts along the coast. Two major factors laid the foundations of British rule and the eventual establishment of a colony on the Gold Coast: British reaction to the Asante wars and the resulting instability and disruption of trade, and Britain's increasing preoccupation with the suppression and elimination of the slave trade.[30][31]

During most of the 19th century, Asante, the most powerful state of the Akan interior, sought to expand its rule and to promote and protect its trade.[32] The first Asante invasion of the coastal regions took place in 1807; the Asante moved south again in the Ga-Fante War of 1811 and in the Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War of 1814–16.[33] These invasions, though not decisive, disrupted trade in such products as feathers, ivory, rubber and palm oil, and threatened the security of the European forts. Local British, Dutch, and Danish authorities were all forced to come to terms with the Asante.[34] In 1817 the African Company of Merchants signed a treaty of friendship that recognised Asante claims to sovereignty over large areas of the coast and its peoples.[31][35] The assets of the African Company of Merchants consisted primarily of nine trading posts or factories: Fort William, Fort James, Fort Sekondi, Fort Winneba, Fort Apollonia, Fort Tantumquery, Fort Metal Cross, Fort Komenda, and Cape Coast Castle, the last of which was the administrative centre.[36]

The coastal people, primarily some of the Fante and the inhabitants of the new town of Accra, who were chiefly Ga, came to rely on British protection against Asante incursions.[37] But the merchant companies had limited ability to provide such security. The British Crown dissolved the company in 1821, giving authority over British forts on the Gold Coast to Charles MacCarthy, governor of the colony of Sierra Leone.[38] The British forts and Sierra Leone remained under common administration for the first half of the century.[39] MacCarthy's mandate was to impose peace and to end the slave trade. He sought to do this by encouraging the coastal peoples to oppose Kumasi rule and by closing the great roads to the coast. Incidents and sporadic warfare continued, however.[40] In 1824 MacCarthy was killed and most of his force was wiped out in a battle with Asante forces.[41] The British were able to defeat an Asante invasion of the coast in 1826 with a combined force of British and local forces, including the Fante and the people of Accra.[31][42]

When the British government allowed control of the Gold Coast settlements to revert to the British African Company of Merchants in the late 1820s, relations with Asante were still problematic.[15] From the Asante point of view, the British had failed to control the activities of their local coastal allies.[43] Had this been done, Asante might not have found it necessary to attempt to impose peace on the coastal peoples. MacCarthy's encouragement of coastal opposition to Asante and the subsequent 1824 British military attack further indicated to Asante leaders that the Europeans, especially the British, did not respect Asante.[31][35]

In 1830 a London committee of merchants chose Captain George Maclean to become president of a local council of merchants.[44] Although his formal jurisdiction was limited, Maclean's achievements were substantial; for example, he arranged a peace treaty with Asante in 1831.[45] Maclean also supervised the coastal people by holding regular court in Cape Coast, where he sentenced and punished those found guilty of disturbing the peace.[46] Between 1830 and 1843, while Maclean was in charge of affairs on the Gold Coast, no confrontations occurred with Asante. The volume of trade reportedly increased threefold.[47]

 
The Portuguese-built Elmina Castle was purchased by Britain in 1873. Also known as St. George Castle, it is now a World Heritage Site

Maclean's exercise of limited judicial power on the coast was so effective that a parliamentary committee recommended that the British government permanently administer its settlements and negotiate treaties with the coastal chiefs to define Britain's relations with them.[48] The government did so in 1843, the same year crown government was reinstated. Commander Henry Worsley Hill was appointed first governor of the Gold Coast. Under Maclean's administration, several coastal tribes had submitted voluntarily to British protection.[49] Hill proceeded to define the conditions and responsibilities of his jurisdiction over the protected areas. He negotiated a special treaty with a number of Fante and other local chiefs that became known as the Bond of 1844.[50] This document obliged local leaders to submit serious crimes, such as murder and robbery, to British jurisdiction; it laid the legal foundation for subsequent British colonisation of the coastal area.[31]

Additional coastal states as well as other states farther inland eventually signed the bond, and British influence was accepted, strengthened, and expanded.[51] Under the terms of the 1844 arrangement, the British appeared to provide security to the coastal areas; thus, an informal protectorate came into being.[52] As responsibilities for defending local allies and managing the affairs of the coastal protectorate increased, the administration of the Gold Coast was separated from Sierra Leone in 1850.[31][53]

At about the same time, growing acceptance of the advantages offered by the British presence led to the initiation of another important step.[54] In April 1852, local chiefs and elders met at Cape Coast to consult with the governor on means of raising revenue. With the governor's approval, the council of chiefs constituted itself as a legislative assembly.[55] In approving its resolutions, the governor indicated that the assembly of chiefs should become a permanent fixture of the protectorate's constitutional machinery, but the assembly was given no specific constitutional authority to pass laws or to levy taxes without the consent of the people.[31][56][57]

 
Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom.

In 1872 British influence over the Gold Coast increased further when Britain purchased the Dutch Gold Coast.[58] The Asante, who for years had considered the Dutch at Elmina as their allies, thereby lost their last trade outlet to the sea. To prevent this loss and to ensure that revenue received from that post continued, the Asante staged their last invasion of the coast in 1873.[59] After early successes, they finally came up against well-trained British forces who compelled them to retreat beyond the Pra River.[60] Later attempts to negotiate a settlement with the British were rejected by the commander of their forces, Major General Sir Garnet Wolseley. To settle the Asante problem permanently, the British invaded Asante with a sizeable military force.[61] The attack, launched in January 1874 by 2,500 British soldiers and large numbers of African auxiliaries, resulted in the occupation and burning of Kumasi, the Asante capital.[31][62]

The subsequent peace treaty required the Asante to renounce any claim to many southern territories. The Asante also had to keep the road to Kumasi open to trade. From this point on, Asante power steadily declined. The confederation slowly disintegrated as subject territories broke away and as protected regions defected to British rule.[63] Enforcement of the treaty led to recurring difficulties and outbreaks of fighting. In 1896 the British dispatched another expedition that occupied Kumasi and forced Asante to become a protectorate of the British Crown. The British abolished the position of asantehene and exiled the incumbent from the colony.[31][64]

The core of the Asante federation accepted these terms grudgingly. In 1900 the Asante rebelled in the War of the Golden Stool but were defeated the next year.[65] In 1902 the British proclaimed Asante a colony under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast.[66] The annexation was made with misgivings and recriminations on both sides. With Asante subdued and annexed, British colonisation of the region became a reality.[31][67]

Colonialism

Military confrontations between Asante and the Fante contributed to the growth of British influence on the Gold Coast.[68] It was concern about Asante activities on the coast that had compelled the Fante states to sign the Bond of 1844.[68] In theory, the bond allowed the British quite limited judicial powers—the trying of murder and robbery cases only.[68] Also, the British could not acquire further judicial rights without the consent of the kings, chiefs, and people of the protectorate. In practice, however, British efforts to usurp more and more judicial authority were so successful that in the 1850s they considered establishing European courts in place of traditional African ones.[69][70]

As a result of the exercise of ever-expanding judicial powers on the coast and also to ensure that the coastal peoples remained firmly under control, the British, following their defeat of Asante in 1874, proclaimed the former coastal protectorate a crown colony.[71] The Gold Coast Colony, established on 24 July 1874, comprised the coastal areas and extended inland as far as the ill-defined borders of Asante.[70][72]

The coastal peoples did not greet this move with enthusiasm. They were not consulted about this annexation, which arbitrarily set aside the Bond of 1844 and treated its signatories like conquered territories.[73] The British, however, made no claim to any rights to the land, a circumstance that probably explains the absence of popular resistance.[74] Shortly after declaring the coastal area a colony, the British moved the colonial capital from Cape Coast to the former Danish castle at Christiansborg in Accra.[70][75]

 
Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony
 
Map of the Gold Coast Colony, the Ashanti Colony, the Northern Territories and the mandate territory of British Togoland

The British sphere of influence was eventually extended to include Asante. Following the defeat of Asante in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the kingdom.[76] Once the asantehene and his council had been exiled, the British appointed a resident commissioner to Asante, who was given both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the territories.[77] Each Asante state was administered from Kumasi as a separate entity and was ultimately responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. As noted above, Asante became a colony following its final defeat in 1901.[70][78]

In the meantime, the British became interested in the broad areas north of Asante, known generally as the Northern Territories. This interest was prompted primarily by the need to forestall the French and the Germans, who had been making rapid advances in the surrounding areas.[79] British officials had first penetrated the area in the 1880s, and after 1896 protection was extended to northern areas whose trade with the coast had been controlled by Asante.[80] In 1898 and 1899, European colonial powers amicably demarcated the boundaries between the Northern Territories and the surrounding French and German colonies. The Northern Territories were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1902.[70][81]

Like the Asante protectorate, the Northern Territories were placed under the authority of a resident commissioner who was responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. The governor ruled both Asante and the Northern Territories by proclamations until 1946.[70][82]

With the north under British control, the three territories of the Gold Coast—the Colony (the coastal regions), Asante, and the Northern Territories—became, for all practical purposes, a single political unit, or crown colony, known as "the dependency" or simply as the Gold Coast.[4][83] The borders of present-day Ghana were realised in May 1956 when the people of the Volta region, known as British Mandated Togoland, voted in a plebiscite to become part of modern Ghana.[70][84]

Colonial administration

 
Visit of His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales to the Gold Coast Colony in 1925, meeting His Royal Highness Nana Kwasi Akuffo I, Akuapemhene

Beginning in 1850, the coastal regions increasingly came under control of the governor of the British fortresses, who was assisted by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council.[85] The Executive Council was a small advisory body of European officials that recommended laws and voted taxes, subject to the governor's approval.[86] The Legislative Council included the members of the Executive Council and unofficial members initially chosen from British commercial interests. After 1900 three chiefs and three other Africans were added to the Legislative Council, these being chosen from the Europeanized communities of Accra, Cape Coast, and Sekondi.[87] The inclusion of Africans from Asante and the Northern Territories did not take place until much later. Prior to 1925, all members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the governor. Official members always outnumbered unofficial members.[88][89]

The gradual emergence of centralised colonial government brought about unified control over local services, although the actual administration of these services was still delegated to local authorities. Specific duties and responsibilities came to be clearly delineated, and the role of traditional states in local administration was also clarified.[89][90]

The structure of local government had its roots in traditional patterns of government. Village councils of chiefs and elders were almost exclusively responsible for the immediate needs of individual localities, including traditional law and order and the general welfare. The councils, however, ruled by consent rather than by right.[91] Chiefs were chosen by the ruling class of the society; a traditional leader continued to rule not only because he was the choice of what may be termed the nobility, but also because he was accepted by his people. The unseating or destooling of a chief by tribal elders was a fairly common practice if the chief failed to meet the desires or expectations of the community.[89][92][93]

 
British colonial officers in Kumasi, 1937

Traditional chiefs figured prominently in the system of indirect rule adopted by British authorities to administer their colonies in Africa. According to Frederick Lugard, architect of the policy, indirect rule was cost effective because it reduced the number of European officials in the field.[94] By allowing local rulers to exercise direct administrative control over their people, opposition to European rule from the local population would be minimised.[95] The chiefs, however, were to take instructions from their European supervisors. The plan, according to Lugard, had the further advantage of civilising the natives, because it exposed traditional rulers to the benefits of European political organisation and values. This "civilizing" process notwithstanding, indirect rule had the ultimate advantage of guaranteeing the maintenance of law and order.[89]

The application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast became essential, especially after Asante and the Northern Territories were brought under British rule.[96] Before the effective colonisation of these territories, the intention of the British was to use both force and agreements to control chiefs in Asante and the north.[96] Once indirect rule was implemented, the chiefs became responsible to the colonial authorities who supported them. In many respects, therefore, the power of each chief was greatly enhanced.[97] Although Lugard pointed to the civilising influence of indirect rule, critics of the policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system.[94] Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralisation, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for all decisions.[89][98]

 
Postage stamp with a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953

Many chiefs and elders came to regard themselves as a ruling aristocracy. Their councils were generally led by government commissioners, who often rewarded the chiefs with honours, decorations, and knighthoods.[99] Indirect rule tended to preserve traditional forms and sources of power, however, and it failed to provide meaningful opportunities for the growing number of educated young men anxious to find a niche in their country's development.[99] Other groups were dissatisfied because there was not sufficient co-operation between the councils and the central government and because some felt that the local authorities were too dominated by the British district commissioners.[89]

In 1925 provincial councils of chiefs were established in all three territories of the colony, partly to give the chiefs a colony-wide function. This move was followed in 1927 by the promulgation of the Native Administration Ordinance, which replaced an 1883 arrangement that had placed chiefs in the Gold Coast Colony under British supervision.[100] The purpose was to clarify and to regulate the powers and areas of jurisdiction of chiefs and councils. Councils were given specific responsibilities over disputed elections and the unseating of chiefs; the procedure for the election of chiefs was set forth; and judicial powers were defined and delegated.[101] Councils were entrusted with the role of defining customary law in their areas (the government had to approve their decisions), and the provincial councils were empowered to become tribunals to decide matters of customary law when the dispute lay between chiefs in different hierarchies. Until 1939, when the Native Treasuries Ordinance was passed, however, there was no provision for local budgets.[102] In 1935 the Native Authorities Ordinance combined the central colonial government and the local authorities into a single governing system.[103] New native authorities, appointed by the governor, were given wide powers of local government under the supervision of the central government's provincial commissioners, who assured that their policies would be those of the central government.[89]

In the year 1948 native Ghanaians decided to fight for their independence.[104]

The provincial councils and moves to strengthen them were not popular. Even by British standards, the chiefs were not given enough power to be effective instruments of indirect rule. Some Ghanaians believed that the reforms, by increasing the power of the chiefs at the expense of local initiative, permitted the colonial government to avoid movement toward any form of popular participation in the colony's government.[89]

Economic and social development in the British colony

The years of British administration of the Gold Coast during the 20th century were an era of significant progress in social, economic, and educational development. Communications were greatly improved.[105] For example, the Sekondi-Tarkwa railroad, begun in 1898, was extended until it connected most of the important commercial centres of the south, and by 1937, there were 9,700 kilometres of roads. Telecommunication and postal services were initiated as well.[106][107]

New crops were also introduced and gained widespread acceptance. Cacao trees, introduced in 1878, brought the first cash crop to the farmers of the interior; it became the mainstay of the nation's economy in the 1920s when disease wiped out Brazil's trees. The production of cocoa was largely in the hands of Africans.[108] The Cocoa Marketing Board was created in 1947 to assist farmers and to stabilise the production and sale of their crop. By the end of that decade, the Gold Coast was exporting more than half of the world's cocoa supply.[107]

The colony's earnings increased further from the export of timber and gold. Gold, which initially brought Europeans to the Gold Coast, remained in the hands of Africans until the 1890s.[10] Traditional techniques of panning and shaft mining, however, yielded only limited output. The development of modern modes of extracting minerals made gold mining an exclusively foreign-run enterprise.[109] For example, the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation, which was organised in 1897, gained a concession of about 160 square kilometres in which to prospect commercially for gold. Although certain tribal authorities profited greatly from the granting of mining concessions, it was the European mining companies and the colonial government that accumulated much of the wealth.[110] Revenue from export of the colony's natural resources financed internal improvements in infrastructure and social services. The foundation of an educational system more advanced than any other else in West Africa also resulted from mineral export revenue.[107][111]

Many of the economic and civil improvements in the Gold Coast in the early part of the current century have been attributed to Frederick Gordon Guggisberg, governor from 1919 to 1927. Born in Galt (near Toronto), Canada, Guggisberg joined the British army in 1889.[112] During the first decade of the 20th century, he worked as a surveyor in the British colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria, and later, during World War I, he served in France.[107][112]

At the beginning of his governorship of the Gold Coast, Guggisberg presented a 10-year development program to the Legislative Council. He suggested first the improvement of transportation.[113] Then, in order of priority, his prescribed improvements included water supply, drainage, hydroelectric projects, public buildings, town improvements, schools, hospitals, prisons, communication lines, and other services.[114] Guggisberg also set a goal of filling half of the colony's technical positions with Africans as soon as they could be trained. His program has been described as the most ambitious ever proposed in West Africa up to that time.[115] Another of the governor's programs led to the development of an artificial harbour at Takoradi, which then became Ghana's first port. Achimota College, which developed into one of the nation's finest secondary schools, was also a Guggisberg idea.[107][116]

 
Lord Listowel watches fourth-year boys operating lathes at the Trade Training Centre in Tamale, Northern territories. This Centre provided four-year courses for boys leaving middle schools and evening classes for those who go from the middle schools into industry.

When measuring the influence of living standard during the colonial period, the obvious constraint of a long-term perspective is the limited amount of proper data and a consistent measure of human well-being.[117] The anthropometric methods provide a way to overcome the limitations, and reveal the evolution of the long run. Baten drew a long run trend that included the experience of the pre-colonial, colonial and post-independence era.[118] The results indicate that for Ghana, the colonial period of the 20th century was not particularly bad. To be more precise the living standards improved rapidly in the first decade of 20th century when cocoa cultivation took off. In general, the performance of economy and living standard of colonial time shows a better record than the post-independence period.[119] It was through British-style education that a new Ghanaian elite gained the means and the desire to strive for independence. During the colonial years, the country's educational institutions improved markedly.[120] From beginnings in missionary schools, the early part of the 20th century saw significant advances in many fields, and, although the missions continued to participate, the government steadily increased its interest and support.[121] In 1909 the government established a technical school and a teachers' training college at Accra; several other secondary schools were set up by the missions. The government steadily increased its financial backing for the growing number of both state and mission schools. In 1948 the country opened its first centre of higher learning, the University College.[107]

The colony assisted Britain in both World War I and World War II. From 1914 to 1918, the Gold Coast Regiment served with distinction in battles against German forces in Cameroon and in the long East Africa campaign.[122] In World War II, troops from the Gold Coast emerged with even greater prestige after outstanding service in such places as Ethiopia and Burma.[123] In the ensuing years, however, postwar problems of inflation and instability severely hampered readjustment for returning veterans, who were in the forefront of growing discontent and unrest. Their war service and veterans' associations had broadened their horizons, making it difficult for them to return to the humble and circumscribed positions set aside for Africans by the colonial authorities.[107][124](See also Gold Coast in World War II).

Nationalism

As the country developed economically, the focus of government power gradually shifted from the hands of the governor and his officials into those of Ghanaians. The changes resulted from the gradual development of a strong spirit of nationalism and were to result eventually in independence.[125] The development of national consciousness accelerated quickly after World War II, when, in addition to ex-servicemen, a substantial group of urban African workers and traders emerged to lend mass support to the aspirations of a small educated minority.[126] Once the movement had begun, events moved rapidly—not always fast enough to satisfy the nationalist leaders, but still at a pace that surprised not only the colonial government but many of the more conservative African elements as well.[127]

Early manifestations

As early as the latter part of the 19th century, a growing number of educated Africans increasingly found unacceptable an arbitrary political system that placed almost all power in the hands of the governor through his appointment of council members.[128] In the 1890s, some members of the educated coastal elite organised themselves into the Aborigines' Rights Protection Society to protest a land bill that threatened traditional land tenure. This protest helped lay the foundation for political action that would ultimately lead to independence.[129] In 1920 one of the African members of the Legislative Council, Joseph E. Casely-Hayford, convened the National Congress of British West Africa, which sent a delegation to London to urge the Colonial Office to consider the principle of elected representation.[130] The group, which claimed to speak for all British West African colonies, represented the first expression of political solidarity between intellectuals and nationalists of the area.[131] Even though the delegation was not received in London (on the grounds that it represented only the interests of a small group of urbanised Africans), its actions aroused considerable support among the African elite at home.[132]

Notwithstanding their call for elected representation as opposed to a system whereby the governor appointed council members, these nationalists insisted that they were loyal to the British Crown and that they merely sought an extension of British political and social practices to Africans.[133] Notable leaders included Africanus Horton, Jr.; J. M. Sarbah; and S. R. B. Attah-Ahoma. Such men gave the nationalist movement a distinctly elitist flavour that was to last until the late 1940s.[132]

The constitution of 1925, promulgated by Gordon Guggisberg, created provincial councils of paramount chiefs for all but the northern provinces of the colony. These councils in turn elected six chiefs as unofficial members of the Legislative Council.[134] Although the new constitution appeared to recognise African sentiments, Guggisberg was concerned primarily with protecting British interests.[135] For example, he provided Africans with a limited voice in the central government; yet, by limiting nominations to chiefs, he drove a wedge between chiefs and their educated subjects.[136] The intellectuals believed that the chiefs, in return for British support, had allowed the provincial councils to fall completely under control of the government. By the mid-1930s, however, a gradual rapprochement between chiefs and intellectuals had begun.[132]

Agitation for more adequate representation continued. Newspapers owned and managed by Africans played a major part in provoking this discontent—six were being published in the 1930s. As a result of the call for broader representation, two more unofficial African members were added to the Executive Council in 1943.[137] Changes in the Legislative Council, however, had to await a different political climate in London, which came about only with the postwar election of a British Labour Party government.[132]

The new Gold Coast constitution of 1946 (also known as the Burns constitution after Sir Alan Burns, the governor of the time) was a bold document. For the first time, the concept of an official majority was abandoned.[138] The Legislative Council was now composed of six ex officio members, six nominated members, and eighteen elected members. The 1946 constitution also admitted representatives from Asante into the council for the first time. Even with a Labour Party government in power, however, the British continued to view the colonies as a source of raw materials that were needed to strengthen their crippled economy. Change that would place real power in African hands was not a priority among British leaders until after rioting and looting in Accra and other towns and cities in early 1948 over issues of pensions for ex-servicemen, the dominant role of foreigners in the economy, the shortage of housing, and other economic and political grievances.[132]

With elected members in a decisive majority, Ghana had reached a level of political maturity unequaled anywhere in colonial Africa. The constitution did not, however, grant full self-government.[139] Executive power remained in the hands of the governor, to whom the Legislative Council was responsible. Hence, the constitution, although greeted with enthusiasm as a significant milestone, soon encountered trouble.[140] World War II had just ended, and many Gold Coast veterans who had served in British overseas expeditions returned to a country beset with shortages, inflation, unemployment, and black-market practices. There veterans, along with discontented urban elements, formed a nucleus of malcontents ripe for disruptive action.[141] They were now joined by farmers, who resented drastic governmental measures required to cut out diseased cacao trees to control an epidemic, and by many others who were unhappy that the end of the war had not been followed by economic improvements.[142]

Politics of the independence movements

Although political organisations had existed in the British colony, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was the first nationalist movement with the aim of self-government "in the shortest possible time".[143] Founded in August 1947 by educated Africans who included J. B. Danquah, G. A. Grant (known as Paa Grant), R. A. Awoonor-Williams, Eric Ato Nkrumah (all lawyers except for Grant, who was a wealthy businessman), and others, the leadership of the organisation called for the replacement of chiefs on the Legislative Council with educated persons.[144] For these political leaders, traditional governance, exercised largely via indirect rule, was identified with colonial interests and the past. They believed that it was their responsibility to lead their country into a new age. They also demanded that, given their education, the colonial administration should respect them and accord them positions of responsibility.[145] As one writer on the period reported, "The symbols of progress, science, freedom, youth, all became cues which the new leadership evoked and reinforced."[146] In particular, the UGCC leadership criticised the government for its failure to solve the problems of unemployment, inflation, and the disturbances that had come to characterise the society at the end of the war.[147][148]

 
Charles Arden-Clarke, Governor of the Gold Coast, greets Chiefs of the Northern Territories, 1953

Their opposition to the colonial administration notwithstanding, UGCC members were conservative in the sense that their leadership did not seek drastic or revolutionary change.[149][150] This was probably a result of their training in the British way of doing things. The manner in which politics were then conducted was to change after Kwame Nkrumah created his Convention People's Party (CPP) in June 1949.[148][151]

Nkrumah was born at Nkroful in the Nzema area and educated in Catholic schools at Half Assini and at Achimota School. He received further training in the United States at Lincoln University and at the University of Pennsylvania.[152] Later, in London, Nkrumah became active in the West African Students' Union and the Pan-African Congress.[153] He was one of the few Africans who participated in the Fifth Pan-African Congress held at Manchester in 1945. During his time in Britain, Nkrumah came to know such outspoken anti-colonialists and intellectuals as the West Indian George Padmore, and the African-American W. E. B. Du Bois[154] In 1947 when the UGCC was created in the Gold Coast to oppose colonial rule, Nkrumah was invited from London to become the movement's general secretary.[148][155]

Nkrumah's tenure with the UGCC was a stormy one. In March 1948, he was arrested and detained with other leaders of the UGCC for political activism. They were known as the Big Six of Ghana Politics.[156] Later, after the other members of the UGCC were invited to make recommendations to the Coussey Committee, which was advising the governor on the path to independence, Nkrumah broke with the UGCC and founded the CPP.[156] Unlike the UGCC call for self-government "in the shortest possible time", Nkrumah and the CPP asked for "self-government now".[157] The party leadership, made up of Nkrumah, Kojo Botsio, Komla A. Gbedemah, and a group of mostly young political professionals known as the "Verandah Boys", identified itself more with ordinary working people than with the UGCC and its intelligentsia.[148][156]

Nkrumah's style and the promises he made appealed directly to the majority of workers, farmers, and youths who heard him; he seemed to be the national leader on whom they could focus their hopes. He also won the support of, among others, influential market women who, through their domination of small-scale trade, served as effective channels of communication at the local level.[148][158]

The majority of the politicised population, stirred in the postwar years by outspoken newspapers, was separated from both the tribal chiefs and the Anglophile elite nearly as much as from the British by economic, social, and educational factors.[159] This majority consisted primarily of ex-servicemen, literate persons who had some primary schooling, journalists, and elementary school teachers, all of whom had developed a taste for populist conceptions of democracy.[160] A growing number of uneducated but urbanised industrial workers also formed part of the support group. Nkrumah was able to appeal to them on their own terms. By June 1949, when the CPP was formed with the avowed purpose of seeking immediate self-governance, Nkrumah had a mass following.[148][161]

The constitution of 1951 resulted from the report of the Coussey Committee, created because of disturbances in Accra and other cities in 1948.[162] In addition to giving the Executive Council a large majority of African ministers, it created an assembly, half the elected members of which were to come from the towns and rural districts and half from the traditional councils, including, for the first time, the Northern Territories.[163] Although it was an enormous step forward, the new constitution still fell far short of the CPP's call for full self-government. Executive power remained in British hands, and the legislature was tailored to permit control by traditionalist interests.[148][164]

With increasing popular backing, the CPP in early 1950 initiated a campaign of "positive action", intended to instigate widespread strikes and nonviolent resistance. When some violent disorders occurred, Nkrumah, along with his principal lieutenants, was promptly arrested and imprisoned for sedition.[165] But this merely increased his prestige as leader and hero of the cause and gave him the status of martyr.[165] In February 1951, the first elections were held for the Legislative Assembly under the new constitution. Nkrumah, still in jail, won a seat, and the CPP won an impressive victory with a two-thirds majority of the 104 seats.[148][166]

The governor, Sir Charles Arden-Clarke, released Nkrumah and invited him to form a government as "leader of government business", a position similar to that of prime minister. Nkrumah accepted.[167] A major milestone had been passed on the road to independence and self-government. Nonetheless, although the CPP agreed to work within the new constitutional order, the structure of government that existed in 1951 was certainly not what the CPP preferred.[167] The ministries of defence, external affairs, finance, and justice were still controlled by British officials who were not responsible to the legislature. Also, by providing for a sizeable representation of traditional tribal chiefs in the Legislative Assembly, the constitution accentuated the cleavage between the modern political leaders and the traditional authorities of the councils of chiefs.[148][168]

The start of Nkrumah's first term as "leader of government business" was marked by cordiality and co-operation with the British governor. During the next few years, the government was gradually transformed into a full parliamentary system. The changes were opposed by the more traditionalist African elements, particularly in Asante and the Northern Territories. This opposition, however, proved ineffective in the face of continuing and growing popular support for a single over-riding concept—independence at an early date.[148][167]

In 1952 the position of prime minister was created and the Executive Council became the cabinet. The prime minister was made responsible to the assembly, which duly elected Nkrumah prime minister. The constitution of 1954 ended the election of assembly members by the tribal councils.[169] The Legislative Assembly increased in size, and all members were chosen by direct election from equal, single-member constituencies. Only defence and foreign policy remained in the hands of the governor; the elected assembly was given control of virtually all internal affairs of the colony.[148][170]

The CPP pursued a policy of political centralisation, which encountered serious opposition. Shortly after the 1954 election, a new party, the Asante-based National Liberation Movement (NLM), was formed.[171] The NLM advocated a federal form of government, with increased powers for the various regions. NLM leaders criticised the CPP for perceived dictatorial tendencies. The new party worked in co-operation with another regionalist group, the Northern People's Party.[172] When these two regional parties walked out of discussions on a new constitution, the CPP feared that London might consider such disunity an indication that the colony was not yet ready for the next phase of self-government.[148][173]

The British constitutional adviser, however, backed the CPP position. The governor dissolved the assembly to test popular support for the CPP demand for immediate independence. The Crown agreed to grant independence if so requested by a two-thirds majority of the new legislature.[174] New elections were held in July 1956. In keenly contested elections, the CPP won 57 per cent of the votes cast, but the fragmentation of the opposition gave the CPP every seat in the south as well as enough seats in Asante, the Northern Territories, and the Trans-Volta Region to hold a two-thirds majority of the 104 seats.[148][175]

Prior to the July 1956 general elections in the Gold Coast, a plebiscite was conducted under United Nations (UN) auspices to decide the future disposition of British Togoland and French Togoland.[176] The British trusteeship, the western portion of the former German colony, had been linked to the Gold Coast since 1919 and was represented in its parliament.[176] A clear majority of British Togoland inhabitants voted in favour of union with their western neighbours, and the area was absorbed into the Gold Coast. There was, however, vocal opposition to the incorporation from some of the Ewe in southern British Togoland.[148][177]

Independence

On 6 March 1957, the Colony of Gold Coast gained independence as the country of Ghana.[29][178]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ A 84-member body, 38 of whom were to be elected by the people, 37 representing territorial councils, six appointed to represent commercial interests and three ex officio members appointed by the Governor. Those representing commercial interests and appointed by the Governor were all white.[1]

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Further reading

  • Bourret, Florence Mabel. Gold Coast: A survey of the Gold Coast and British Togoland, 1919-1946. (Stanford University Press, 1949). online
  • Buah, F. K. A history of Ghana (London: Macmillan, 1998)
  • Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Gold Coast" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 203–207.
  • Claridge, W. W. A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti (1915)
  • Davidson, Basil. Black Star: a view of the life and times of Kwame Nkrumah (1990)
  • Gocking, Roger S. The History of Ghana (2005). online free to borrow
  • Graham, Charles Kwesi. The History of Education in Ghana: From the Earliest Times to the Declaration of Independence (Routledge, 2013)
  • Kimble, David (1963). A Political History of Ghana: The Rise of Gold Coast Nationalism, 1850–1928. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • McLaughlin, James L., and David Owusu-Ansah. "Historical Setting" (and sub-chapters). In (La Verle Berry, ed.). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  • Owusu-Ansah, David. Historical dictionary of Ghana (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
  • Quartey, Seth (2007). Missionary Practices on the Gold Coast, 1832–1895: Discourse, Gaze and Gender in the Basel Mission in Pre-Colonial West Africa. Youngstown, New York: Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-62499-043-4.
  • Szereszewski, R. Structural Changes in the Economy of Ghana, 1891-1911 (London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965)
  • Ward, W. E. F. A History of Ghana (Allen & Unwin, 1966) online free to borrow
  • Gyasi, Yaa (2016). Homegoing. New York, NY: Knopf.
  • Great Britain. Colonial Office. Annual report on the Gold Coast (annual 1931–1953) online free

External links

  • books on Gold Coast free copies (many of the books are about places outside Africa)
  • Collection of photographs of life in the Gold Coast (Ghana) taken by George Cansdale

Coordinates: 5°33′00″N 0°13′00″W / 5.5500°N 0.2167°W / 5.5500; -0.2167

April 05, 2023
gold, coast, british, colony, this, article, about, british, colony, west, africa, other, places, with, name, gold, coast, gold, coast, gold, coast, british, crown, colony, gulf, guinea, west, africa, from, 1821, until, independence, 1957, ghana, term, gold, c. This article is about the British colony in West Africa For other places with the name Gold Coast see Gold Coast The Gold Coast was a British Crown colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957 as Ghana 3 The term Gold Coast is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Governor of the Gold Coast These were the Gold Coast itself Ashanti the Northern Territories Protectorate and the British Togoland trust territory 4 Colony of the Gold Coast1821 1957Flag BadgeAnthem God Save the King 1821 1837 1901 1952 God Save the Queen 1837 1901 1952 1957 source source track track track track track track track track track track track track track The Gold Coast in 1922StatusBritish colonyCapitalCape Coast 1821 1877 Accra 1877 1957 Common languagesEnglish official French Ga Akan Ewe language Dangme Dagbani Dagaare Gonja Kasena Nzema widely spokenReligionChristianity Islam Traditional African religionsGovernmentColonialMonarch 1821 1830 first George IV 1952 1957 last Elizabeth IIGovernor 1821 1822 first John Hope Smith 1949 1957 last Charles Arden ClarkeHistory Colony established1821 Incorporation of the Danish Gold Coast1850 Incorporation of the Dutch Gold Coast6 April 1872 Combination with local kingdoms1901 Admission of British Togoland27 December 1916 New constitution establishing the Legislative Assembly a 1951 Incorporation of British Togoland11 December 1956 Independence as the Dominion of Ghana6 March 1957Area1924 2 207 199 km2 80 000 sq mi Population 1924 2 2 080 208CurrencyGold Coast ackey British West African poundPreceded by Succeeded byAshanti EmpireBritish TogolandDutch Gold CoastDanish Gold Coast Dominion of GhanaToday part ofGhanaThe first European explorers to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471 They encountered a variety of African kingdoms some of which controlled substantial deposits of gold in the soil 5 In 1483 the Portuguese came to the continent for increased trade 6 They built the Castle of Elmina the first European settlement on the Gold Coast From here they acquired slaves and gold in trade for European goods such as metal knives beads mirrors rum and guns 7 News of the successful trading spread quickly and British Dutch Danish Prussian and Swedish traders arrived as well 8 The European traders built several forts along the coastline 9 The Gold Coast had long been a name for the region used by Europeans because of the large gold resources found in the area 10 The slave trade was the principal exchange and major part of the economy for many years In this period European nations began to explore and colonize the Americas 11 Soon the Portuguese and Spanish began to export African slaves to the Caribbean and North and South America The Dutch and British also entered the slave trade at first supplying slaves to markets in the Caribbean and on the Caribbean coast of South America 12 The Royal Trading Company was established by the Crown in 1752 to lead its trading in Africa It was replaced by the African Company of Merchants which led the British trading efforts into the early 19th century 13 In 1821 the British government withdrew their charter and seized privately held lands along the coast 14 In 1821 the government formed the British Gold Coast colony after having taken over the remaining interests of other European countries 15 They purchased and incorporated the Danish Gold Coast in 1850 and the Dutch Gold Coast including Fort Elmina in 1872 16 Britain steadily expanded its colony through the invasion and subjection of local kingdoms as well particularly the Ashanti and Fante confederacies 17 The Ashanti people had controlled much of the territory of Ghana before the Europeans arrived and were often in conflict with them 18 In the 21st century they continue to constitute the largest ethnic community in Ghana Four wars the Anglo Ashanti Wars were fought between the Ashanti Asante and the British who were sometimes allied with the Fante 19 During the First Anglo Ashanti War 1822 24 the two groups fought because of a disagreement over an Ashanti chief and slavery The British had abolished the Atlantic slave trade but kept the institution in its colonies until 1834 20 Tensions increased in 1874 during the Second Ashanti War 1873 74 when the British sacked the Ashanti capital of Kumasi The Third Ashanti War 1893 94 occurred because the new Ashanti ruler Asantehene wanted to exercise his new title 21 From 1895 to 1896 the British and Ashanti fought in the Fourth and final Ashanti War where the Ashanti fought for and lost their independence 22 In 1900 the Ashanti Uprising took place The British suppressed the violence and captured the city of Kumasi 23 At the end of this last Ashanti War the territory of the Ashanti people became a British protectorate on 1 January 1902 24 By 1901 the British had established a colony incorporating all of the Gold Coast with its kingdoms and tribes considered a single unit The British exploited and exported a variety of natural resources such as gold metal ores diamonds ivory pepper timber grain and cocoa 25 The British colonists built railways and a complex transport infrastructure to support the shipment of these commodities This formed the basis for the transport infrastructure in modern day Ghana 26 By 1945 in the wake of a major colonial role in the Second World War nationalists in the Gold Coast took a leadership role in demanding more autonomy 27 In 1951 55 they shared power with Britain By 1956 British Togoland the Ashanti protectorate and the Fante protectorate were merged with the Gold Coast to create one colony which became known as the Gold Coast 28 The Ghana Independence Act 1957 constituted the Gold Coast Crown Colony as part of the new dominion of Ghana 29 Contents 1 History 1 1 British rule 1 2 Colonialism 1 2 1 Colonial administration 1 2 2 Economic and social development in the British colony 1 3 Nationalism 1 3 1 Early manifestations 1 3 2 Politics of the independence movements 1 4 Independence 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External linksHistory EditBritish rule Edit By the late 19th century the British through conquest or purchase occupied most of the forts along the coast Two major factors laid the foundations of British rule and the eventual establishment of a colony on the Gold Coast British reaction to the Asante wars and the resulting instability and disruption of trade and Britain s increasing preoccupation with the suppression and elimination of the slave trade 30 31 During most of the 19th century Asante the most powerful state of the Akan interior sought to expand its rule and to promote and protect its trade 32 The first Asante invasion of the coastal regions took place in 1807 the Asante moved south again in the Ga Fante War of 1811 and in the Ashanti Akim Akwapim War of 1814 16 33 These invasions though not decisive disrupted trade in such products as feathers ivory rubber and palm oil and threatened the security of the European forts Local British Dutch and Danish authorities were all forced to come to terms with the Asante 34 In 1817 the African Company of Merchants signed a treaty of friendship that recognised Asante claims to sovereignty over large areas of the coast and its peoples 31 35 The assets of the African Company of Merchants consisted primarily of nine trading posts or factories Fort William Fort James Fort Sekondi Fort Winneba Fort Apollonia Fort Tantumquery Fort Metal Cross Fort Komenda and Cape Coast Castle the last of which was the administrative centre 36 The coastal people primarily some of the Fante and the inhabitants of the new town of Accra who were chiefly Ga came to rely on British protection against Asante incursions 37 But the merchant companies had limited ability to provide such security The British Crown dissolved the company in 1821 giving authority over British forts on the Gold Coast to Charles MacCarthy governor of the colony of Sierra Leone 38 The British forts and Sierra Leone remained under common administration for the first half of the century 39 MacCarthy s mandate was to impose peace and to end the slave trade He sought to do this by encouraging the coastal peoples to oppose Kumasi rule and by closing the great roads to the coast Incidents and sporadic warfare continued however 40 In 1824 MacCarthy was killed and most of his force was wiped out in a battle with Asante forces 41 The British were able to defeat an Asante invasion of the coast in 1826 with a combined force of British and local forces including the Fante and the people of Accra 31 42 The First Anglo Ashanti War When the British government allowed control of the Gold Coast settlements to revert to the British African Company of Merchants in the late 1820s relations with Asante were still problematic 15 From the Asante point of view the British had failed to control the activities of their local coastal allies 43 Had this been done Asante might not have found it necessary to attempt to impose peace on the coastal peoples MacCarthy s encouragement of coastal opposition to Asante and the subsequent 1824 British military attack further indicated to Asante leaders that the Europeans especially the British did not respect Asante 31 35 In 1830 a London committee of merchants chose Captain George Maclean to become president of a local council of merchants 44 Although his formal jurisdiction was limited Maclean s achievements were substantial for example he arranged a peace treaty with Asante in 1831 45 Maclean also supervised the coastal people by holding regular court in Cape Coast where he sentenced and punished those found guilty of disturbing the peace 46 Between 1830 and 1843 while Maclean was in charge of affairs on the Gold Coast no confrontations occurred with Asante The volume of trade reportedly increased threefold 47 The Portuguese built Elmina Castle was purchased by Britain in 1873 Also known as St George Castle it is now a World Heritage Site Maclean s exercise of limited judicial power on the coast was so effective that a parliamentary committee recommended that the British government permanently administer its settlements and negotiate treaties with the coastal chiefs to define Britain s relations with them 48 The government did so in 1843 the same year crown government was reinstated Commander Henry Worsley Hill was appointed first governor of the Gold Coast Under Maclean s administration several coastal tribes had submitted voluntarily to British protection 49 Hill proceeded to define the conditions and responsibilities of his jurisdiction over the protected areas He negotiated a special treaty with a number of Fante and other local chiefs that became known as the Bond of 1844 50 This document obliged local leaders to submit serious crimes such as murder and robbery to British jurisdiction it laid the legal foundation for subsequent British colonisation of the coastal area 31 Additional coastal states as well as other states farther inland eventually signed the bond and British influence was accepted strengthened and expanded 51 Under the terms of the 1844 arrangement the British appeared to provide security to the coastal areas thus an informal protectorate came into being 52 As responsibilities for defending local allies and managing the affairs of the coastal protectorate increased the administration of the Gold Coast was separated from Sierra Leone in 1850 31 53 At about the same time growing acceptance of the advantages offered by the British presence led to the initiation of another important step 54 In April 1852 local chiefs and elders met at Cape Coast to consult with the governor on means of raising revenue With the governor s approval the council of chiefs constituted itself as a legislative assembly 55 In approving its resolutions the governor indicated that the assembly of chiefs should become a permanent fixture of the protectorate s constitutional machinery but the assembly was given no specific constitutional authority to pass laws or to levy taxes without the consent of the people 31 56 57 Following the Fourth Anglo Ashanti War in 1896 the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom In 1872 British influence over the Gold Coast increased further when Britain purchased the Dutch Gold Coast 58 The Asante who for years had considered the Dutch at Elmina as their allies thereby lost their last trade outlet to the sea To prevent this loss and to ensure that revenue received from that post continued the Asante staged their last invasion of the coast in 1873 59 After early successes they finally came up against well trained British forces who compelled them to retreat beyond the Pra River 60 Later attempts to negotiate a settlement with the British were rejected by the commander of their forces Major General Sir Garnet Wolseley To settle the Asante problem permanently the British invaded Asante with a sizeable military force 61 The attack launched in January 1874 by 2 500 British soldiers and large numbers of African auxiliaries resulted in the occupation and burning of Kumasi the Asante capital 31 62 The subsequent peace treaty required the Asante to renounce any claim to many southern territories The Asante also had to keep the road to Kumasi open to trade From this point on Asante power steadily declined The confederation slowly disintegrated as subject territories broke away and as protected regions defected to British rule 63 Enforcement of the treaty led to recurring difficulties and outbreaks of fighting In 1896 the British dispatched another expedition that occupied Kumasi and forced Asante to become a protectorate of the British Crown The British abolished the position of asantehene and exiled the incumbent from the colony 31 64 The core of the Asante federation accepted these terms grudgingly In 1900 the Asante rebelled in the War of the Golden Stool but were defeated the next year 65 In 1902 the British proclaimed Asante a colony under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast 66 The annexation was made with misgivings and recriminations on both sides With Asante subdued and annexed British colonisation of the region became a reality 31 67 Colonialism Edit Military confrontations between Asante and the Fante contributed to the growth of British influence on the Gold Coast 68 It was concern about Asante activities on the coast that had compelled the Fante states to sign the Bond of 1844 68 In theory the bond allowed the British quite limited judicial powers the trying of murder and robbery cases only 68 Also the British could not acquire further judicial rights without the consent of the kings chiefs and people of the protectorate In practice however British efforts to usurp more and more judicial authority were so successful that in the 1850s they considered establishing European courts in place of traditional African ones 69 70 As a result of the exercise of ever expanding judicial powers on the coast and also to ensure that the coastal peoples remained firmly under control the British following their defeat of Asante in 1874 proclaimed the former coastal protectorate a crown colony 71 The Gold Coast Colony established on 24 July 1874 comprised the coastal areas and extended inland as far as the ill defined borders of Asante 70 72 The coastal peoples did not greet this move with enthusiasm They were not consulted about this annexation which arbitrarily set aside the Bond of 1844 and treated its signatories like conquered territories 73 The British however made no claim to any rights to the land a circumstance that probably explains the absence of popular resistance 74 Shortly after declaring the coastal area a colony the British moved the colonial capital from Cape Coast to the former Danish castle at Christiansborg in Accra 70 75 Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony Map of the Gold Coast Colony the Ashanti Colony the Northern Territories and the mandate territory of British Togoland The British sphere of influence was eventually extended to include Asante Following the defeat of Asante in 1896 the British proclaimed a protectorate over the kingdom 76 Once the asantehene and his council had been exiled the British appointed a resident commissioner to Asante who was given both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the territories 77 Each Asante state was administered from Kumasi as a separate entity and was ultimately responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast As noted above Asante became a colony following its final defeat in 1901 70 78 In the meantime the British became interested in the broad areas north of Asante known generally as the Northern Territories This interest was prompted primarily by the need to forestall the French and the Germans who had been making rapid advances in the surrounding areas 79 British officials had first penetrated the area in the 1880s and after 1896 protection was extended to northern areas whose trade with the coast had been controlled by Asante 80 In 1898 and 1899 European colonial powers amicably demarcated the boundaries between the Northern Territories and the surrounding French and German colonies The Northern Territories were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1902 70 81 Like the Asante protectorate the Northern Territories were placed under the authority of a resident commissioner who was responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast The governor ruled both Asante and the Northern Territories by proclamations until 1946 70 82 With the north under British control the three territories of the Gold Coast the Colony the coastal regions Asante and the Northern Territories became for all practical purposes a single political unit or crown colony known as the dependency or simply as the Gold Coast 4 83 The borders of present day Ghana were realised in May 1956 when the people of the Volta region known as British Mandated Togoland voted in a plebiscite to become part of modern Ghana 70 84 Colonial administration Edit Visit of His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales to the Gold Coast Colony in 1925 meeting His Royal Highness Nana Kwasi Akuffo I Akuapemhene Beginning in 1850 the coastal regions increasingly came under control of the governor of the British fortresses who was assisted by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council 85 The Executive Council was a small advisory body of European officials that recommended laws and voted taxes subject to the governor s approval 86 The Legislative Council included the members of the Executive Council and unofficial members initially chosen from British commercial interests After 1900 three chiefs and three other Africans were added to the Legislative Council these being chosen from the Europeanized communities of Accra Cape Coast and Sekondi 87 The inclusion of Africans from Asante and the Northern Territories did not take place until much later Prior to 1925 all members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the governor Official members always outnumbered unofficial members 88 89 The gradual emergence of centralised colonial government brought about unified control over local services although the actual administration of these services was still delegated to local authorities Specific duties and responsibilities came to be clearly delineated and the role of traditional states in local administration was also clarified 89 90 The structure of local government had its roots in traditional patterns of government Village councils of chiefs and elders were almost exclusively responsible for the immediate needs of individual localities including traditional law and order and the general welfare The councils however ruled by consent rather than by right 91 Chiefs were chosen by the ruling class of the society a traditional leader continued to rule not only because he was the choice of what may be termed the nobility but also because he was accepted by his people The unseating or destooling of a chief by tribal elders was a fairly common practice if the chief failed to meet the desires or expectations of the community 89 92 93 British colonial officers in Kumasi 1937 Traditional chiefs figured prominently in the system of indirect rule adopted by British authorities to administer their colonies in Africa According to Frederick Lugard architect of the policy indirect rule was cost effective because it reduced the number of European officials in the field 94 By allowing local rulers to exercise direct administrative control over their people opposition to European rule from the local population would be minimised 95 The chiefs however were to take instructions from their European supervisors The plan according to Lugard had the further advantage of civilising the natives because it exposed traditional rulers to the benefits of European political organisation and values This civilizing process notwithstanding indirect rule had the ultimate advantage of guaranteeing the maintenance of law and order 89 The application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast became essential especially after Asante and the Northern Territories were brought under British rule 96 Before the effective colonisation of these territories the intention of the British was to use both force and agreements to control chiefs in Asante and the north 96 Once indirect rule was implemented the chiefs became responsible to the colonial authorities who supported them In many respects therefore the power of each chief was greatly enhanced 97 Although Lugard pointed to the civilising influence of indirect rule critics of the policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system 94 Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralisation indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra the capital rather than to their people for all decisions 89 98 Postage stamp with a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II 1953 Many chiefs and elders came to regard themselves as a ruling aristocracy Their councils were generally led by government commissioners who often rewarded the chiefs with honours decorations and knighthoods 99 Indirect rule tended to preserve traditional forms and sources of power however and it failed to provide meaningful opportunities for the growing number of educated young men anxious to find a niche in their country s development 99 Other groups were dissatisfied because there was not sufficient co operation between the councils and the central government and because some felt that the local authorities were too dominated by the British district commissioners 89 In 1925 provincial councils of chiefs were established in all three territories of the colony partly to give the chiefs a colony wide function This move was followed in 1927 by the promulgation of the Native Administration Ordinance which replaced an 1883 arrangement that had placed chiefs in the Gold Coast Colony under British supervision 100 The purpose was to clarify and to regulate the powers and areas of jurisdiction of chiefs and councils Councils were given specific responsibilities over disputed elections and the unseating of chiefs the procedure for the election of chiefs was set forth and judicial powers were defined and delegated 101 Councils were entrusted with the role of defining customary law in their areas the government had to approve their decisions and the provincial councils were empowered to become tribunals to decide matters of customary law when the dispute lay between chiefs in different hierarchies Until 1939 when the Native Treasuries Ordinance was passed however there was no provision for local budgets 102 In 1935 the Native Authorities Ordinance combined the central colonial government and the local authorities into a single governing system 103 New native authorities appointed by the governor were given wide powers of local government under the supervision of the central government s provincial commissioners who assured that their policies would be those of the central government 89 In the year 1948 native Ghanaians decided to fight for their independence 104 The provincial councils and moves to strengthen them were not popular Even by British standards the chiefs were not given enough power to be effective instruments of indirect rule Some Ghanaians believed that the reforms by increasing the power of the chiefs at the expense of local initiative permitted the colonial government to avoid movement toward any form of popular participation in the colony s government 89 Economic and social development in the British colony Edit The years of British administration of the Gold Coast during the 20th century were an era of significant progress in social economic and educational development Communications were greatly improved 105 For example the Sekondi Tarkwa railroad begun in 1898 was extended until it connected most of the important commercial centres of the south and by 1937 there were 9 700 kilometres of roads Telecommunication and postal services were initiated as well 106 107 New crops were also introduced and gained widespread acceptance Cacao trees introduced in 1878 brought the first cash crop to the farmers of the interior it became the mainstay of the nation s economy in the 1920s when disease wiped out Brazil s trees The production of cocoa was largely in the hands of Africans 108 The Cocoa Marketing Board was created in 1947 to assist farmers and to stabilise the production and sale of their crop By the end of that decade the Gold Coast was exporting more than half of the world s cocoa supply 107 The colony s earnings increased further from the export of timber and gold Gold which initially brought Europeans to the Gold Coast remained in the hands of Africans until the 1890s 10 Traditional techniques of panning and shaft mining however yielded only limited output The development of modern modes of extracting minerals made gold mining an exclusively foreign run enterprise 109 For example the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation which was organised in 1897 gained a concession of about 160 square kilometres in which to prospect commercially for gold Although certain tribal authorities profited greatly from the granting of mining concessions it was the European mining companies and the colonial government that accumulated much of the wealth 110 Revenue from export of the colony s natural resources financed internal improvements in infrastructure and social services The foundation of an educational system more advanced than any other else in West Africa also resulted from mineral export revenue 107 111 Many of the economic and civil improvements in the Gold Coast in the early part of the current century have been attributed to Frederick Gordon Guggisberg governor from 1919 to 1927 Born in Galt near Toronto Canada Guggisberg joined the British army in 1889 112 During the first decade of the 20th century he worked as a surveyor in the British colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria and later during World War I he served in France 107 112 At the beginning of his governorship of the Gold Coast Guggisberg presented a 10 year development program to the Legislative Council He suggested first the improvement of transportation 113 Then in order of priority his prescribed improvements included water supply drainage hydroelectric projects public buildings town improvements schools hospitals prisons communication lines and other services 114 Guggisberg also set a goal of filling half of the colony s technical positions with Africans as soon as they could be trained His program has been described as the most ambitious ever proposed in West Africa up to that time 115 Another of the governor s programs led to the development of an artificial harbour at Takoradi which then became Ghana s first port Achimota College which developed into one of the nation s finest secondary schools was also a Guggisberg idea 107 116 Lord Listowel watches fourth year boys operating lathes at the Trade Training Centre in Tamale Northern territories This Centre provided four year courses for boys leaving middle schools and evening classes for those who go from the middle schools into industry When measuring the influence of living standard during the colonial period the obvious constraint of a long term perspective is the limited amount of proper data and a consistent measure of human well being 117 The anthropometric methods provide a way to overcome the limitations and reveal the evolution of the long run Baten drew a long run trend that included the experience of the pre colonial colonial and post independence era 118 The results indicate that for Ghana the colonial period of the 20th century was not particularly bad To be more precise the living standards improved rapidly in the first decade of 20th century when cocoa cultivation took off In general the performance of economy and living standard of colonial time shows a better record than the post independence period 119 It was through British style education that a new Ghanaian elite gained the means and the desire to strive for independence During the colonial years the country s educational institutions improved markedly 120 From beginnings in missionary schools the early part of the 20th century saw significant advances in many fields and although the missions continued to participate the government steadily increased its interest and support 121 In 1909 the government established a technical school and a teachers training college at Accra several other secondary schools were set up by the missions The government steadily increased its financial backing for the growing number of both state and mission schools In 1948 the country opened its first centre of higher learning the University College 107 The colony assisted Britain in both World War I and World War II From 1914 to 1918 the Gold Coast Regiment served with distinction in battles against German forces in Cameroon and in the long East Africa campaign 122 In World War II troops from the Gold Coast emerged with even greater prestige after outstanding service in such places as Ethiopia and Burma 123 In the ensuing years however postwar problems of inflation and instability severely hampered readjustment for returning veterans who were in the forefront of growing discontent and unrest Their war service and veterans associations had broadened their horizons making it difficult for them to return to the humble and circumscribed positions set aside for Africans by the colonial authorities 107 124 See also Gold Coast in World War II Nationalism Edit As the country developed economically the focus of government power gradually shifted from the hands of the governor and his officials into those of Ghanaians The changes resulted from the gradual development of a strong spirit of nationalism and were to result eventually in independence 125 The development of national consciousness accelerated quickly after World War II when in addition to ex servicemen a substantial group of urban African workers and traders emerged to lend mass support to the aspirations of a small educated minority 126 Once the movement had begun events moved rapidly not always fast enough to satisfy the nationalist leaders but still at a pace that surprised not only the colonial government but many of the more conservative African elements as well 127 Early manifestations Edit As early as the latter part of the 19th century a growing number of educated Africans increasingly found unacceptable an arbitrary political system that placed almost all power in the hands of the governor through his appointment of council members 128 In the 1890s some members of the educated coastal elite organised themselves into the Aborigines Rights Protection Society to protest a land bill that threatened traditional land tenure This protest helped lay the foundation for political action that would ultimately lead to independence 129 In 1920 one of the African members of the Legislative Council Joseph E Casely Hayford convened the National Congress of British West Africa which sent a delegation to London to urge the Colonial Office to consider the principle of elected representation 130 The group which claimed to speak for all British West African colonies represented the first expression of political solidarity between intellectuals and nationalists of the area 131 Even though the delegation was not received in London on the grounds that it represented only the interests of a small group of urbanised Africans its actions aroused considerable support among the African elite at home 132 Notwithstanding their call for elected representation as opposed to a system whereby the governor appointed council members these nationalists insisted that they were loyal to the British Crown and that they merely sought an extension of British political and social practices to Africans 133 Notable leaders included Africanus Horton Jr J M Sarbah and S R B Attah Ahoma Such men gave the nationalist movement a distinctly elitist flavour that was to last until the late 1940s 132 The constitution of 1925 promulgated by Gordon Guggisberg created provincial councils of paramount chiefs for all but the northern provinces of the colony These councils in turn elected six chiefs as unofficial members of the Legislative Council 134 Although the new constitution appeared to recognise African sentiments Guggisberg was concerned primarily with protecting British interests 135 For example he provided Africans with a limited voice in the central government yet by limiting nominations to chiefs he drove a wedge between chiefs and their educated subjects 136 The intellectuals believed that the chiefs in return for British support had allowed the provincial councils to fall completely under control of the government By the mid 1930s however a gradual rapprochement between chiefs and intellectuals had begun 132 Agitation for more adequate representation continued Newspapers owned and managed by Africans played a major part in provoking this discontent six were being published in the 1930s As a result of the call for broader representation two more unofficial African members were added to the Executive Council in 1943 137 Changes in the Legislative Council however had to await a different political climate in London which came about only with the postwar election of a British Labour Party government 132 The new Gold Coast constitution of 1946 also known as the Burns constitution after Sir Alan Burns the governor of the time was a bold document For the first time the concept of an official majority was abandoned 138 The Legislative Council was now composed of six ex officio members six nominated members and eighteen elected members The 1946 constitution also admitted representatives from Asante into the council for the first time Even with a Labour Party government in power however the British continued to view the colonies as a source of raw materials that were needed to strengthen their crippled economy Change that would place real power in African hands was not a priority among British leaders until after rioting and looting in Accra and other towns and cities in early 1948 over issues of pensions for ex servicemen the dominant role of foreigners in the economy the shortage of housing and other economic and political grievances 132 With elected members in a decisive majority Ghana had reached a level of political maturity unequaled anywhere in colonial Africa The constitution did not however grant full self government 139 Executive power remained in the hands of the governor to whom the Legislative Council was responsible Hence the constitution although greeted with enthusiasm as a significant milestone soon encountered trouble 140 World War II had just ended and many Gold Coast veterans who had served in British overseas expeditions returned to a country beset with shortages inflation unemployment and black market practices There veterans along with discontented urban elements formed a nucleus of malcontents ripe for disruptive action 141 They were now joined by farmers who resented drastic governmental measures required to cut out diseased cacao trees to control an epidemic and by many others who were unhappy that the end of the war had not been followed by economic improvements 142 Politics of the independence movements Edit Although political organisations had existed in the British colony the United Gold Coast Convention UGCC was the first nationalist movement with the aim of self government in the shortest possible time 143 Founded in August 1947 by educated Africans who included J B Danquah G A Grant known as Paa Grant R A Awoonor Williams Eric Ato Nkrumah all lawyers except for Grant who was a wealthy businessman and others the leadership of the organisation called for the replacement of chiefs on the Legislative Council with educated persons 144 For these political leaders traditional governance exercised largely via indirect rule was identified with colonial interests and the past They believed that it was their responsibility to lead their country into a new age They also demanded that given their education the colonial administration should respect them and accord them positions of responsibility 145 As one writer on the period reported The symbols of progress science freedom youth all became cues which the new leadership evoked and reinforced 146 In particular the UGCC leadership criticised the government for its failure to solve the problems of unemployment inflation and the disturbances that had come to characterise the society at the end of the war 147 148 Charles Arden Clarke Governor of the Gold Coast greets Chiefs of the Northern Territories 1953 Their opposition to the colonial administration notwithstanding UGCC members were conservative in the sense that their leadership did not seek drastic or revolutionary change 149 150 This was probably a result of their training in the British way of doing things The manner in which politics were then conducted was to change after Kwame Nkrumah created his Convention People s Party CPP in June 1949 148 151 Nkrumah was born at Nkroful in the Nzema area and educated in Catholic schools at Half Assini and at Achimota School He received further training in the United States at Lincoln University and at the University of Pennsylvania 152 Later in London Nkrumah became active in the West African Students Union and the Pan African Congress 153 He was one of the few Africans who participated in the Fifth Pan African Congress held at Manchester in 1945 During his time in Britain Nkrumah came to know such outspoken anti colonialists and intellectuals as the West Indian George Padmore and the African American W E B Du Bois 154 In 1947 when the UGCC was created in the Gold Coast to oppose colonial rule Nkrumah was invited from London to become the movement s general secretary 148 155 Nkrumah s tenure with the UGCC was a stormy one In March 1948 he was arrested and detained with other leaders of the UGCC for political activism They were known as the Big Six of Ghana Politics 156 Later after the other members of the UGCC were invited to make recommendations to the Coussey Committee which was advising the governor on the path to independence Nkrumah broke with the UGCC and founded the CPP 156 Unlike the UGCC call for self government in the shortest possible time Nkrumah and the CPP asked for self government now 157 The party leadership made up of Nkrumah Kojo Botsio Komla A Gbedemah and a group of mostly young political professionals known as the Verandah Boys identified itself more with ordinary working people than with the UGCC and its intelligentsia 148 156 Nkrumah s style and the promises he made appealed directly to the majority of workers farmers and youths who heard him he seemed to be the national leader on whom they could focus their hopes He also won the support of among others influential market women who through their domination of small scale trade served as effective channels of communication at the local level 148 158 The majority of the politicised population stirred in the postwar years by outspoken newspapers was separated from both the tribal chiefs and the Anglophile elite nearly as much as from the British by economic social and educational factors 159 This majority consisted primarily of ex servicemen literate persons who had some primary schooling journalists and elementary school teachers all of whom had developed a taste for populist conceptions of democracy 160 A growing number of uneducated but urbanised industrial workers also formed part of the support group Nkrumah was able to appeal to them on their own terms By June 1949 when the CPP was formed with the avowed purpose of seeking immediate self governance Nkrumah had a mass following 148 161 The constitution of 1951 resulted from the report of the Coussey Committee created because of disturbances in Accra and other cities in 1948 162 In addition to giving the Executive Council a large majority of African ministers it created an assembly half the elected members of which were to come from the towns and rural districts and half from the traditional councils including for the first time the Northern Territories 163 Although it was an enormous step forward the new constitution still fell far short of the CPP s call for full self government Executive power remained in British hands and the legislature was tailored to permit control by traditionalist interests 148 164 With increasing popular backing the CPP in early 1950 initiated a campaign of positive action intended to instigate widespread strikes and nonviolent resistance When some violent disorders occurred Nkrumah along with his principal lieutenants was promptly arrested and imprisoned for sedition 165 But this merely increased his prestige as leader and hero of the cause and gave him the status of martyr 165 In February 1951 the first elections were held for the Legislative Assembly under the new constitution Nkrumah still in jail won a seat and the CPP won an impressive victory with a two thirds majority of the 104 seats 148 166 The governor Sir Charles Arden Clarke released Nkrumah and invited him to form a government as leader of government business a position similar to that of prime minister Nkrumah accepted 167 A major milestone had been passed on the road to independence and self government Nonetheless although the CPP agreed to work within the new constitutional order the structure of government that existed in 1951 was certainly not what the CPP preferred 167 The ministries of defence external affairs finance and justice were still controlled by British officials who were not responsible to the legislature Also by providing for a sizeable representation of traditional tribal chiefs in the Legislative Assembly the constitution accentuated the cleavage between the modern political leaders and the traditional authorities of the councils of chiefs 148 168 The start of Nkrumah s first term as leader of government business was marked by cordiality and co operation with the British governor During the next few years the government was gradually transformed into a full parliamentary system The changes were opposed by the more traditionalist African elements particularly in Asante and the Northern Territories This opposition however proved ineffective in the face of continuing and growing popular support for a single over riding concept independence at an early date 148 167 In 1952 the position of prime minister was created and the Executive Council became the cabinet The prime minister was made responsible to the assembly which duly elected Nkrumah prime minister The constitution of 1954 ended the election of assembly members by the tribal councils 169 The Legislative Assembly increased in size and all members were chosen by direct election from equal single member constituencies Only defence and foreign policy remained in the hands of the governor the elected assembly was given control of virtually all internal affairs of the colony 148 170 The CPP pursued a policy of political centralisation which encountered serious opposition Shortly after the 1954 election a new party the Asante based National Liberation Movement NLM was formed 171 The NLM advocated a federal form of government with increased powers for the various regions NLM leaders criticised the CPP for perceived dictatorial tendencies The new party worked in co operation with another regionalist group the Northern People s Party 172 When these two regional parties walked out of discussions on a new constitution the CPP feared that London might consider such disunity an indication that the colony was not yet ready for the next phase of self government 148 173 The British constitutional adviser however backed the CPP position The governor dissolved the assembly to test popular support for the CPP demand for immediate independence The Crown agreed to grant independence if so requested by a two thirds majority of the new legislature 174 New elections were held in July 1956 In keenly contested elections the CPP won 57 per cent of the votes cast but the fragmentation of the opposition gave the CPP every seat in the south as well as enough seats in Asante the Northern Territories and the Trans Volta Region to hold a two thirds majority of the 104 seats 148 175 Prior to the July 1956 general elections in the Gold Coast a plebiscite was conducted under United Nations UN auspices to decide the future disposition of British Togoland and French Togoland 176 The British trusteeship the western portion of the former German colony had been linked to the Gold Coast since 1919 and was represented in its parliament 176 A clear majority of British Togoland inhabitants voted in favour of union with their western neighbours and the area was absorbed into the Gold Coast There was however vocal opposition to the incorporation from some of the Ewe in southern British Togoland 148 177 Independence Edit On 6 March 1957 the Colony of Gold Coast gained independence as the country of Ghana 29 178 See also EditAnglo Ashanti wars Gold Coast ackey Gold Coast in World War II Gold Coast Influenza Epidemic List of Governors of the Gold Coast Slave Coast of West AfricaNotes Edit A 84 member body 38 of whom were to be elected by the people 37 representing territorial councils six appointed to represent commercial interests and three ex officio members appointed by the Governor Those representing commercial interests and appointed by the Governor were all white 1 References Edit The Gold Coast Experiment The Times 17 February 1951 p7 Issue 51928 a b The British Empire in 1924 The British Empire Retrieved 7 November 2017 One Man Policy A Curse to West Africa The Gold Coast Nation and National Consciousness Routledge pp 54 59 13 September 2013 doi 10 4324 9781315033044 11 ISBN 978 1 315 03304 4 a b Chipp Thomas Ford 1922 Forest officers handbook of the Gold Coast Ashanti and the Northern Territories London etc Waterlow amp sons limited doi 10 5962 bhl title 45233 Gold Coast African American Studies Center Oxford University Press 7 April 2005 doi 10 1093 acref 9780195301731 013 41463 ISBN 978 0 19 530173 1 57 How It Came About That Children Were First Whipped African Folktales Princeton University Press pp 209 211 2015 doi 10 1353 chapter 1546551 ISBN 978 1 4008 7294 7 Irwin Graham W 1971 Gold and Guns on the Gold Coast Trade and Politics on the Gold Coast 1600 1720 A Study of the African Reaction to European Trade By Kwame Yeboa Daaku Oxford Clarendon Press 1970 Pp xviii 219 maps 2 50 The Journal of African History 12 2 330 331 doi 10 1017 s0021853700010744 ISSN 0021 8537 S2CID 155038059 Sutton Angela 3 July 2015 The Seventeenth century Slave Trade in the Documents of the English Dutch Swedish Danish and Prussian Royal Slave Trading Companies Slavery amp Abolition 36 3 445 459 doi 10 1080 0144039x 2015 1067975 ISSN 0144 039X S2CID 143085310 Corliss Timothy 26 September 2015 New World Trading of Old World Markets European Derivatives Master Traders Hoboken NJ USA John Wiley amp Sons Inc pp 242 262 doi 10 1002 9781119205043 ch12 ISBN 978 1 119 20504 3 a b Chalmers AlbertJ 1900 Uncomplicated AEstivo Autumnal Fever in Europeans in the Gold Coast Colony West Africa The Lancet 156 4027 1262 1264 doi 10 1016 s0140 6736 01 99958 1 ISSN 0140 6736 Klein Herbert S 2010 Major slaving ports of the Gold Coast and the Bights of Benin and Biafra The Atlantic Slave Trade Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp xiii doi 10 1017 cbo9780511779473 003 ISBN 978 0 511 77947 3 Time On The Coast From Capture to Sale The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century Brill Academic Publishers pp 72 100 2007 doi 10 1163 ej 9789004156791 i 373 17 ISBN 978 90 04 15679 1 S2CID 128336362 Introduction Trading Places Trading Places The Netherlandish Merchants in Early Modern Venice Brill Academic Publishers pp 1 20 2009 doi 10 1163 ej 9789004175433 i 246 10 ISBN 978 90 04 17543 3 10 Crown and Charter Crown and Charter University of California Press pp 310 340 31 December 1974 doi 10 1525 9780520338456 011 ISBN 978 0 520 33845 6 a b Horton James Africanus Beale 2011 Self Government of the Gold Coast West African Countries and Peoples British and Native Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 104 123 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511983146 010 ISBN 978 0 511 98314 6 Feinberg H M 1970 An Incident in Elmina Dutch Relations The Gold Coast Ghana 1739 1740 African Historical Studies 3 2 359 372 doi 10 2307 216221 ISSN 0001 9992 JSTOR 216221 Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 Giles Jim 2007 Before settlers arrived California s wildfires were much worse New Scientist 196 2628 9 doi 10 1016 s0262 4079 07 62754 7 ISSN 0262 4079 Who were the Gentry The Medieval Gentry Power Leadership and Choice during the Wars of the Roses Bloomsbury Academic 2010 doi 10 5040 9781472599179 ch 002 ISBN 978 1 4411 9064 2 Busia K A 16 August 2018 British Rule and the Chief The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of Ashanti Routledge pp 139 164 doi 10 4324 9781351030823 7 ISBN 978 1 351 03082 3 S2CID 233065561 Brackenbury Henry Sir 1873 Fanti and Ashanti W Blackwood and Sons doi 10 5479 sil 204747 39088000128199 The Ashanti Expedition The Lancet 146 3768 1246 1247 1895 doi 10 1016 s0140 6736 00 31670 1 ISSN 0140 6736 Armitage Cecil Hamilton Montanaro Arthur Forbes 2011 Shut up in Kumasi The Ashanti Campaign of 1900 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 34 44 doi 10 1017 cbo9781139058032 006 ISBN 978 1 139 05803 2 Thompson Larry 1995 Ashanti soll geheilt werden Der Fall Ashanti Basel Birkhauser Basel pp 12 50 doi 10 1007 978 3 0348 6006 2 1 ISBN 978 3 0348 6007 9 Milburn Josephine 1970 The 1938 Gold Coast Cocoa Crisis British Business and the Colonial Office African Historical Studies 3 1 57 74 doi 10 2307 216480 ISSN 0001 9992 JSTOR 216480 Figure 2 20 Transport infrastructure spending has been below OECD average doi 10 1787 888933318975 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Drew Allison 1 November 2014 The Nation in Formation Communists and Nationalists During the Second World War We are no longer in France Manchester University Press pp 110 144 doi 10 7228 manchester 9780719090240 003 0006 ISBN 978 0 7190 9024 0 McKay Vernon Bourrett F M 1950 The Gold Coast A Survey of the Gold Coast and British Togoland 1919 1946 The American Historical Review 55 2 345 doi 10 2307 1843737 ISSN 0002 8762 JSTOR 1843737 a b Howe Russell Warren 1957 Gold Coast into Ghana The Phylon Quarterly 18 2 155 161 doi 10 2307 273187 ISSN 0885 6826 JSTOR 273187 Lambert David 1 September 2015 Slave trade suppression and the image of West Africa in nineteenth century Britain The suppression of the Atlantic slave trade Manchester University Press pp 146 165 doi 10 7228 manchester 9780719085116 003 0007 ISBN 978 0 7190 8511 6 a b c d e f g h i j McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 Britain and the Gold Coast the Early Years P Hagan George 1980 The Rule of Law in Asante A Traditional Akan State Presence Africaine 113 1 193 doi 10 3917 presa 113 0193 ISSN 0032 7638 Austin Gareth 2012 Asante 1807 1956 The State Output and Resources Labour Land and Capital in Ghana Woodbridge UK Boydell and Brewer Limited pp 34 71 doi 10 1017 upo9781580466363 008 ISBN 978 1 58046 636 3 British traders and the restructuring of the palm products trade Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa Cambridge University Press pp 128 150 11 December 1997 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511582035 008 ISBN 978 0 521 59074 7 a b Ross Doran H 2003 Asante and related peoples Oxford Art Online Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 gao 9781884446054 article t004502 ISBN 978 1 884446 05 4 Nassaney Michael S 27 August 2019 Fort St Joseph Revealed Then and Now Fort St Joseph Revealed University Press of Florida pp 223 246 doi 10 5744 florida 9780813056425 003 0010 ISBN 978 0 8130 5642 5 S2CID 213549340 Sowerby James 1804 The British Miscellany or coloured figures of new rare or little known animal subjects many not before ascertained to be inhabitants of the British Isles and chiefly in the possession of the author London printed by R Taylor amp Co and sold by the author J Sowerby by White Johnson Symonds and by all booksellers amp c in town and country doi 10 5962 bhl title 120056 Islamic Triumphalism in a Christian Colony Temne Agency in the Spread and Sierra Leonization of Islam The Temne of Sierra Leone Cambridge University Press pp 127 165 9 November 2017 doi 10 1017 9781108182010 006 ISBN 978 1 108 18201 0 Starbuck David R 10 April 2018 British Forts in Northern New York State British Forts and Their Communities University Press of Florida doi 10 5744 florida 9780813056753 003 0002 ISBN 978 0 8130 5675 3 Antislavery on a Slave Coast Freedom s Debtors Yale University Press pp 28 64 2017 doi 10 2307 j ctt1vgwbg8 5 ISBN 978 0 300 23152 6 Piette A 20 August 2013 Childhood Wiped Out Larkin His Father and the Bombing of Coventry PDF English 62 238 230 247 doi 10 1093 english eft030 ISSN 0013 8215 Connaughton Richard M 1 January 2000 Organizing British Joint Rapid Reaction Forces Joint Force Quarterly Autumn 2000 Fort Belvoir VA doi 10 21236 ada426696 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Ahmadiyya Expansion to Asante The Ahmadiyya in the Gold Coast Indiana University Press pp 199 217 2017 doi 10 2307 j ctt2005s3h 15 ISBN 978 0 253 02951 5 de Mel Sir Henry Lawson 1877 8 May 1936 Member of the Legislative Council Member of the Municipal Council JP for the island President Plumbago Merchants Union Proprietor H L de Mel amp Co merchants Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u213981 de Mel Sir Henry Lawson 1877 8 May 1936 Member of the Legislative Council Member of the Municipal Council JP for the island President Plumbago Merchants Union Proprietor H L de Mel amp Co merchants Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u213981 Bernstein Rachel 6 July 2015 HIV researcher found guilty of research misconduct sentenced to prison Science doi 10 1126 science caredit a1500171 ISSN 1095 9203 Grenfell Williams Dorothy 1962 Maclean of the Gold Coast African Affairs 61 245 348 350 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals afraf a095044 ISSN 1468 2621 Precis of the Treaties and Engagements between the British Government and the Chiefs of the Arabian Coast of the Persian Gulf doi 10 1163 2405 447x loro com 110031 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Thorburn James Jamieson 1864 14 Sept 1929 Governor and Commander in Chief Gold Coast Colony 1910 12 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u218141 Mackenzie Alexander 2012 Notifications Defining the Inner Line of British Jurisdiction in Frontier Districts History of the Relations of the Government with the Hill Tribes of the North East Frontier of Bengal Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 395 398 doi 10 1017 cbo9781139192149 026 ISBN 978 1 139 19214 9 Other dimensions of well being performance indicators United States doi 10 1787 888932778157 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help British Informal Influence in Ottoman Cyprus Protectorate Cyprus I B Tauris 2015 doi 10 5040 9780755623624 ch 001 ISBN 978 1 78076 114 5 Kaberry Phyllis 1952 Western Africa Part II The Peoples of Sierra Leone Protectorate International Affairs 28 1 117 doi 10 2307 2605063 ISSN 1468 2346 JSTOR 2605063 Bernstein Rachel 9 January 2015 NIH takes another step in recognizing same sex marriage Science doi 10 1126 science caredit a1500011 ISSN 1095 9203 Sharwood Smith Sir Bryan Evers 5 Jan 1899 10 Oct 1983 Governor Northern Nigeria 1954 57 Lieut Governor and President Northern House of Chiefs 1952 54 retd 1957 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u169029 Levy Leonard 2000 Encyclopedia of the American Constitution Macmillan Reference USA ISBN 0 02 864880 3 OCLC 43648650 Barnett Randy E 24 November 2013 Constitutional Legitimacy without Consent Protecting the Rights Retained by the People Restoring the Lost Constitution Princeton University Press doi 10 23943 princeton 9780691159737 003 0003 ISBN 978 0 691 15973 7 Ahmadiyya Arrival in the Gold Coast The Ahmadiyya in the Gold Coast Indiana University Press pp 163 180 2017 doi 10 2307 j ctt2005s3h 13 ISBN 978 0 253 02951 5 YARAK LARRY W 19 July 1990 Asante the Dutch and Elmina An Overview 1701 1872 Asante and the Dutch 1744 1873 Oxford University Press pp 93 132 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780198221562 003 0003 ISBN 978 0 19 822156 2 83 The Fathers who Came after Them International Migration Review 28 1 suppl 267 268 1994 doi 10 1177 019791839402801s84 ISSN 0197 9183 S2CID 220340725 Redgrave Maj Gen Sir Roy Michael Frederick 16 Sept 1925 3 July 2011 Commander British Forces Hong Kong and Major General Brigade of Gurkhas 1978 80 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u32068 Asante and Kumasi A Muslim Minority in a Sea of Paganism Muslim Societies in African History Cambridge University Press pp 124 138 12 January 2004 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511811746 010 ISBN 978 0 521 82627 3 Nketia J H Kwabena 2001 Asante music Oxford Music Online Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 01399 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Stewart Captain Sir Donald William 22 May 1860 1 Oct 1905 Commissioner East African Protectorate from 1904 British resident Kumasi retired Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u191258 Armitage Cecil Hamilton Montanaro Arthur Forbes 2011 The Quest of the Golden Stool The Ashanti Campaign of 1900 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 1 11 doi 10 1017 cbo9781139058032 003 ISBN 978 1 139 05803 2 Sanitary Progress in the Gold Coast Colony The Lancet 159 4111 1710 1902 doi 10 1016 s0140 6736 01 85617 8 ISSN 0140 6736 Ampene Kwasi 14 June 2020 Asante court music in historical perspective Asante Court Music and Verbal Arts in Ghana Routledge pp 34 63 doi 10 4324 9780429340628 2 ISBN 978 0 429 34062 8 S2CID 225687000 a b c The Hausa Force and the Religious Marketplace in the Fante States The Ahmadiyya in the Gold Coast Indiana University Press pp 31 59 2017 doi 10 2307 j ctt2005s3h 8 ISBN 978 0 253 02951 5 Judicial Authority British Overseas Territories Law Hart Publishing 2011 doi 10 5040 9781472565433 ch 006 ISBN 978 1 84946 019 4 a b c d e f g McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 The Colonial Era British Rule of the Gold Coast Glavovic Bruce C 2008 Sustainable coastal communities in the age of coastal storms Reconceptualising coastal planning as new naval architecture Journal of Coastal Conservation 12 3 125 134 doi 10 1007 s11852 008 0037 4 ISSN 1400 0350 S2CID 128678644 Enriquez de Salamanca Alvaro 2020 Evolution of coastal erosion in Palmarin Senegal Journal of Coastal Conservation 24 2 doi 10 1007 s11852 020 00742 y ISSN 1400 0350 S2CID 214784654 California Conquered The Annexation of a Mexican Province 1846 1850 doi 10 1163 2468 1733 shafr sim050080165 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help 2013 Annual Report Nothing Can Justify Torture Under Any Circumstance doi 10 1163 2210 7975 hrd 9935 2014001 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help British Columbia coastal area 1968 doi 10 4095 8830 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Amma Asante New British Cinema from Submarine to 12 Years a Slave 2015 doi 10 5040 9780571343454 0007 ISBN 9780571343454 Wilkie Alexander Mair 24 May 1917 13 Aug 1966 British Resident Commissioner New Hebrides since 1962 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u58616 Asante Kwaku Baprui born 26 March 1924 High Commissioner for Ghana in London 1991 93 Who s Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u5796 Interest Judgments Claim for Interest against Judgment Debtor Who Had Been Enjoined from Satisfying Judgment Harvard Law Review 54 4 700 701 1941 doi 10 2307 1333971 ISSN 0017 811X JSTOR 1333971 Imbalances had been growing before the crisis doi 10 1787 814130478455 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Unexplored Territories What if I Had Been the Hero 2012 doi 10 5040 9781838710224 ch 003 ISBN 9781838710224 Bishop Captain Frederick Edward 23 March 1872 5 Sept 1931 late Bedfordshire Regt late travelling Commissioner Northern Territories Gold Coast Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u206187 Seebohm Caroline 2001 Boca Rococo how Addison Mizner invented Florida s gold coast Clarkson Potter ISBN 0 609 60515 1 OCLC 45393879 Valsecchi Perluigi 2014 Free People Slaves and Pawns in the Western Gold Coast The Demography of Dependency in a Mid Nineteenth Century British Archival Source Ghana Studies 17 1 223 246 doi 10 1353 ghs 2014 0010 ISSN 2333 7168 S2CID 162392978 Sircar Sir Nripendra Nath died 1945 Law Member of Executive Council of Governor General of India 1934 39 late Vice President Viceroy s Executive Council Leader of Indian Legislative Assembly Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u231810 Sircar Sir Nripendra Nath died 1945 Law Member of Executive Council of Governor General of India 1934 39 late Vice President Viceroy s Executive Council Leader of Indian Legislative Assembly Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u231810 Sarbah John Mensah 1864 28 Nov 1910 Barrister Lincoln s Inn 1887 Senior Unofficial Member Legislative Council Gold Coast from 1901 Senior Trustee Mfantsi National Fund 1902 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u190678 Gokhale Hon Gopal Krishna 1866 20 Feb 1915 representative of non official members of Bombay Legislature on Viceroy s Legislative Council Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u186402 a b c d e f g h McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 Colonial Administration Chapter I Internal Organization of Local Authorities Financial Administration in Local Government Toronto University of Toronto Press pp 13 26 31 December 1960 doi 10 3138 9781487579906 003 ISBN 978 1 4875 7990 6 Deacon Russell 2000 Pushing at a closed door The 1998 welsh local government review and its implications for electing welsh councils Local Government Studies 26 3 1 10 doi 10 1080 03003930008433996 ISSN 0300 3930 S2CID 153482452 Duncan Joyce 2015 Service learning in the community the cultural implications of positive change ISBN 978 1 60650 794 0 OCLC 911067682 A Jury May Have Sentenced a Man to Death Because He Is Gay It s Time for a Federal Court to Hear His Bias Claim 2018 doi 10 1163 2210 7975 hrd 9970 20180016 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b Myers J C 2012 Chiefs in the New South Africa Indirect Rule in South Africa Woodbridge UK Boydell and Brewer Limited pp 70 95 doi 10 1017 upo9781580467421 006 ISBN 978 1 58046 742 1 From Indirect to Direct Rule The Invention of a European Development Aid Bureaucracy Palgrave Macmillan 2014 doi 10 1057 9781137318275 0013 ISBN 978 1 137 31827 5 a b Thompson Lanny 31 July 2010 Legal Foundations of Colonial Rule Imperial Archipelago University of Hawai i Press pp 183 226 doi 10 21313 hawaii 9780824834012 003 0006 ISBN 978 0 8248 3401 2 Graham James D 1 May 2018 Indirect Rule The Establishment of Chiefs and Tribes in Cameron s Tanganyika The Colonial Epoch in Africa Routledge pp 23 32 doi 10 4324 9781351058551 3 ISBN 978 1 351 05855 1 Osler Mark William 2011 What Would It Look Like If We Cared About Narcotics Trafficking An Argument to Attack Narcotics Capital Rather than Labor SSRN Electronic Journal doi 10 2139 ssrn 1800370 ISSN 1556 5068 S2CID 155227204 a b Osborn Michelle 14 February 2020 Cheeseman Nic Kanyinga Karuti Lynch Gabrielle eds Chiefs elders and traditional authority The Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics Oxford University Press pp 296 309 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780198815693 013 20 ISBN 978 0 19 881569 3 Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 Baldwin Kate 2016 Cross National Data Set of Chiefs Power The Paradox of Traditional Chiefs in Democratic Africa Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 189 196 doi 10 1017 cbo9781316422335 011 ISBN 978 1 316 42233 5 Ubink Janine M 2008 In The Land of the Chiefs Customary Law Land Conflicts and the Role of the State in Peri Urban Ghana Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press doi 10 5117 9789087280413 hdl 1887 21154 ISBN 978 90 8728 041 3 S2CID 153527682 Central and local authorities Tubercle 17 1 43 44 1935 doi 10 1016 s0041 3879 35 80807 6 ISSN 0041 3879 Bell J Bowyer Arens Moshe 28 July 2017 The Jews Attack March 1948 May 1948 Terror Out of Zion Routledge pp 290 313 doi 10 4324 9781315130767 10 ISBN 978 1 315 13076 7 Grass Tim 3 October 2013 How Fundamentalist were British Brethren during the 1920s Evangelicalism and Fundamentalism in the United Kingdom during the Twentieth Century Oxford University Press pp 115 131 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199664832 003 0007 ISBN 978 0 19 966483 2 Reid Carlton 2015 When Two Tribes Were One Roads Were Not Built for Cars Washington DC Island Press Center for Resource Economics pp 1 7 doi 10 5822 978 1 61091 688 2 1 ISBN 978 1 59726 315 3 a b c d e f g McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 Economic and Social Development Lewis Isaac M 1915 Trees of Texas An illustrated manual of the native and introduced trees of the state Austin University of Texas doi 10 5962 bhl title 120501 hdl 2152 25198 Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 4 Something from Nothing Generating Wealth in the Racialized Mining Economy Colonial Extractions Toronto University of Toronto Press 31 January 2015 doi 10 3138 9781442619951 006 ISBN 978 1 4426 1995 1 Revenue from export taxes doi 10 1787 888933907963 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b KILLINGRAY D 1 October 1998 Beloved Imperialist Sir Gordon Guggisberg governor of the Gold Coast African Affairs 97 389 577 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals afraf a007978 ISSN 0001 9909 Kole Nene Sir Emmanuel Mate 7 Feb 1860 30 Jan 1939 Paramount Chief of Manya Krobo Gold Coast Member of Legislative Council Gold Coast since 1911 Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u212467 Medical schools conflict of interest policies improve additional improvements suggested 2004 doi 10 1037 e648622011 003 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Soon Lee 2015 An Effect that Taping has on MVIC According to Bodyweight Half Squat Set Thesis Korean Society for Neurotherapy doi 10 17817 2015 07 09 249 Figure 9 Private consumption has led growth which has been uncertain doi 10 1787 888933600790 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Long term unemployment rate How s Life 2013 How s Life 5 November 2013 doi 10 1787 how life 2013 graph10 en ISBN 9789264200746 ISSN 2308 9679 Iyer Lakshmi 20 August 2015 The Long Run Consequences of Colonial Institutions A New Economic History of Colonial India Routledge pp 117 139 doi 10 4324 9781315771083 8 ISBN 978 1 315 77108 3 Baten Jorg POPULATION AND LIVING STANDARDS 1914 45 The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe 2 Life years gained from defibrillator implantation markedly nonlinear increase during 3 years of follow up and its implications ACC Current Journal Review 13 7 50 2004 doi 10 1016 j accreview 2004 07 038 ISSN 1062 1458 Lawson Kevin E 2003 Evangelical Christian Education in the Early 20th Century Marginalization and New Beginnings Christian Education Journal Research on Educational Ministry 1 1 7 11 doi 10 1177 073989130300100102 ISSN 0739 8913 S2CID 158253861 The Impact of the East Africa Campaign 1914 1918 On South Africa and Beyond doi 10 1163 2352 3786 dlws1 b9789004188471 011 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Killingray David 1987 Military and Labour Policies in the Gold Coast During the First World War Africa and the First World War London Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 152 170 doi 10 1007 978 1 349 18827 7 8 ISBN 978 1 349 18829 1 Committee On The Assessment Of The Readjustment Needs Of Military Personnel Veterans Board on the Health of Select Populations Institute Of Medicine 12 March 2013 Returning Home from Iraq and Afghanistan doi 10 17226 13499 ISBN 978 0 309 26427 3 PMID 24901192 Figure 2 5 The Japanese wage system has gradually shifted from its traditional seniority pay system doi 10 1787 888933890540 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Morris Marcus 14 February 2019 Between workers and soldiers Veterans of the First World War Routledge pp 48 64 doi 10 4324 9780429056949 4 ISBN 978 0 429 05694 9 S2CID 187898587 McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 The growth of nationalism and the end of colonial rule Colonialism and the Educated Africans Postcolonial Modernism Duke University Press pp 21 37 2014 doi 10 1215 9780822376309 002 ISBN 978 0 8223 5732 2 Mercer David 1987 Patterns of protest native land rights and claims in Australia Political Geography Quarterly 6 2 171 194 doi 10 1016 0260 9827 87 90006 1 ISSN 0260 9827 Korang Kwaku Larbi 27 April 2010 Casely Hayford Joseph Ephraim African American Studies Center Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195301731 013 47795 ISBN 978 0 19 530173 1 Korang Kwaku Larbi 27 April 2010 British West African National Congress African American Studies Center Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195301731 013 47789 ISBN 978 0 19 530173 1 a b c d e McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 Early Manifestations of Nationalism Labour Representation Committee members of the British parliament elected in 1906 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press 24 May 2007 doi 10 1093 ref odnb 96943 ISBN 978 0 19 861412 8 Subscription or UK public library membership required Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 Moral Sentiments and Material Interests The MIT Press 2005 doi 10 7551 mitpress 4771 003 0004 ISBN 978 0 262 27386 2 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a Missing or empty title help Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 Figure 6 8 Immigrant owned firms were more likely to be job creators doi 10 1787 888934066425 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Sokolowski Robert 1970 The Constitution Performed by Inner Time The Formation of Husserl s Concept of Constitution Phaenomenologica vol 18 Dordrecht Springer Netherlands pp 74 115 doi 10 1007 978 94 017 3325 0 4 ISBN 978 90 481 8316 6 Bleek Wolf 1990 Did the Akan resort to abortion in pre colonial Ghana Some Conjectures PDF Africa 60 1 121 131 doi 10 2307 1160430 ISSN 0001 9720 JSTOR 1160430 PMID 12343106 S2CID 24702978 Members Elected by the Executive Council Africa 9 4 543 1936 doi 10 1017 s0001972000008986 ISSN 0001 9720 S2CID 245910374 Medals of Honor Presented to Black Veterans of World War II 1997 African American Studies Center Oxford University Press 30 September 2009 doi 10 1093 acref 9780195301731 013 33755 ISBN 978 0 19 530173 1 Of the Many Who Returned and Yet Were Dead The Philosophy of War and Exile Palgrave Macmillan 2014 doi 10 1057 9781137351227 0010 ISBN 978 1 137 35122 7 Waters R S 1933 Possible Results had Modern Air Reconnaissance Existed in 1914 Royal United Services Institution Journal 78 509 44 59 doi 10 1080 03071843309433806 ISSN 0035 9289 Atta Nana Sir Ofori 11 Oct 1881 24 Aug 1943 Omanhene Paramount Chief of Akyem Abuakwa an Unofficial Member Executive Council of Gold Coast since 1942 Provincial Member of the Legislative Council Gold Coast Colony President of the Provincial Council of Chiefs Eastern Province Gold Coast Colony Member of the Board of Education Gold Coast Colony Director of Akim Limited Member of District Agricultural Committee Akim Abuakwa Who Was Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u222064 Public Responsibility Black Education in New York State Syracuse University Press pp 69 84 1 December 1979 doi 10 2307 j ctv9b2x9d 8 ISBN 978 1 68445 015 2 S2CID 241586403 RENZ MARION CASEY 1995 This writer became a nurse for All the wrong reasons Learn why she stayed Nursing 25 5 47 49 doi 10 1097 00152193 199505000 00018 ISSN 0360 4039 PMID 7746538 S2CID 193110128 Wallis Joe Dollery Brian 1999 New Institutional Economics New Public Management and Government Failure Market Failure Government Failure Leadership and Public Policy London Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 61 92 doi 10 1057 9780230372962 4 ISBN 978 1 349 40797 2 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n McLaughlin amp Owusu Ansah 1994 The Politics of the Independence Movements Heuer Jennifer 3 March 2014 Andress David ed Did Everything Change Rethinking Revolutionary Legacies Oxford Handbooks Online doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199639748 013 036 Johnson Chalmers Ashby 1982 Revolutionary change Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 1144 5 OCLC 251351828 Doing Things the Right Way The Way You Were Taught Doing Things the Right Way University of Calgary Press pp 23 36 1995 doi 10 2307 j ctv8jnzd8 11 ISBN 978 1 55238 328 5 Tews Michael J Frager Kelly Citarella Ashley I Orndorff Robert M 1 August 2018 What is Etiquette Today Interviewing Etiquette for Today s College Student Journal of Advances in Education Research 3 3 doi 10 22606 jaer 2018 33005 ISSN 2519 7002 Robinson Lisa Clayton 7 April 2005 Lincoln University Pennsylvania African American Studies Center Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195301731 013 42169 ISBN 978 0 19 530173 1 Schwarz Bill 4 December 2003 George Padmore West Indian Intellectuals in Britain Manchester University Press pp 132 149 doi 10 7228 manchester 9780719064746 003 0007 ISBN 978 0 7190 6474 6 S2CID 242756948 Nkrumah Lumumba African Intellectuals and Decolonization Ohio University Press pp 27 36 2012 doi 10 1353 chapter 711980 ISBN 978 0 89680 486 9 a b c Secretary of the Ugcc Kwame Nkrumah Vision and Tragedy Sub Saharan Publishers pp 52 72 15 November 2007 doi 10 2307 j ctvk3gm60 9 ISBN 978 9988 647 81 0 Rubenfeld Jed 10 April 2001 Constitutional Self Government on the Model of Speech Freedom and Time Yale University Press pp 45 73 doi 10 12987 yale 9780300080483 003 0003 ISBN 978 0 300 08048 3 Wegmann Andrew N 1 August 2017 He Be God Who Made Dis Man New Directions in the Study of African American Recolonization University Press of Florida doi 10 5744 florida 9780813054247 003 0004 ISBN 978 0 8130 5424 7 From Talking Chiefs to a Native Coperative Elite From Talking Chiefs to a Native Corporate Elite MQUP pp 297 320 21 June 1996 doi 10 2307 j ctt806bn 22 ISBN 978 0 7735 6580 7 The Man Who Had All the Luck Man Who Had All the Luck the 1 June 2007 doi 10 5040 9781580814768 Birth of the CPP Kwame Nkrumah Vision and Tragedy Sub Saharan Publishers pp 74 90 15 November 2007 doi 10 2307 j ctvk3gm60 10 ISBN 978 9988 647 81 0 Leek J H 1948 Preliminary Draft of a World Constitution Common Cause A Monthly Report of the Committee to Frame a World Constitution Books Abroad 22 4 418 doi 10 2307 40087909 ISSN 0006 7431 JSTOR 40087909 More than half of all jobs created since 1995 were non standard jobs 21 May 2015 doi 10 1787 9789264235120 graph7 en a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Johnson Nevil 2004 A Parliamentary Government the Executive Power Reshaping the British Constitution London Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 79 101 doi 10 1057 9780230503366 6 ISBN 978 0 333 94620 6 a b Omer Haim London Sapir Shoshannah 2003 Nonviolent Resistance in Action Nonviolent Resistance Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 75 92 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511550652 006 ISBN 978 0 511 55065 2 Biney Ama 2011 From Activist to Leader of the CPP 1945 1951 The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah New York Palgrave Macmillan US pp 29 45 doi 10 1057 9780230118645 3 ISBN 978 1 349 29513 5 a b c Leader of Government Business Kwame Nkrumah Vision and Tragedy Sub Saharan Publishers pp 92 102 15 November 2007 doi 10 2307 j ctvk3gm60 11 ISBN 978 9988 647 81 0 Kleist N 29 June 2011 Modern chiefs Tradition development and return among traditional authorities in Ghana African Affairs 110 441 629 647 doi 10 1093 afraf adr041 ISSN 0001 9909 James Simon 1995 Relations between Prime Minister and Cabinet From Wilson to Thatcher Prime Minister Cabinet and Core Executive London Macmillan Education UK pp 63 86 doi 10 1007 978 1 349 24141 5 4 ISBN 978 0 333 55528 6 Aziz Shaukat born 6 March 1949 Member for Attock National Assembly Pakistan 2004 07 Prime Minister of Pakistan 2004 07 and Minister of Finance 1999 2007 Who s Who Oxford University Press 1 December 2007 doi 10 1093 ww 9780199540884 013 u244938 Afghan National Liberation Front Afghanistan Political party Liberation Front University of Arizona Libraries 1990 doi 10 2458 azu acku serial jq1769 a8 a76 v6 n7 Wildenmann Rudolf 31 December 1987 Katz Richard S ed 3 The Party Government of the Federal Republic of Germany Form and Experience Party Governments Berlin Boston De Gruyter pp 78 117 doi 10 1515 9783110900255 004 ISBN 978 3 11 090025 5 King Tom 21 January 2015 The Advent of Two New Micro Parties The Palmer United Party and Katter s Australia Party Abbott s Gambit The 2013 Australian Federal Election ANU Press doi 10 22459 ag 01 2015 17 ISBN 978 1 925022 09 4 19 Indonesia s demand for immediate independence Portrait of a Patriot Berlin Boston De Gruyter pp 373 376 31 December 1972 doi 10 1515 9783110870640 020 ISBN 978 3 11 087064 0 Coattails Upside Down How Assembly Elections Shape Presidential Elections Votes from Seats Cambridge University Press 2017 doi 10 1017 9781108261128 012 ISBN 978 1 108 26112 8 a b L Hilton T E 1962 Ghana Population Atlas The Distribution and Density of Population in the Gold Coast and Togoland under United Kingdom Trusteeship Population French Edition 17 2 353 doi 10 2307 1527080 ISSN 0032 4663 JSTOR 1527080 Original Title The Ewe Speaking People of Togoland and the Gold Coast Routledge p 7 3 February 2017 doi 10 4324 9781315295978 4 ISBN 978 1 315 29597 8 S2CID 239521353 Laronce Cecile Auteur 1997 L influence de Nkrumah dans la politique etrangere americaine les Etats Unis decouvrent l Afrique 1945 1966 s n OCLC 490457889 Further reading EditBourret Florence Mabel Gold Coast A survey of the Gold Coast and British Togoland 1919 1946 Stanford University Press 1949 online Buah F K A history of Ghana London Macmillan 1998 Cana Frank Richardson 1911 Gold Coast Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 12 11th ed pp 203 207 Claridge W W A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti 1915 Davidson Basil Black Star a view of the life and times of Kwame Nkrumah 1990 Gocking Roger S The History of Ghana 2005 online free to borrow Graham Charles Kwesi The History of Education in Ghana From the Earliest Times to the Declaration of Independence Routledge 2013 Kimble David 1963 A Political History of Ghana The Rise of Gold Coast Nationalism 1850 1928 Oxford Clarendon Press McLaughlin James L and David Owusu Ansah Historical Setting and sub chapters In A Country Study Ghana La Verle Berry ed Library of Congress Federal Research Division November 1994 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Owusu Ansah David Historical dictionary of Ghana Rowman amp Littlefield 2014 Quartey Seth 2007 Missionary Practices on the Gold Coast 1832 1895 Discourse Gaze and Gender in the Basel Mission in Pre Colonial West Africa Youngstown New York Cambria Press ISBN 978 1 62499 043 4 Szereszewski R Structural Changes in the Economy of Ghana 1891 1911 London Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1965 Ward W E F A History of Ghana Allen amp Unwin 1966 online free to borrow Gyasi Yaa 2016 Homegoing New York NY Knopf Great Britain Colonial Office Annual report on the Gold Coast annual 1931 1953 online freeExternal links Editbooks on Gold Coast free copies many of the books are about places outside Africa Collection of photographs of life in the Gold Coast Ghana taken by George Cansdale Coordinates 5 33 00 N 0 13 00 W 5 5500 N 0 2167 W 5 5500 0 2167 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gold Coast British colony amp oldid 1148235904, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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