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Dutch East Indies

January 09, 2023

Coordinates: 2°00′S 118°00′E / 2.0°S 118.0°E / -2.0; 118.0

The Dutch East Indies,[3] also known as the Netherlands East Indies (Dutch: Nederlands(ch)-Indië; Indonesian: Hindia Belanda), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800.

Dutch East Indies
Nederlandsch-Indië (Dutch)
Hindia-Belanda (Indonesian)
1800–1806
1816–1949
Coat of arms
Anthem: Wien Neêrlands Bloed (1815–1932)

Wilhelmus (from 10 May 1932)
Map of the Dutch East Indies showing its territorial expansion from 1800 to its fullest extent prior to Japanese occupation in 1942
StatusColony of the Batavian Republic (1800–1806)
Colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1816–1949)
CapitalBatavia
Capital-in-exileMelbourne
(1942–1944)
Brisbane
(1944–1945)
Largest citySoerabaja[1][2]
Common languagesDutch
Malay (lingua franca)
Javanese
Chinese
Tamil
Arabic
Indigenous languages
Religion
Islam (Majority)
Christianity
Hinduism
Buddhism
Demonym(s)Dutch East Indian
Constituent entities
Head of the Batavian Republic 
• 1800 (first)
Augustijn Gerhard Besier
• 1806 (last)
Carel de Vos van Steenwijk
Monarch 
• 1816–1840 (first)
William I
• 1948–1949 (last)
Juliana
Governor-General 
• 1800–1801 (first)
Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten
• 1949 (last)
A. H. J. Lovink[c]
LegislatureVolksraad
(1918–1942)
History 
1603–1799
• Formation
1800
1806–1816
1942–1945
1945–1949
27 December 1949
Area
• Total
1,919,440 km2 (741,100 sq mi)
Population
• 1930
60,727,233
CurrencyGulden
Today part ofIndonesia
Malaysia (the port of Malacca was part of the Dutch East Indies from 1818 - 1825).

During the 19th century, the Dutch possessions and hegemony expanded, reaching the greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule,[4] and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th centuries.[5] The colonial social order was based on rigid racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from but linked to their native subjects.[6] The term Indonesia came into use for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, and set the stage for an independence movement.[7]

Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution. The Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea (Western New Guinea), which was ceded to Indonesia 14 years later in 1963 under the provisions of the New York Agreement.[8]

Etymology

The word Indies comes from Latin: Indus (Names for India). The original name Dutch Indies (Dutch: Nederlandsch-Indië) was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies. The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company's documents of the early 1620s.[9]

Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, and colonial Indonesia interchangeably.[10]

History

Company rule

See also: Company rule in the Dutch East Indies and Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
 
Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian Archipelago

Centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit).[11] The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Marco Polo in 1292, and his fellow Italian Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were the Portuguese in 1512. Following disruption of Dutch access to spices,[12] the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC).[12]

The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia.[12] A capital was established in Batavia (now Jakarta), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network.[13] To their original monopolies on nutmeg, peppers, cloves and cinnamon, the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory.[13] Smuggling, the ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java, parts of Sumatra, much of Maluku, and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar, Manado and Kupang) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies.[14]

Dutch conquests

See also: First Dutch Expedition, Second Dutch Expedition, and French and British rule

From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous.[15] Although Java was dominated by the Dutch,[16] many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo.[15] There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish a Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces.[17] Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century.[15] Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia.

 
Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Figure Megalith found year 1931 Location of the Kepaksian Pernong Sakala Brak in Hanibung Batu Brak, independent Dutch control securing British settlements in Sumatra.

In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.[18] In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens, but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year, leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna, independent Dutch control was restored in 1816.[19] Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu, Kepaksian Pernong Sakala Brak in Sumatra, which was founded in the 13th century AD, the British secure the Dutch settement of Singapore, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula (Malaya) and Dutch India. The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia.[20][21]

Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch's governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as the foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka.[22] However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands.[23] Motivations included: the protection of areas already held; the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion; and to establish Dutch claims throughout the archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions.[22] As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence.

The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38)[24] and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance.[25] The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan.[26] After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848, an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912.[25] Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during the remainder of the 19th century.[15] This included the Banten Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883.[27] However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894,[28] and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895.[25] Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened.[22] Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law.[29]

 
Dutch Colonial Princess in the front yard of the Royal Palace of Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak Batu Brak in 1933

Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers.[30] Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908, as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara.[25][29] Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan) and Palembang in Sumatra, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule.[29] The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.

Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances

Main article: Cultivation System

Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in the 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar.[31] Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at around 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue.

The system proved disastrous for the local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops.[32] The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s.[15] According to one estimate, the mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period.[32] Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished.[32] The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during the 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s.[33]

Another source of profit were the so-called coolies, a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation Sytem in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company, which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to the plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century.[34] The precise death rate among coolie laborers is unknown due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25%.[35]

While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often mislead when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts. The Coolie Ordinances ("Koelieordonnanties") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as police and punish coolies under their employ, resulted in widespread abuses. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included, for example, whippings or beatings, after which salt was inserted into the wounds to increase suffering. Other punishments included electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for the coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common.[36]

The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand described abuses committed against coolies, including the torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s.[37][38]

Njai System

Main article: Njai

During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In the late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines. While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with the house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" (Inlands Meubel). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away.[39]

By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied the Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia.

World War II and independence

Main articles: Dutch East Indies campaign, Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian National Revolution

The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary, Italy and Japan signed a treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere.

The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil.[40][41] On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War.[42] The rubber plantations and oil fields of the Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java.[43][44]

Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda[45] and the Indonesian National Awakening, a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government.[46] The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia,[47] as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime.[48] Although the top positions were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links amongst the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations.[49]

According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[50]

Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented the mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede.[51] The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians.[52][53]

In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea (Western New Guinea). Sukarno's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963.[54]

In 2013, the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020.[55] To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands.[56]

Government

Law and administration

See also: Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
 
The governor-general's palace in Batavia (1880–1900)

Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the 'office of the governor-general'. During the Dutch East Indies era the governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army (KNIL). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets.[57] Until 1815 the governor-general had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law.[58]

Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925) the governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague. From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913, and quasi diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies.[59]

 
House of the Resident (colonial administrator) in Surabaya

The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials; the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called controllers. Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost real control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew.[30] This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects.[60] From 1910, the Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia.[25] Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship,[61] was carried over into the new Indonesian republic.[25]

A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the indigenous population were able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and five from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation.[62]

The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration. The Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous; these three groups were subject to their own legal system, that were all simultaneously in force.[63]

 
The Supreme Court Building, Batavia

The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law, the Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class[64] and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges.[65][66] Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established.[67]

By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated the most unruly inmates. In Sawah Loento prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the female Boeloe prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik. This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside the correctional facility.[65][68] In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea. As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands.[69]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies

The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen—Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies, but while the residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen, residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen.[70]

Armed forces

Main articles: Royal Netherlands East Indies Army, Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force, and Government Navy

The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) and its air arm, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya, supplemented by the colonial Government Navy.

The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army, but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a 'Foreign Legion' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries).[71] While most officers were Europeans, the majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese.[72]

Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh, in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in the Strait of Malacca. Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides.[73] Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against the population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction.[74]

 
Decorated indigenous KNIL soldiers, 1927

By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in the European legal class[75] and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' (Dutch: Landstorm) for European conscripts older than 32.[76] Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After the declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered.[77] The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated.[78] All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males were interned by the Japanese as POWs. Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment.

Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and the Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949.[79] The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military.[80] At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army.[81] Key officers in the Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers include: Suharto second president of Indonesia, A. H. Nasution, commander of the Siliwangi Division and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army and A. E. Kawilarang founder of the elite special forces Kopassus.

Demographics

See also: Dutch Ethical Policy
 
Volksraad members in 1918: D. Birnie (Dutch), Kan Hok Hoei (Chinese), R. Sastro Widjono and M. N. Dwidjo Sewojo (Javanese)

In 1898, the population of Java numbered 28 million with another 7 million on Indonesia's outer islands.[82] The first half of 20th century saw large-scale immigration of Dutch and other Europeans to the colony, where they worked in either the government or private sectors. By 1930, there were more than 240,000 people with European legal status in the colony, making up less than 0.5% of the total population.[83] Almost 75% of these Europeans were in fact native Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans.[84]

1930 census of the Dutch East Indies[85]
Rank Group Number Percentage
1 Indigenous islanders (Pribumi) 59,138,067 97.4%
2 Chinese 1,233,214 2.0%
3 Dutch people and Eurasians 240,417 0.4%
4 Other foreign orientals 115,535 0.2%
Total 60,727,233 100%

The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers and pioneers. They lived together with the "natives", but at the top of a rigid social and racial caste system.[86][87] The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.[88]

In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, under which the colonial government had a duty to further the welfare of the Indonesian people in health and education. Other new measures under the policy included irrigation programs, transmigration, communications, flood mitigation, industrialisation and protection of native industry.[89] Industrialisation did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians, and Indonesia remained an agricultural colony; by 1930, there were 17 cities with populations over 50,000 and their combined populations numbered 1.87 million of the colony's 60 million.[30]

Education

 
Students of the School Tot Opleiding Van Indische Artsen (STOVIA) aka Sekolah Doctor Jawa

The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children and those of the Indonesian upper class. A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with separate schools for Indonesians, Arabs, and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a Dutch curriculum. Ordinary Indonesians were educated in Malay in Roman alphabet with "link" schools preparing bright Indonesian students for entry into the Dutch-language schools.[90] Vocational schools and programs were set up by the Indies government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles in the colonial economy. Chinese and Arabs, officially termed "foreign orientals", could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary schools.[91]

Graduates of Dutch schools opened their own schools modelled on the Dutch school system, as did Christian missionaries, Theosophical Societies and Indonesian cultural associations. This proliferation of schools was further boosted by new Muslim schools in the Western mould that also offered secular subjects.[90] According to the 1930 census, 6% of Indonesians were literate; however, this figure recognised only graduates from Western schools and those who could read and write in a language in the Roman alphabet. It did not include graduates of non-Western schools or those who could read but not write Arabic, Malay or Dutch, or those who could write in non-Roman alphabets such as Batak, Javanese, Chinese or Arabic.[90]

 
Dutch, Eurasian and Javanese professors of law at the opening of the Rechts Hogeschool in 1924

Some higher education institutions were also established. In 1898 the Dutch East Indies government established a school to train medical doctors, named School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen (STOVIA). Many STOVIA graduates later played important roles in Indonesia's national movement toward independence as well in developing medical education in Indonesia, such as Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo, who established the Budi Utomo political society. De Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung established in 1920 by the Dutch colonial administration to meet the needs of technical resources at its colony. One of Technische Hogeschool graduate is Sukarno whom later would lead the Indonesian National Revolution. In 1924, the colonial government again decided to open a new tertiary-level educational facility, the Rechts Hogeschool (RHS), to train civilian officers and servants. In 1927, STOVIA's status was changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to Geneeskundige Hogeschool (GHS). The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine of University of Indonesia. The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are still clearly visible in such technological areas as irrigation design. To this day, the ideas of Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices.[92] Moreover, the two highest-internationally ranking universities of Indonesia, the University of Indonesia est.1898 and the Bandung Institute of Technology, established in 1920, were both founded during the colonial era.[93][94]

Education reforms, and modest political reform, resulted in a small elite of highly educated indigenous Indonesians, who promoted the idea of an independent and unified "Indonesia" that would bring together disparate indigenous groups of the Dutch East Indies. A period termed the Indonesian National Revival, the first half of the 20th century saw the nationalist movement develop strongly, but also face Dutch oppression.[15]

Economy

See also: Cultivation System and Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)

The economic history of the colony was closely related to the economic health of the mother country.[95] Despite increasing returns from the Dutch system of land tax, Dutch finances had been severely affected by the cost of the Java War and the Padri War, and the Dutch loss of Belgium in 1830 brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. In 1830, a new governor-general, Johannes van den Bosch, was appointed to make the Indies pay their way through Dutch exploitation of its resources. With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830,[96] it was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government-controlled forced cultivation. Termed cultuurstelsel (cultivation system) in Dutch and tanam paksa (forced plantation) in Indonesia, farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.[97] Much of Java became a Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century which were reinvested into the Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy.[15][97] Between 1830 and 1870, 840 million guilder (€8 billion in 2018[98]) were taken from the East Indies, on average making a third of the annual Dutch government budget.[99][100] The Cultivation System, however, brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants, who suffered famine and epidemics in the 1840s.[15]

 
Headquarters of the Deli Company in Medan circa 1925

Critical public opinion in the Netherlands led to much of the Cultivation System's excesses being eliminated under the agrarian reforms of the "Liberal Period". According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the system of forced labor had not been abolished.[101] Dutch private capital flowed in after 1850, especially in tin mining and plantation estate agriculture. The Martavious Company's tin mines off the eastern Sumatra coast was financed by a syndicate of Dutch entrepreneurs, including the younger brother of King William III. Mining began in 1860. In 1863 Jacob Nienhuys obtained a concession from the Sultanate of Deli (East Sumatra) for a large tobacco estate (Deli Company).[102] From 1870, the Indies were opened up to private enterprise and Dutch businessmen set up large, profitable plantations. Sugar production doubled between 1870 and 1885; new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished, and rubber was introduced, leading to dramatic increases in Dutch profits. Changes were not limited to Java, or agriculture; oil from Sumatra and Kalimantan became a valuable resource for industrialising Europe. Dutch commercial interests expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly more territory coming under direct Dutch control or dominance in the latter half of the 19th century.[15] However, the resulting scarcity of land for rice production, combined with dramatically increasing populations, especially in Java, led to further hardships.[15]

 
De Javasche Bank in Banjarmasin

The colonial exploitation of Indonesia's wealth contributed to the industrialisation of the Netherlands, while simultaneously laying the foundation for the industrialisation of Indonesia. The Dutch introduced coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco and rubber, and large expanses of Java became plantations cultivated by Javanese peasants, collected by Chinese intermediaries, and sold on overseas markets by European merchants.[15] In the late 19th century economic growth was based on heavy world demand for tea, coffee and cinchona. The government invested heavily in a railroad network (240 km or 150 mi long in 1873, 1,900 km or 1,200 mi in 1900), as well as telegraph lines, and entrepreneurs opened banks, shops and newspapers. The Dutch East Indies produced most of the world's supply of quinine and pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products, and a fifth of its tea, sugar, coffee and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one of the world's most significant colonial powers.[15] The Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij shipping line supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter-island shipping through to Batavia, rather than through Singapore, thus focusing more economic activity on Java.[103]

 
Workers pose at the site of a railway tunnel under construction in the mountains, 1910

The worldwide recession of the late 1880s and early 1890s saw the commodity prices on which the colony depended collapse. Journalists and civil servants observed that the majority of the Indies population were no better off than under the previous regulated Cultivation System economy and tens of thousands starved.[104] Commodity prices recovered from the recession, leading to increased investment in the colony. The sugar, tin, copra and coffee trade on which the colony had been built thrived, and rubber, tobacco, tea and oil also became principal exports.[105] Political reform increased the autonomy of the local colonial administration, moving away from central control from the Netherlands, whilst power was also diverted from the central Batavia government to more localised governing units.

The world economy recovered in the late 1890s and prosperity returned. Foreign investment, especially by the British, were encouraged. By 1900, foreign-held assets in the Netherlands Indies totalled about 750 million guilders ($300 million), mostly in Java.[106]

After 1900 upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950 Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces.[107] In addition the Dutch built, 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. Wim Ravesteijn has said that, "With these public works, Dutch engineers constructed the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state."[108]

Culture

Language and literature

See also: Dutch Indies literature
 
Perhimpunan Pelajar-Pelajar Indonesia (Indonesian Students Union) delegates in Youth Pledge, an important event where Indonesian language was decided to be the national language, 1928

Across the archipelago, hundreds of native languages are used, and Malay or Portuguese Creole, the existing languages of trade, were adopted. Prior to 1870, when Dutch colonial influence was largely restricted to Java, Malay was used in government schools and training programs such that graduates could communicate with groups from other regions who immigrated to Java.[109] The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based on the version from Riau and Malacca, and dictionaries were commissioned for governmental communication and schools for indigenous peoples.[110] In the early 20th century, Indonesia's independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called it Indonesian. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard Malay" as the language of the colony.[111]

Dutch was not made the official language of the colony and was not widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population.[112] The majority of legally acknowledged Dutchmen were bilingual Indo-Eurasians.[113] Dutch was used by only a limited educated elite, and in 1942, around two percent of the total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch, including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians.[114] A number of Dutch loan words are used in present-day Indonesian, particularly technical terms (see List of Dutch loan words in Indonesian). These words generally had no alternative in Malay and were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into which concepts are part of the Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier of the University of California says that about a fifth of the contemporary Indonesian language can be traced to Dutch.[115]

Dutch language literature has been inspired by both colonial and postcolonial Indies from the Dutch Golden Age to the present day. It includes Dutch, Indo-European, and Indonesian authors. Its subject matter thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era, but also includes postcolonial discourse. Masterpieces of this genre include Multatuli's Max Havelaar: Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company, Louis Couperus's Hidden Force, E. du Perron's Country of Origin, and Maria Dermoût's The Ten Thousand Things.[116][117]

Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo-European authors. However, in the first half of the 20th century under the Ethical Policy, indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands to study and work. They wrote Dutch language literary works and published literature in literary reviews such as Het Getij, De Gemeenschap, Links Richten and Forum. By exploring new literary themes and focusing on indigenous protagonists, they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous plight. Examples include the Javanese prince and poet Noto Soeroto, a writer and journalist, and the Dutch language writings of Soewarsih Djojopoespito, Chairil Anwar, Kartini, Sutan Sjahrir and Sukarno.[118] Much of the postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the "avant garde visionary" Tjalie Robinson, who is the best-read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia,[119] and second generation Indo-European immigrants such as Marion Bloem.

Visual art

 
The romantic depiction of De Grote Postweg near Buitenzorg

The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of artists and painters, that mostly capture the romantic scenes of colonial Indies. The term Mooi Indië (Dutch for "Beautiful Indies") was originally coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel's watercolor paintings which depicted the scene of East Indies published in Amsterdam in 1930. The term became famous in 1939 after S. Sudjojono used it to mock the painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies.[120] Mooi Indië later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanoes, rice paddies, river valleys, villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes bare-chested native women. Some of the notable Mooi Indië painters are European artists: F. J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp, Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli [it]; East Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers, Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters: Raden Saleh, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, Basuki Abdullah, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also Chinese painters: Lee Man Fong, Oei Tiang Oen and Siauw Tik Kwie. These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal Kolff & Co and Hotel Des Indes.

Theatre and film

See also: List of films of the Dutch East Indies, List of film producers of the Dutch East Indies, and List of film directors of the Dutch East Indies
 
Bioscoop Mimosa cinema in Batu, Java, 1941

A total of 112 fictional films are known to have been produced in the Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony's dissolution in 1949. The earliest motion pictures, imported from abroad, were shown in late 1900,[121] and by the early 1920s imported serials and fictional films were being shown, often with localised names.[122] Dutch companies were also producing documentary films about the Indies to be shown in the Netherlands.[123] The first locally produced film, Loetoeng Kasaroeng, was directed by L. Heuveldorp and released on 31 December 1926.[124] Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released. During the mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the Great Depression.[125] The rate of production declined again after the Japanese occupation beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio.[126] The majority of films produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts.[127] Following the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945 and during the ensuing revolution several films were made, by both pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.[128][129]

Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with traditional stories or were adapted from existing works.[130] The early films were silent, with Karnadi Anemer Bangkong (Karnadi the Frog Contractor; 1930) generally considered the first talkie;[131] later films would be in Dutch, Malay, or an indigenous language. All were black-and-white. The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all films from before 1950 are lost.[132] However, JB Kristanto's Katalog Film Indonesia (Indonesian Film Catalogue) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia's archives, and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service.[133]

Theatre plays by playwrights such as Victor Ido (1869–1948) were performed at the Schouwburg Weltevreden, now known as Gedung Kesenian Jakarta. A less elite form of theatre, popular with both European and indigenous people, were the travelling Indo theatre shows known as Komedie Stamboel, made popular by Auguste Mahieu (1865–1903).

Science

 
Museum and lab of the Buitenzorg Plantentuin

The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies attracted European intellectuals, scientists and researchers. Some notable scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies archipelago are Teijsmann, Junghuhn, Eijkman, Dubois and Wallace. Many important art, culture and science institutions were established in Dutch East Indies. For example, the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences), the predecessor of the National Museum of Indonesia, was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially history, archaeology, ethnography and physics. The Bogor Botanical Gardens with Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817, with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago.

Java Man was discovered by Eugène Dubois in 1891. The Komodo dragon was first described by Peter Ouwens in 1912, after an aeroplane crash accident in 1911 and rumours about living dinosaurs in Komodo Island in 1910. Vitamin B1 and its relation to beriberi disease was discovered by Eijkman during his work in the Indies.

With growing interest in scientific research, the government of the Dutch East Indies established Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch-Indië (Scientific Council of the Dutch East Indies) in 1928.[134] It operated as the country's main research organization until the outbreak of World War II in Asia Pacific in 1942. In 1948 the institute was renamed Organisatie voor Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Organisation for Scientific Research). This organization was the predecessor of the current Indonesian Institute of Sciences.[135]

Cuisine

See also: Indonesian cuisine
 
Dutch family enjoying a large Rijsttafel dinner, 1936

The Dutch colonial families through their domestic servants and cooks were exposed to Indonesian cuisine, as the result they developed a taste for native tropical spices and dishes. A notable Dutch East Indies colonial dish is rijsttafel, the rice table that consists of 7 to 40 popular dishes from across the colony. More an extravagant banquet than a dish, the Dutch colonials introduced the rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide array of dishes at a single setting but also to impress visitors with the exotic abundance of their colony.[136]

Through colonialism the Dutch introduced European dishes such as bread, cheese, barbecued steak and pancake. As the producer of cash crops; coffee and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies. Bread, butter and margarine, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, poffertjes, pannekoek and Dutch cheeses were commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indos during the colonial era. Some of the native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch influenced: they include selat solo (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), semur (from Dutch smoor), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and sop buntut. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), pandan cake, lapis legit (spekkoek), spiku (lapis Surabaya), klappertaart (coconut tart) and kaasstengels (cheese cookies). Kue cubit commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.[137]

Architecture

Main article: Colonial architecture of Indonesia
See also: List of colonial buildings and structures in Jakarta

The 16th- and 17th-century arrivals of European powers in Indonesia introduced masonry construction to Indonesia where previously timber and its by-products had been almost exclusively used. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city.[138] For almost two centuries, the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical climate.[139] They built row houses which were poorly ventilated with small windows, which was thought as protection against tropical diseases coming from tropical air.[139] Years later the Dutch learnt to adapt their architectural styles with local building features (long eaves, verandahs, porticos, large windows and ventilation openings),[140] and the 18th-century Dutch Indies country houses was one of the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and adapt to the climate, the known as Indies Style.[141]

 
Ceremonial Hall, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, designed by architect Henri Maclaine-Pont

From the end of the 19th century, significant improvements to technology, communications and transportation brought new wealth to Java. Modernistic buildings, including train stations, business hotels, factories and office blocks, hospitals and education institutions, were influenced by international styles. The early-20th-century trend was for modernist influences—such as art-deco—being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian trim. Practical responses to the environment carried over from the earlier Indies Style, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and ventilation in the walls, which gave birth to the New Indies Style.[142] The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers, Thomas Karsten, Henri Maclaine Pont, J. Gerber and C. P. W. Schoemaker.[143] In the first three decades of the 20th century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.[144]

A lack of development in the Great Depression, the turmoil of the Second World War and the Indonesia's independence struggle of the 1940s, and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 1960s, meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades.[145] Colonial homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites; however, the styles were often rich and creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought after into the 21st century.[141] Native architecture was arguably more influenced by the new European ideas than colonial architecture was influenced by Indonesian styles; and these Western elements continue to be a dominant influence on Indonesia's built environment today.

Fashion

 
Javanese nobles adopted and mixed some aspects of European fashion, such as this couple in 1890.

Within the colony of the Dutch East Indies, fashion played an important role to define ones' status and social class. The European colonials wore European fashion straight out of the Netherlands, or even Paris, while the natives wore their traditional clothings that are distinct in every region. As the years progressed and the Dutch influence became stronger, many natives began mixing European styles within their traditional clothing. High-ranking natives within the colony as well as nobility, would wear European style suits with their batik sarongs for special occasions and even for everyday use. More and more native Indonesians began to dress more European. This of course came with the idea that those who wore European clothing were more progressive and open towards a European society and the etiquette that came with it. More and more the European influence was gaining precedence within native Indonesians. This probably stems from the fact that many natives were treated better if they wore European clothing. Their European counterparts acknowledged them, and that in turn was most likely a catalyst for adoption western clothing into traditional Indonesian clothing.[146]

 
Dutch colonial couple in the early 20th century wearing native batik and kebaya fashion

The fashion influences between colonials and natives was a reciprocal phenomenon. Just as the Europeans influences the natives, the natives too influenced the European colonials. For example, the thick European fabrics was considered too hot to wear in tropical climate. Thus, the light clothing of thin kebaya fabrics and the comfortable and easy to wear batik sarong are considered quite suitable for everyday clothing in hot and humid climate of the East Indies.

Later on in the history of the Dutch East Indies, as a new wave of Europeans were brought into the colony, many adopted the Indonesian styles, many even went so far as to wear traditional Javanese kebaya at home.[147] Batik was also a big influence for the Dutch. The technique was so fascinating to them that they took the technique to their colonies in Africa where it was adopted with African patterns.[148] For the most part, Europeans in the Dutch East Indies, stuck to traditional European styles of dressing. Fashion trends from Paris were still highly regarded and considered the epitome of style. Women wore dresses and skirts and men wore pants and shirts.

Colonial heritage in the Netherlands

 
Dutch imperial imagery representing the Dutch East Indies (1916). The text reads "Netherlands' most precious jewel."

When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.[149]

Universities such as the Royal Leiden University founded in the 16th century have developed into leading knowledge centres about Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies.[150] Leiden University has produced academics such as Colonial adviser Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje who specialised in native oriental (Indonesian) affairs, and it still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.[92]

The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army and the dedicated Bronbeek Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.

Dutch newsreel dated 1927 showing a Dutch East Indian fair in the Netherlands featuring Indo and Indigenous people from the Dutch East Indies performing traditional dance and music in traditional attire[151]

Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who moved back to the Netherlands after independence tended to look back on the colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the colony, with such items as the 1970s book Tempo Doeloe (Old times) by author Rob Nieuwenhuys, and other books and materials that became quite common in the 1970s and 1980s.[152] Moreover, since the 18th century Dutch literature has a large number of established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration.[153] In fact one of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar" written by Multatuli in 1860.[154]

The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community.[155] In Dutch they are referred to as Indo (short for Indo-European). Of the 296,200 so called Dutch 'repatriants' only 92,200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands.[156]

Including their second-generation descendants, they are currently the largest foreign born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS)[157] registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands.[158] Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'Repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture. Practically each town in the Netherlands will have a 'Toko' (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or Indonesian restaurant[159] and many 'Pasar Malam' (night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year.

Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Dutch cuisine. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as nasi goreng and sate are still very popular in the Netherlands.[137]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Princely States
  2. ^ Incorporated to the Sumatra Governorate in 1938
  3. ^ as High Commissioner

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Bibliography

  • Biran, Misbach Yusa (2009). Sejarah Film 1900–1950: Bikin Film di Jawa [History of Film 1900–1950: Making Films in Java] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Komunitas Bamboo working with the Jakarta Art Council. ISBN 978-979-3731-58-2.
  • Cribb, R.B., Kahin, A. Historical dictionary of Indonesia (Scarecrow Press, 2004)
  • Dick, Howard, et al. The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800–2000 (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) online edition
  • Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
  • Heider, Karl G (1991). Indonesian Cinema: National Culture on Screen. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1367-3.
  • Reid, Anthony (1974). The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950. Melbourne: Longman Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-582-71046-4.
  • Nieuwenhuys, Rob Mirror of the Indies: A History of Dutch Colonial Literature - translated from Dutch by E. M. Beekman (Publisher: Periplus, 1999) Google Books
  • Prayogo, Wisnu Agung (2009). "Sekilas Perkembangan Perfilman di Indonesia" [An Overview of the Development of Film in Indonesia]. Kebijakan Pemerintahan Orde Baru Terhadap Perfilman Indonesia Tahun 1966–1980 [New Order Policy Towards Indonesian Films (1966–1980)] (Bachelor's of History Thesis) (in Indonesian). University of Indonesia.
  • Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A Modern History of Indonesia, 2nd edition. MacMillan. chapters 10–15. ISBN 0-333-57690-X.
  • Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
  • Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.

Further reading

  • Booth, Anne, et al. Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era (1990)
  • Borschberg, Peter, The Dutch East Indies (2016), doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe276
  • Bosma U., Raben R. Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920 (University of Michigan, NUS Press, 2008), ISBN 9971-69-373-9 [10]
  • Bosma, Ulbe. Emigration: Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 23 May 2011.
  • Colombijn, Freek, and Thomas Lindblad, eds. Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002)
  • Dick, Howard, et al. The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800–2000 (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) online edition
  • Elson, Robert. The idea of Indonesia: A history (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
  • Braudel, Fernand, The perspective of the World, vol III in Civilization and Capitalism, 1984
  • Furnivall, J. S. (1944). Netherlands India: A Study of Plural Economy. Cambridge U.P. p. viii. ISBN 9781108011273., comprehensive coverage
  • Gouda, Frances. Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942 (1996) online
  • Nagtegaal, Luc. Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743 (1996) 250pp
  • Robins, Nick. The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational (2006) excerpt and text search
  • Taylor, Jean Gelman. The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia (1983)
  • Lindblad, J. Thomas (1989). "The Petroleum Industry in Indonesia before the Second World War". Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. 25 (2): 53–77. doi:10.1080/00074918812331335569.
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.

External links

  Media related to Dutch East Indies at Wikimedia Commons

  • 11 Dutch Indies objects in 'The European Library Harvest'
  • Cribb, Robert, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History
  • Historical Documents of the Dutch Parliament 1814–1995 4 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  • Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina, Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in the Philippines
  • "Surabaya" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
  • "Surabaya or Soerabaya. The largest city in Java" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

January 09, 2023
dutch, east, indies, coordinates, also, known, netherlands, east, indies, dutch, nederlands, indië, indonesian, hindia, belanda, dutch, colony, consisting, what, indonesia, formed, from, nationalised, trading, posts, dutch, east, india, company, which, came, u. Coordinates 2 00 S 118 00 E 2 0 S 118 0 E 2 0 118 0 The Dutch East Indies 3 also known as the Netherlands East Indies Dutch Nederlands ch Indie Indonesian Hindia Belanda was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800 Dutch East IndiesNederlandsch Indie Dutch Hindia Belanda Indonesian 1800 18061816 1949Flag Coat of armsAnthem Wien Neerlands Bloed 1815 1932 source source Wilhelmus from 10 May 1932 source source track Map of the Dutch East Indies showing its territorial expansion from 1800 to its fullest extent prior to Japanese occupation in 1942StatusColony of the Batavian Republic 1800 1806 Colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 1816 1949 CapitalBataviaCapital in exileMelbourne 1942 1944 Brisbane 1944 1945 Largest citySoerabaja 1 2 Common languagesDutchMalay lingua franca JavaneseChineseTamilArabicIndigenous languagesReligionIslam Majority ChristianityHinduismBuddhismDemonym s Dutch East IndianConstituent entitiesVorstenlanden a Aceh and Dependencies b Sumatra GovernorateWest JavaMiddle JavaEast JavaGreat EastBorneo and DependenciesHead of the Batavian Republic 1800 first Augustijn Gerhard Besier 1806 last Carel de Vos van SteenwijkMonarch 1816 1840 first William I 1948 1949 last JulianaGovernor General 1800 1801 first Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten 1949 last A H J Lovink c LegislatureVolksraad 1918 1942 History Dutch East India Company1603 1799 Formation1800 French and British interregnum1806 1816 Japanese occupation1942 1945 Indonesian National Revolution1945 1949 Dutch Indonesian Round Table Conference27 December 1949Area Total1 919 440 km2 741 100 sq mi Population 193060 727 233CurrencyGuldenPreceded by Succeeded byDutch East India CompanyBritish BencoolenAceh SultanateBali KingdomLanfang RepublicSultanate of BulunganSultanate of SuluBanjar SultanateSultanate of Palembang Straits SettlementsJapanese occupation of the Dutch East IndiesUnited States of IndonesiaDutch New GuineaState of East IndonesiaToday part ofIndonesiaMalaysia the port of Malacca was part of the Dutch East Indies from 1818 1825 During the 19th century the Dutch possessions and hegemony expanded reaching the greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule 4 and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th centuries 5 The colonial social order was based on rigid racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from but linked to their native subjects 6 The term Indonesia came into use for the geographical location after 1880 In the early 20th century local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state and set the stage for an independence movement 7 Japan s World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945 Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution The Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch Indonesian Round Table Conference with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea Western New Guinea which was ceded to Indonesia 14 years later in 1963 under the provisions of the New York Agreement 8 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Company rule 2 2 Dutch conquests 2 3 Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances 2 4 Njai System 2 5 World War II and independence 3 Government 3 1 Law and administration 3 2 Administrative divisions 4 Armed forces 5 Demographics 6 Education 7 Economy 8 Culture 8 1 Language and literature 8 2 Visual art 8 3 Theatre and film 8 4 Science 8 5 Cuisine 8 6 Architecture 8 7 Fashion 9 Colonial heritage in the Netherlands 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Bibliography 12 2 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology EditThe word Indies comes from Latin Indus Names for India The original name Dutch Indies Dutch Nederlandsch Indie was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company s documents of the early 1620s 9 Scholars writing in English use the terms Indie Indies the Dutch East Indies the Netherlands Indies and colonial Indonesia interchangeably 10 History EditCompany rule Edit See also Company rule in the Dutch East Indies and Economic history of the Netherlands 1500 1815 Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian Archipelago Centuries before Europeans arrived the Indonesian archipelago supported various states including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit 11 The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Marco Polo in 1292 and his fellow Italian Odoric of Pordenone in 1321 The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were the Portuguese in 1512 Following disruption of Dutch access to spices 12 the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia When it made a 400 profit on its return other Dutch expeditions soon followed Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie or VOC 12 The VOC was granted a charter to wage war build fortresses and make treaties across Asia 12 A capital was established in Batavia now Jakarta which became the center of the VOC s Asian trading network 13 To their original monopolies on nutmeg peppers cloves and cinnamon the company and later colonial administrations introduced non indigenous cash crops like coffee tea cacao tobacco rubber sugar and opium and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory 13 Smuggling the ongoing expense of war corruption and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago including much of Java parts of Sumatra much of Maluku and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar Manado and Kupang were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies 14 Dutch conquests Edit See also First Dutch Expedition Second Dutch Expedition and French and British rule From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century to the declaration of independence in 1945 Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous 15 Although Java was dominated by the Dutch 16 many areas remained independent throughout much of this time including Aceh Bali Lombok and Borneo 15 There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish a Dutch hegemony which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces 17 Piracy remained a problem until the mid 19th century 15 Finally in the early 20th century imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern day Indonesia Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Figure Megalith found year 1931 Location of the Kepaksian Pernong Sakala Brak in Hanibung Batu Brak independent Dutch control securing British settlements in Sumatra In 1806 with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor General of the Dutch East Indies 18 In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor General Jan Willem Janssens but shortly after his arrival British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor Following Napoleon s defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna independent Dutch control was restored in 1816 19 Under the 1824 Anglo Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu Kepaksian Pernong Sakala Brak in Sumatra which was founded in the 13th century AD the British secure the Dutch settement of Singapore in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula Malaya and Dutch India The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia 20 21 Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter Graaf van den Bosch s governor generalship 1830 1835 confirmed profitability as the foundation of official policy restricting its attention to Java Sumatra and Bangka 22 However from about 1840 Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands 23 Motivations included the protection of areas already held the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion and to establish Dutch claims throughout the archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions 22 As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock by Nicolaas Pieneman The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War 1821 38 24 and the Java War 1825 30 ended significant Javanese resistance 25 The Banjarmasin War 1859 1863 in southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan 26 After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848 an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912 25 Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during the remainder of the 19th century 15 This included the Banten Peasant s Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 27 However the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894 28 and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895 25 Towards the end of the 19th century the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened 22 Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive backward or disrespectful of international law 29 Dutch Colonial Princess in the front yard of the Royal Palace of Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak Batu Brak in 1933 Although Indonesian rebellions broke out direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers 30 Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905 06 the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908 as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku Sumatra Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara 25 29 Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku Pontianak Kalimantan and Palembang in Sumatra requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule 29 The Bird s Head Peninsula Western New Guinea was brought under Dutch administration in 1920 This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances Edit Main article Cultivation System Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in the 19th century the Cultivation System Cultuurstelsel was implemented in 1830 Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20 of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo coffee and sugar 31 Through this system considerable profits were made the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at around 4 of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50 of total state revenue The system proved disastrous for the local population at its height over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20 of their farmland or the most fertile land for cultivation of cash crops 32 The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s 15 According to one estimate the mortality rates increased by as much as 30 during this period 32 Due to widespread criticism of the system it was abolished in 1870 According to one study the mortality rate in Java would have been 10 20 higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished 32 The introduction of trucks railways telegraph systems and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common Java experienced rapid population growth during the 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s 33 Another source of profit were the so called coolies a name for low wage indentured laborers After the abolition of the Cultivation Sytem in 1870 the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company which was founded on Sumatra in 1869 Large scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese Chinese Malay Batak and Indian people were shipped to the plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor It is estimated that over 500 000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century 34 The precise death rate among coolie laborers is unknown due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25 35 While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery They were often mislead when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts The Coolie Ordinances Koelieordonnanties of 1880 which allowed the plantation owners to serve as police and punish coolies under their employ resulted in widespread abuses It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit Punishments that were used against coolies included for example whippings or beatings after which salt was inserted into the wounds to increase suffering Other punishments included electrocution crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke Medical care for the coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common 36 The coolie system was heavily criticized especially after 1900 with the rise of the so called Ethical Politics A critical pamphlet named De miljoenen uit Deli was published by J van den Brand described abuses committed against coolies including the torture and sexual abuse of a 15 year old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer The penal sanction was abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s 37 38 Njai System Edit Main article Njai During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery In the late 19th century increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia leading to a shortage of available women as most immigrants were men The Dutch then bought the Njai who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines While officially contract workers these women enjoyed few rights They could be bought and sold together with the house they worked in as so called Indigenous Furniture Inlands Meubel Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters and when they were fired their children would be taken away 39 By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased although prostitution had become more prevalent The practice had not died out however by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied the Indies During the occupation the Njai and their mixed race children were forcefully separated from European men who were put into internment camps After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe or staying in Indonesia World War II and independence Edit Main articles Dutch East Indies campaign Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies and Indonesian National Revolution Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and B C de Jonge the last and penultimate governor general of the Dutch East Indies before the Japanese invasion The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14 1940 The royal family fled to exile in Britain Germany and Japan were Axis allies On 27 September 1940 Germany Hungary Italy and Japan signed a treaty outlining spheres of influence The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan s sphere The Netherlands Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil 40 41 On 10 January 1942 during the Dutch East Indies Campaign Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War 42 The rubber plantations and oil fields of the Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java 43 44 Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda 45 and the Indonesian National Awakening a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the colonial Dutch empire but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government 46 The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia 47 as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could replacing it with their own regime 48 Although the top positions were held by the Japanese the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links amongst the masses and they trained and armed the younger generations 49 According to a UN report four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation 50 Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945 nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence A four and a half year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re establish their colony although Dutch forces re occupied most of Indonesia s territory a guerrilla struggle ensued and the majority of Indonesians and ultimately international opinion favoured Indonesian independence The Netherlands committed war crimes summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners Ad van Liempt documented the mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede 51 The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians 52 53 In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea Western New Guinea Sukarno s government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory and with pressure from the United States the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963 54 In 2013 the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people an apology repeated by King Willem Alexander on a state visit in 2020 55 To this day the colonial war is commonly referred to as police actions in the Netherlands 56 Government EditLaw and administration Edit See also Governor General of the Dutch East Indies The governor general s palace in Batavia 1880 1900 Since the VOC era the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor general During the Dutch East Indies era the governor general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander in chief of the colonial army KNIL Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the office of the governor general for their budgets 57 Until 1815 the governor general had the absolute right to ban censor or restrict any publication in the colony The so called exorbitant powers of the governor general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order without involving any Court of Law 58 Until 1848 the governor general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet During two periods 1815 1835 and 1854 1925 the governor general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie Indies Council Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with treasury separated in 1903 public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913 and quasi diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies 59 House of the Resident colonial administrator in Surabaya The governor general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials the residents the assistant residents and district officers called controllers Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service While they lost real control their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew 30 This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost effective for the Dutch in 1900 only 250 European and 1 500 indigenous civil servants and 16 000 Dutch officers and men and 26 000 hired native troops were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects 60 From 1910 the Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia 25 Politically the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship 61 was carried over into the new Indonesian republic 25 A People s Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918 The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the indigenous population were able to vote for its members The council comprised 30 indigenous members 25 European and five from Chinese and other populations and was reconstituted every four years In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body although decisions were still made by the Dutch government the governor general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues The Volksraad was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation 62 The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration The Europeans Foreign Orientals Arabs and the Chinese and the indigenous these three groups were subject to their own legal system that were all simultaneously in force 63 The Supreme Court Building Batavia The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony The highest court of law the Supreme Court in Batavia dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony Six councils of justice Raad van Justitie dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class 64 and only indirectly with the indigenous population The land councils Landraden dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces and matrimonial disputes The indigenous population was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges 65 66 Following Indonesian independence the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established 67 By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated the most unruly inmates In Sawah Loento prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines Separate prisons were built for juveniles West Java and for women In the female Boeloe prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention such as sewing weaving and making batik This training was held in high esteem and helped re socialise women once they were outside the correctional facility 65 68 In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven Digoel was established in New Guinea As of 1927 political prisoners including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence were exiled to the outer islands 69 Administrative divisions Edit Main article Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen Groot Oost Borneo and Sumatra and three provincies in Java Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies but while the residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen 70 Armed forces EditMain articles Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force and Government Navy Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem 1894 The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army KNIL and its air arm the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force ML KNIL were established in 1814 and 1915 respectively Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya supplemented by the colonial Government Navy The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army but a separate military arm commanded by the governor general and funded by the colonial budget The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a Foreign Legion recruiting not only Dutch volunteers but many other European nationalities especially German Belgian and Swiss mercenaries 71 While most officers were Europeans the majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese 72 Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co operate The policy failed in Aceh in northern Sumatra where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in the Strait of Malacca Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti piracy campaign The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war with high levels of atrocities on both sides 73 Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against the population by means of a strategy of awe When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow violent occupation or a campaign of destruction 74 Decorated indigenous KNIL soldiers 1927 By 1900 the archipelago was considered pacified and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in the European legal class 75 and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a Home guard Dutch Landstorm for European conscripts older than 32 76 Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18 000 by a majority of 43 to 4 with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting After the declaration of war with Japan over 100 000 natives volunteered 77 The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941 Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1 000 officers and 34 000 men of whom 28 000 were indigenous During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941 42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated 78 All European soldiers which in practice included all able bodied Indo European males were interned by the Japanese as POWs Twenty five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment Following World War II a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re establish colonial law and order Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948 Dutch efforts to re establish their colony failed and the Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949 79 The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military 80 At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65 000 of whom 26 000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army 81 Key officers in the Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers include Suharto second president of Indonesia A H Nasution commander of the Siliwangi Division and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army and A E Kawilarang founder of the elite special forces Kopassus Demographics EditSee also Dutch Ethical Policy Volksraad members in 1918 D Birnie Dutch Kan Hok Hoei Chinese R Sastro Widjono and M N Dwidjo Sewojo Javanese In 1898 the population of Java numbered 28 million with another 7 million on Indonesia s outer islands 82 The first half of 20th century saw large scale immigration of Dutch and other Europeans to the colony where they worked in either the government or private sectors By 1930 there were more than 240 000 people with European legal status in the colony making up less than 0 5 of the total population 83 Almost 75 of these Europeans were in fact native Eurasians known as Indo Europeans 84 1930 census of the Dutch East Indies 85 Rank Group Number Percentage1 Indigenous islanders Pribumi 59 138 067 97 4 2 Chinese 1 233 214 2 0 3 Dutch people and Eurasians 240 417 0 4 4 Other foreign orientals 115 535 0 2 Total 60 727 233 100 The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers administrators managers teachers and pioneers They lived together with the natives but at the top of a rigid social and racial caste system 86 87 The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens European and indigenous A third class Foreign Easterners was added in 1920 88 In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy under which the colonial government had a duty to further the welfare of the Indonesian people in health and education Other new measures under the policy included irrigation programs transmigration communications flood mitigation industrialisation and protection of native industry 89 Industrialisation did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians and Indonesia remained an agricultural colony by 1930 there were 17 cities with populations over 50 000 and their combined populations numbered 1 87 million of the colony s 60 million 30 Education Edit Students of the School Tot Opleiding Van Indische Artsen STOVIA aka Sekolah Doctor Jawa The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children and those of the Indonesian upper class A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with separate schools for Indonesians Arabs and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a Dutch curriculum Ordinary Indonesians were educated in Malay in Roman alphabet with link schools preparing bright Indonesian students for entry into the Dutch language schools 90 Vocational schools and programs were set up by the Indies government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles in the colonial economy Chinese and Arabs officially termed foreign orientals could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary schools 91 Graduates of Dutch schools opened their own schools modelled on the Dutch school system as did Christian missionaries Theosophical Societies and Indonesian cultural associations This proliferation of schools was further boosted by new Muslim schools in the Western mould that also offered secular subjects 90 According to the 1930 census 6 of Indonesians were literate however this figure recognised only graduates from Western schools and those who could read and write in a language in the Roman alphabet It did not include graduates of non Western schools or those who could read but not write Arabic Malay or Dutch or those who could write in non Roman alphabets such as Batak Javanese Chinese or Arabic 90 Dutch Eurasian and Javanese professors of law at the opening of the Rechts Hogeschool in 1924 Some higher education institutions were also established In 1898 the Dutch East Indies government established a school to train medical doctors named School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen STOVIA Many STOVIA graduates later played important roles in Indonesia s national movement toward independence as well in developing medical education in Indonesia such as Dr Wahidin Soedirohoesodo who established the Budi Utomo political society De Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung established in 1920 by the Dutch colonial administration to meet the needs of technical resources at its colony One of Technische Hogeschool graduate is Sukarno whom later would lead the Indonesian National Revolution In 1924 the colonial government again decided to open a new tertiary level educational facility the Rechts Hogeschool RHS to train civilian officers and servants In 1927 STOVIA s status was changed to that of a full tertiary level institution and its name was changed to Geneeskundige Hogeschool GHS The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine of University of Indonesia The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are still clearly visible in such technological areas as irrigation design To this day the ideas of Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices 92 Moreover the two highest internationally ranking universities of Indonesia the University of Indonesia est 1898 and the Bandung Institute of Technology established in 1920 were both founded during the colonial era 93 94 Education reforms and modest political reform resulted in a small elite of highly educated indigenous Indonesians who promoted the idea of an independent and unified Indonesia that would bring together disparate indigenous groups of the Dutch East Indies A period termed the Indonesian National Revival the first half of the 20th century saw the nationalist movement develop strongly but also face Dutch oppression 15 Economy EditSee also Cultivation System and Liberal Period Dutch East Indies The economic history of the colony was closely related to the economic health of the mother country 95 Despite increasing returns from the Dutch system of land tax Dutch finances had been severely affected by the cost of the Java War and the Padri War and the Dutch loss of Belgium in 1830 brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy In 1830 a new governor general Johannes van den Bosch was appointed to make the Indies pay their way through Dutch exploitation of its resources With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830 96 it was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government controlled forced cultivation Termed cultuurstelsel cultivation system in Dutch and tanam paksa forced plantation in Indonesia farmers were required to deliver as a form of tax fixed amounts of specified crops such as sugar or coffee 97 Much of Java became a Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century which were reinvested into the Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy 15 97 Between 1830 and 1870 840 million guilder 8 billion in 2018 98 were taken from the East Indies on average making a third of the annual Dutch government budget 99 100 The Cultivation System however brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants who suffered famine and epidemics in the 1840s 15 Headquarters of the Deli Company in Medan circa 1925 Critical public opinion in the Netherlands led to much of the Cultivation System s excesses being eliminated under the agrarian reforms of the Liberal Period According to one study the mortality rate in Java would have been 10 20 higher by the late 1870s if the system of forced labor had not been abolished 101 Dutch private capital flowed in after 1850 especially in tin mining and plantation estate agriculture The Martavious Company s tin mines off the eastern Sumatra coast was financed by a syndicate of Dutch entrepreneurs including the younger brother of King William III Mining began in 1860 In 1863 Jacob Nienhuys obtained a concession from the Sultanate of Deli East Sumatra for a large tobacco estate Deli Company 102 From 1870 the Indies were opened up to private enterprise and Dutch businessmen set up large profitable plantations Sugar production doubled between 1870 and 1885 new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished and rubber was introduced leading to dramatic increases in Dutch profits Changes were not limited to Java or agriculture oil from Sumatra and Kalimantan became a valuable resource for industrialising Europe Dutch commercial interests expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly more territory coming under direct Dutch control or dominance in the latter half of the 19th century 15 However the resulting scarcity of land for rice production combined with dramatically increasing populations especially in Java led to further hardships 15 De Javasche Bank in Banjarmasin The colonial exploitation of Indonesia s wealth contributed to the industrialisation of the Netherlands while simultaneously laying the foundation for the industrialisation of Indonesia The Dutch introduced coffee tea cacao tobacco and rubber and large expanses of Java became plantations cultivated by Javanese peasants collected by Chinese intermediaries and sold on overseas markets by European merchants 15 In the late 19th century economic growth was based on heavy world demand for tea coffee and cinchona The government invested heavily in a railroad network 240 km or 150 mi long in 1873 1 900 km or 1 200 mi in 1900 as well as telegraph lines and entrepreneurs opened banks shops and newspapers The Dutch East Indies produced most of the world s supply of quinine and pepper over a third of its rubber a quarter of its coconut products and a fifth of its tea sugar coffee and oil The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one of the world s most significant colonial powers 15 The Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij shipping line supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter island shipping through to Batavia rather than through Singapore thus focusing more economic activity on Java 103 Workers pose at the site of a railway tunnel under construction in the mountains 1910 The worldwide recession of the late 1880s and early 1890s saw the commodity prices on which the colony depended collapse Journalists and civil servants observed that the majority of the Indies population were no better off than under the previous regulated Cultivation System economy and tens of thousands starved 104 Commodity prices recovered from the recession leading to increased investment in the colony The sugar tin copra and coffee trade on which the colony had been built thrived and rubber tobacco tea and oil also became principal exports 105 Political reform increased the autonomy of the local colonial administration moving away from central control from the Netherlands whilst power was also diverted from the central Batavia government to more localised governing units The world economy recovered in the late 1890s and prosperity returned Foreign investment especially by the British were encouraged By 1900 foreign held assets in the Netherlands Indies totalled about 750 million guilders 300 million mostly in Java 106 After 1900 upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch with the goal of modernising the economy facilitating commerce and speeding up military movements By 1950 Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12 000 km of asphalted surface 41 000 km of metalled road area and 16 000 km of gravel surfaces 107 In addition the Dutch built 7 500 kilometres 4 700 mi of railways bridges irrigation systems covering 1 4 million hectares 5 400 sq mi of rice fields several harbours and 140 public drinking water systems Wim Ravesteijn has said that With these public works Dutch engineers constructed the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state 108 Culture EditLanguage and literature Edit See also Dutch Indies literature Perhimpunan Pelajar Pelajar Indonesia Indonesian Students Union delegates in Youth Pledge an important event where Indonesian language was decided to be the national language 1928 Across the archipelago hundreds of native languages are used and Malay or Portuguese Creole the existing languages of trade were adopted Prior to 1870 when Dutch colonial influence was largely restricted to Java Malay was used in government schools and training programs such that graduates could communicate with groups from other regions who immigrated to Java 109 The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based on the version from Riau and Malacca and dictionaries were commissioned for governmental communication and schools for indigenous peoples 110 In the early 20th century Indonesia s independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau and called it Indonesian In the latter half of the 19th century the rest of the archipelago in which hundreds of language groups were used was brought under Dutch control In extending the native education program to these areas the government stipulated this standard Malay as the language of the colony 111 Dutch was not made the official language of the colony and was not widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population 112 The majority of legally acknowledged Dutchmen were bilingual Indo Eurasians 113 Dutch was used by only a limited educated elite and in 1942 around two percent of the total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians 114 A number of Dutch loan words are used in present day Indonesian particularly technical terms see List of Dutch loan words in Indonesian These words generally had no alternative in Malay and were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into which concepts are part of the Dutch colonial heritage Hendrik Maier of the University of California says that about a fifth of the contemporary Indonesian language can be traced to Dutch 115 Dutch language literature has been inspired by both colonial and postcolonial Indies from the Dutch Golden Age to the present day It includes Dutch Indo European and Indonesian authors Its subject matter thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era but also includes postcolonial discourse Masterpieces of this genre include Multatuli s Max Havelaar Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company Louis Couperus s Hidden Force E du Perron s Country of Origin and Maria Dermout s The Ten Thousand Things 116 117 Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo European authors However in the first half of the 20th century under the Ethical Policy indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands to study and work They wrote Dutch language literary works and published literature in literary reviews such as Het Getij De Gemeenschap Links Richten and Forum By exploring new literary themes and focusing on indigenous protagonists they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous plight Examples include the Javanese prince and poet Noto Soeroto a writer and journalist and the Dutch language writings of Soewarsih Djojopoespito Chairil Anwar Kartini Sutan Sjahrir and Sukarno 118 Much of the postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo European authors led by the avant garde visionary Tjalie Robinson who is the best read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia 119 and second generation Indo European immigrants such as Marion Bloem Visual art Edit The romantic depiction of De Grote Postweg near Buitenzorg The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of artists and painters that mostly capture the romantic scenes of colonial Indies The term Mooi Indie Dutch for Beautiful Indies was originally coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel s watercolor paintings which depicted the scene of East Indies published in Amsterdam in 1930 The term became famous in 1939 after S Sudjojono used it to mock the painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies 120 Mooi Indie later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes mostly natural scenes of mountains volcanoes rice paddies river valleys villages with scenes of native servants nobles and sometimes bare chested native women Some of the notable Mooi Indie painters are European artists F J du Chattel Manus Bauer Nieuwkamp Isaac Israel PAJ Moojen Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli it East Indies born Dutch painters Henry van Velthuijzen Charles Sayers Ernest Dezentje Leonard Eland and Jan Frank Native painters Raden Saleh Mas Pirngadi Abdullah Surisubroto Wakidi Basuki Abdullah Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk and also Chinese painters Lee Man Fong Oei Tiang Oen and Siauw Tik Kwie These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw Theosofie Vereeniging Kunstzaal Kolff amp Co and Hotel Des Indes Theatre and film Edit See also List of films of the Dutch East Indies List of film producers of the Dutch East Indies and List of film directors of the Dutch East Indies Bioscoop Mimosa cinema in Batu Java 1941 A total of 112 fictional films are known to have been produced in the Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony s dissolution in 1949 The earliest motion pictures imported from abroad were shown in late 1900 121 and by the early 1920s imported serials and fictional films were being shown often with localised names 122 Dutch companies were also producing documentary films about the Indies to be shown in the Netherlands 123 The first locally produced film Loetoeng Kasaroeng was directed by L Heuveldorp and released on 31 December 1926 124 Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released During the mid 1930s production dropped as a result of the Great Depression 125 The rate of production declined again after the Japanese occupation beginning in early 1942 closing all but one film studio 126 The majority of films produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts 127 Following the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945 and during the ensuing revolution several films were made by both pro Dutch and pro Indonesian backers 128 129 Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with traditional stories or were adapted from existing works 130 The early films were silent with Karnadi Anemer Bangkong Karnadi the Frog Contractor 1930 generally considered the first talkie 131 later films would be in Dutch Malay or an indigenous language All were black and white The American visual anthropologist Karl G Heider writes that all films from before 1950 are lost 132 However JB Kristanto s Katalog Film Indonesia Indonesian Film Catalogue records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia s archives and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service 133 Theatre plays by playwrights such as Victor Ido 1869 1948 were performed at the Schouwburg Weltevreden now known as Gedung Kesenian Jakarta A less elite form of theatre popular with both European and indigenous people were the travelling Indo theatre shows known as Komedie Stamboel made popular by Auguste Mahieu 1865 1903 Science Edit Museum and lab of the Buitenzorg Plantentuin The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies attracted European intellectuals scientists and researchers Some notable scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies archipelago are Teijsmann Junghuhn Eijkman Dubois and Wallace Many important art culture and science institutions were established in Dutch East Indies For example the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences the predecessor of the National Museum of Indonesia was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences especially history archaeology ethnography and physics The Bogor Botanical Gardens with Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817 with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago Java Man was discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891 The Komodo dragon was first described by Peter Ouwens in 1912 after an aeroplane crash accident in 1911 and rumours about living dinosaurs in Komodo Island in 1910 Vitamin B1 and its relation to beriberi disease was discovered by Eijkman during his work in the Indies With growing interest in scientific research the government of the Dutch East Indies established Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch Indie Scientific Council of the Dutch East Indies in 1928 134 It operated as the country s main research organization until the outbreak of World War II in Asia Pacific in 1942 In 1948 the institute was renamed Organisatie voor Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek Organisation for Scientific Research This organization was the predecessor of the current Indonesian Institute of Sciences 135 Cuisine Edit See also Indonesian cuisine Dutch family enjoying a large Rijsttafel dinner 1936 The Dutch colonial families through their domestic servants and cooks were exposed to Indonesian cuisine as the result they developed a taste for native tropical spices and dishes A notable Dutch East Indies colonial dish is rijsttafel the rice table that consists of 7 to 40 popular dishes from across the colony More an extravagant banquet than a dish the Dutch colonials introduced the rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide array of dishes at a single setting but also to impress visitors with the exotic abundance of their colony 136 Through colonialism the Dutch introduced European dishes such as bread cheese barbecued steak and pancake As the producer of cash crops coffee and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies Bread butter and margarine sandwiches filled with ham cheese or fruit jam poffertjes pannekoek and Dutch cheeses were commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indos during the colonial era Some of the native upperclass ningrat nobles and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch influenced they include selat solo solo salad bistik jawa Javanese beef steak semur from Dutch smoor sayur kacang merah brenebon and sop buntut Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences such as kue bolu tart pandan cake lapis legit spekkoek spiku lapis Surabaya klappertaart coconut tart and kaasstengels cheese cookies Kue cubit commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes 137 Architecture Edit Main article Colonial architecture of Indonesia See also List of colonial buildings and structures in Jakarta The 16th and 17th century arrivals of European powers in Indonesia introduced masonry construction to Indonesia where previously timber and its by products had been almost exclusively used In the 17th and 18th centuries Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city 138 For almost two centuries the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical climate 139 They built row houses which were poorly ventilated with small windows which was thought as protection against tropical diseases coming from tropical air 139 Years later the Dutch learnt to adapt their architectural styles with local building features long eaves verandahs porticos large windows and ventilation openings 140 and the 18th century Dutch Indies country houses was one of the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and adapt to the climate the known as Indies Style 141 Ceremonial Hall Bandung Institute of Technology Bandung designed by architect Henri Maclaine Pont From the end of the 19th century significant improvements to technology communications and transportation brought new wealth to Java Modernistic buildings including train stations business hotels factories and office blocks hospitals and education institutions were influenced by international styles The early 20th century trend was for modernist influences such as art deco being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian trim Practical responses to the environment carried over from the earlier Indies Style included overhanging eaves larger windows and ventilation in the walls which gave birth to the New Indies Style 142 The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java such as Bandung Jakarta Semarang and Surabaya Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers Thomas Karsten Henri Maclaine Pont J Gerber and C P W Schoemaker 143 In the first three decades of the 20th century the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended 144 A lack of development in the Great Depression the turmoil of the Second World War and the Indonesia s independence struggle of the 1940s and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 1960s meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades 145 Colonial homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch Indonesian and Chinese elites however the styles were often rich and creative combinations of two cultures so much so that the homes remain sought after into the 21st century 141 Native architecture was arguably more influenced by the new European ideas than colonial architecture was influenced by Indonesian styles and these Western elements continue to be a dominant influence on Indonesia s built environment today Fashion Edit Javanese nobles adopted and mixed some aspects of European fashion such as this couple in 1890 Within the colony of the Dutch East Indies fashion played an important role to define ones status and social class The European colonials wore European fashion straight out of the Netherlands or even Paris while the natives wore their traditional clothings that are distinct in every region As the years progressed and the Dutch influence became stronger many natives began mixing European styles within their traditional clothing High ranking natives within the colony as well as nobility would wear European style suits with their batik sarongs for special occasions and even for everyday use More and more native Indonesians began to dress more European This of course came with the idea that those who wore European clothing were more progressive and open towards a European society and the etiquette that came with it More and more the European influence was gaining precedence within native Indonesians This probably stems from the fact that many natives were treated better if they wore European clothing Their European counterparts acknowledged them and that in turn was most likely a catalyst for adoption western clothing into traditional Indonesian clothing 146 Dutch colonial couple in the early 20th century wearing native batik and kebaya fashion The fashion influences between colonials and natives was a reciprocal phenomenon Just as the Europeans influences the natives the natives too influenced the European colonials For example the thick European fabrics was considered too hot to wear in tropical climate Thus the light clothing of thin kebaya fabrics and the comfortable and easy to wear batik sarong are considered quite suitable for everyday clothing in hot and humid climate of the East Indies Later on in the history of the Dutch East Indies as a new wave of Europeans were brought into the colony many adopted the Indonesian styles many even went so far as to wear traditional Javanese kebaya at home 147 Batik was also a big influence for the Dutch The technique was so fascinating to them that they took the technique to their colonies in Africa where it was adopted with African patterns 148 For the most part Europeans in the Dutch East Indies stuck to traditional European styles of dressing Fashion trends from Paris were still highly regarded and considered the epitome of style Women wore dresses and skirts and men wore pants and shirts Colonial heritage in the Netherlands Edit Dutch imperial imagery representing the Dutch East Indies 1916 The text reads Netherlands most precious jewel When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815 much of its wealth came from Colonial trade 149 Universities such as the Royal Leiden University founded in the 16th century have developed into leading knowledge centres about Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies 150 Leiden University has produced academics such as Colonial adviser Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje who specialised in native oriental Indonesian affairs and it still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art culture ethnography and anthropology 92 The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army and the dedicated Bronbeek Museum a former home for retired KNIL soldiers exists in Arnhem to this day source source source source source source Dutch newsreel dated 1927 showing a Dutch East Indian fair in the Netherlands featuring Indo and Indigenous people from the Dutch East Indies performing traditional dance and music in traditional attire 151 Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who moved back to the Netherlands after independence tended to look back on the colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the colony with such items as the 1970s book Tempo Doeloe Old times by author Rob Nieuwenhuys and other books and materials that became quite common in the 1970s and 1980s 152 Moreover since the 18th century Dutch literature has a large number of established authors such as Louis Couperus the writer of The Hidden Force taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration 153 In fact one of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book Max Havelaar written by Multatuli in 1860 154 The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo Eurasian native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community 155 In Dutch they are referred to as Indo short for Indo European Of the 296 200 so called Dutch repatriants only 92 200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands 156 Including their second generation descendants they are currently the largest foreign born group in the Netherlands In 2008 the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics CBS 157 registered 387 000 first and second generation Indos living in the Netherlands 158 Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands these Repatriants have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture Practically each town in the Netherlands will have a Toko Dutch Indonesian Shop or Indonesian restaurant 159 and many Pasar Malam night market in Malay Indonesian fairs are organised throughout the year Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Dutch cuisine Rijsttafel a colonial culinary concept and dishes such as nasi goreng and sate are still very popular in the Netherlands 137 See also Edit Indonesia portal Netherlands portal New Guinea portalFreemasonry in the Dutch East Indies Poenale sanctie Postage stamps and postal history of the Dutch East Indies The Portuguese in Indonesia Netherlands Indies guldenNotes Edit Princely States Incorporated to the Sumatra Governorate in 1938 as High CommissionerReferences Edit Dick Howard W 2002 Surabaya City Of Work A Socioeconomic History 1900 2000 Ohio RIS Southeast Asia Series Ohio University Press ISBN 978 0896802216 Page The New International Encyclopaedia 1st ed v 18 djvu 816 Wikisource the free online library en wikisource org Archived from the original on 24 December 2018 Retrieved 27 December 2018 INDES NEERLANDAISES Passeport 1931 DUTCH EAST INDIES Passport Revenues Delcampe net Archived from the original on 27 May 2015 Retrieved 27 May 2015 Hart Jonathan 26 February 2008 Empires and Colonies ISBN 9780745626130 Archived from the original on 18 March 2015 Retrieved 19 July 2015 Booth Anne et al Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era 1990 Ch 8 R B Cribb and A Kahin p 118 Robert Elson The idea of Indonesia A history 2008 pp 1 12 Ricklefs M C 1991 A History of Modern Indonesian since c 1300 Second ed Houndmills Baingstoke Hampshire and London The Macmillan Press Limited pp 271 297 ISBN 0 333 57690 X Dagh register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer ter plaetse als over geheel Nederlandts India anno 1624 1629 The official register at Castle Batavia of the census of the Dutch East Indies Vol VOC 1624 Gouda Frances Dutch Culture Overseas Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies 1900 1942 1996 online Archived 9 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Taylor 2003 a b c Ricklefs 1991 p 27 a b Vickers 2005 p 10 Ricklefs 1991 p 110 Vickers 2005 p 10 a b c d e f g h i j k l Witton Patrick 2003 Indonesia Melbourne Lonely Planet pp 23 25 ISBN 1 74059 154 2 Luc Nagtegaal Riding the Dutch Tiger The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java 1680 1743 1996 Schwarz A 1994 A Nation in Waiting Indonesia in the 1990s Westview Press pp 3 4 ISBN 1 86373 635 2 Kumar Ann 1997 Java Hong Kong Periplus Editions p 44 ISBN 962 593 244 5 Ricklefs 1991 pp 111 114 KERAJAAN ADAT KEPAKSIAN PERNONG SEKALA BRAK MENJAWAB SEJARAH compressed PDF Paksi Pak Skala Brak Gedung Dalam Kepaksian Pernong 11 February 2022 a b c Ricklefs 1991 p 131 Vickers 2005 p 10 Ricklefs 1991 p 131 Ricklefs 1991 p 142 a b c d e f Friend 2003 p 21 Ricklefs 1991 pp 138 139 Winchester Simon 2005 Krakatoa the day the world exploded August 27 1883 New York pp Ch 9 ISBN 0 06 083859 0 OCLC 61770835 Vickers 2005 p 13 a b c Vickers 2005 p 14 a b c Reid 1974 p 1 Tom Phijffer Het gelijk van Multatuli blz 42 Amsterdam 2000 Bas Lubberhuizen ISBN 90 76314 42X a b c P de Zwart D Gallardo Albarran A The Demographic Effects of Colonialism Forced Labor and Mortality in Java 1834 1879 Wageningen University amp Research WUR amp Universiteit Utrecht 2021 Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories New Haven and London Yale University Press p 254 ISBN 978 0 300 10518 6 Van Klaveren M Death among Coolies Mortality of Chinese and Javanese Labourers on Sumatra in the Early Years of Recruitment 1882 1909 Cambridge Journals 1997 J Breman Controversial Views on Writinc Colonial History 2011 Cambridge University Press Makdoembaks N Foute dokters en de tabaksindustrie van Sumatra Uitgeverij de Woordenwinkel 2019 Van den Brand J De miljoenen uit Deli 1902 Breman J C Koelies planters en koloniale politiek Het arbeidsregime op de grootlandbouwondernemingen aan Sumatra s Oostkust in het begin van de twintigste eeuw Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk instituut voor taal land en volkenkunde CXXIII Dordrecht Foris Publications 1987 Baay Reggie 2010 Nyai amp Pergundikan di Hindia Belanda Nyai amp Concubinage in the Dutch East Indies in Indonesian Jakarta Komunitas Bambu ISBN 978 979 3731 78 0 Jack Ford The Forlorn Ally The Netherlands East Indies in 1942 War amp Society 1993 11 1 pp 105 127 Herman Theodore Bussemaker Paradise in Peril The Netherlands Great Britain and the Defence of the Netherlands East Indies 1940 41 Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 2000 31 1 pp 115 136 Morison 1948 p 191 Ricklefs 1991 p 195 L Klemen 1999 2000 The Netherlands East Indies 1941 42 Forgotten Campaign The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 1942 Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Shigeru Satō War nationalism and peasants Java under the Japanese occupation 1942 1945 1997 p 43 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online 2007 Indonesia Japanese occupation Archived from the original on 9 February 2007 Retrieved 21 January 2007 Though initially welcomed as liberators the Japanese gradually established themselves as harsh overlords Their policies fluctuated according to the exigencies of the war but in general their primary object was to make the Indies serve Japanese war needs Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman 1998 Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires Indigenous Cultures and Slaves PDF Eighteenth Century Studies 31 3 349 355 doi 10 1353 ecs 1998 0021 hdl 20 500 11755 c467167b 2084 413c a3c7 f390f9b3a092 S2CID 161921454 Archived PDF from the original on 19 July 2018 Ricklefs M C 1993 History of Modern Indonesia Since c 1300 second edition London MacMillan ISBN 0 333 57689 6 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Forces and Society Armed Forces amp Society 31 4 537 558 doi 10 1177 0095327X0503100405 S2CID 145692923 R B Cribb and A Kahin p 108 R B Cribb and A Kahin p 140 R B Cribb and A Kahin pp 87 295 Vickers 2005 p 15 Cribb R B Kahin pp 140 amp 405 Harry J Benda S L van der Wal De Volksraad en de staatkundige ontwikkeling van Nederlandsch Indie The Peoples Council and the political development of the Netherlands Indies With an introduction and survey of the documents in English Publisher J B Wolters Leiden 1965 Tagliacozzo Eric 2009 Southeast Asia and the Middle East Islam Movement and the Longue Duree NUS Press p 177 ISBN 978 9971 69 424 1 Note The European legal class was not solely based on race restrictions and included Dutch people other Europeans but also native Indo Europeans Indo Chinese and indigenous people a b Virtueel Indi Archived from the original on 31 March 2012 Retrieved 25 August 2011 Note Adat law communities were formally established throughout the archipelago e g Minangkabau See Cribb R B Kahin p 140 http alterisk ru lj IndonesiaLegalOverview pdf permanent dead link Note The female Boeloe prison in Semarang which housed both European and indigenous women had separate sleeping rooms with cots and mosquito nets for elite indigenous women and women in the European legal class Sleeping on the floor like the female peasantry was considered an intolerable aggravation of the legal sanction See Baudet H Brugmans I J Balans van beleid Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands Indie Publisher Van Gorcum Assen 1984 Baudet H Brugmans I J Balans van beleid Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands Indie Publisher Van Gorcum Assen 1984 P 76 121 130 Chapter 4 The Netherlands Indies 1800 1942 Digital Atlas of Indonesian History by Robert Cribb Archived from the original on 19 January 2012 Retrieved 19 January 2012 sourced from Cribb R B 2010 Digital atlas of indonesian history Nias ISBN 978 87 91114 66 3 from the earlier volume Cribb R B Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2000 Historical atlas of Indonesia Curzon Singapore New Asian Library ISBN 978 0 7007 0985 4 Blakely Allison 2001 Blacks in the Dutch World The Evolution of Racial Imagery in a Modern Society Indiana University Press p 15 ISBN 0 253 31191 8 Cribb R B 2004 Historical dictionary of Indonesia Scarecrow Press Lanham USA ISBN 0 8108 4935 6 p 221 1 Archived 23 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Note The KNIL statistics of 1939 show at least 13 500 Javanese and Sundanese under arms compared to 4 000 Ambonese soldiers Source Netherlands Ministry of Defense Archived 1 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Nicholas Tarling ed 1992 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume 2 the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Cambridge U P p 104 ISBN 9780521355063 Archived from the original on 23 April 2016 Retrieved 19 July 2015 Groen Petra 2012 Colonial warfare and military ethics in the Netherlands East Indies 1816 1941 Journal of Genocide Research 14 3 277 296 doi 10 1080 14623528 2012 719365 S2CID 145012445 Willems Wim Sporen van een Indisch verleden 1600 1942 COMT Leiden 1994 Chapter I P 32 33 ISBN 90 71042 44 8 Willems Wim Sporen van een Indisch verleden 1600 1942 COMT Leiden 1994 Chapter I P 32 36 ISBN 90 71042 44 8 John Sydenham Furnivall Colonial Policy and Practice A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1948 236 Klemen L 1999 2000 Dutch East Indies 1941 1942 Dutch East Indies Campaign website Archived from the original on 26 July 2011 Last Post the End of Empire in the Far East John Keay ISBN 0 7195 5589 2 plechtigheden in Djakarta bij de opheffing van het KNIL Polygoon 1950 3 min 20 embed 1 Video footage showing the official ceremony disbanding the KNIL Archived from the original on 27 September 2011 Retrieved 21 April 2019 John Keegan page 314 World Armies ISBN 0 333 17236 1 Furnivall J S 1967 1939 Netherlands India a Study of Plural Economy Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 9 ISBN 0 521 54262 6 Cited in Vicker Adrian 2005 A History of Modern Indonesia Cambridge University Press pp 9 ISBN 0 521 54262 6 Beck Sanderson 2008 South Asia 1800 1950 World Peace Communications ISBN 0 9792532 3 3 ISBN 978 0 9792532 3 2 By 1930 more European women had arrived in the colony and they made up 113 000 out of the 240 000 Europeans Van Nimwegen Nico De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders Report no 64 Publisher NIDI The Hague 2002 P 36 ISBN 9789070990923 Van Nimwegen Nico 2002 64 PDF De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders The demography of the Dutch in the East Indies The Hague NIDI p 35 ISBN 9789070990923 Archived from the original PDF on 23 July 2011 Vickers 2005 p 9 Reid 1974 p 170 171 Cornelis Willem Jan 2008 De Privaatrechterlijke Toestand Der Vreemde Oosterlingen Op Java En Madoera The private law situation Java and Madoera PDF Bibiliobazaar ISBN 978 0 559 23498 9 Archived PDF from the original on 24 July 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Cribb Robert Development policy in the early 20th century Indonesia in Jan Paul Dirkse Frans Husken and Mario Rutten eds Development and social welfare Indonesia s experiences under the New Order 1993 2 Archived 23 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine a b c Taylor 2003 p 286 Taylor 2003 p 287 a b TU Delft Colonial influence remains strong in Indonesia Note In 2010 according to University Ranking by Academic Performance URAP Universitas Indonesia was the best university in Indonesia URAP University Ranking by Academic Performance Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Retrieved 18 April 2012 Dick et al 2002 Ricklefs 1991 p 119 a b Taylor 2003 p 240 Waarde van de gulden euro www iisg nl Promotie Huib Ekkelenkamp op 9 april 2019 TU Delft KIVI Indonesia s Infrastructure Problems A Legacy From Dutch Colonialism The Jakarta Globe Archived from the original on 24 November 2012 Zwart Pim de Gallardo Albarran Daniel Rijpma Auke 2022 The Demographic Effects of Colonialism Forced Labor and Mortality in Java 1834 1879 The Journal of Economic History 82 211 249 doi 10 1017 S0022050721000577 ISSN 0022 0507 S2CID 247012562 Dick et al 2002 p 95 Vickers 2005 p 20 Vickers 2005 p 16 Vickers 2005 p 18 Dick et al 2002 p 97 ten Horn van Nispen Marie Louise Ravesteijn Wim 2009 The road to an empire Organisation and technology of road construction in the Dutch East Indies 1800 1940 Journal of Transport History 10 1 40 57 doi 10 7227 TJTH 30 1 5 S2CID 110005354 Ravesteijn Wim 2007 Between Globalization and Localization The Case of Dutch Civil Engineering in Indonesia 1800 1950 Comparative Technology Transfer and Society 5 1 32 64 quote p 32 doi 10 1353 ctt 2007 0017 Taylor 2003 p 288 Sneddon james 2003 The Indonesian language its history and role in modern society UNSW Press Sydney 2003 P 87 89 3 Archived 23 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Taylor 2003 p 289 Groeneboer Kees Weg tot het Westen Road to the West Corn Charles 1999 First publicshed 1998 The Scents of Eden A History of the Spice Trade Kodansha America p 203 ISBN 1 56836 249 8 The Portuguese language rolled more easily off Malay tongues than did Dutch or English Ironically if any European tongue was the language of merchant intercourse even in Batavia it was Portuguese Meijer Hans 2004 In Indie geworteld Publisher Bert bakker ISBN 90 351 2617 3 P 33 35 36 76 77 371 389 4 Groeneboer K 1993 Weg tot het westen Het Nederlands voor Indie 1600 1950 Publisher KITLEV Leiden 5 Maier H M J 8 February 2005 A Hidden Language Dutch in Indonesia Institute of European Studies University of California Archived from the original on 19 January 2012 Retrieved 16 August 2010 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Nieuwenhuys 1999 pp 126 191 225 Note In December 1958 American Time magazine praised the translation of Maria Dermout s The Ten Thousand Things and named it one of the best books of the year among several other iconic literary works of 1958 Breakfast at Tiffany s by Truman Capote Doctor Zhivago by Pasternak and Lolita by Nabokov See Official Maria Dermout Website Archived 2 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine International Conference on Colonial and Post Colonial Connections in Dutch Literature University of California Berkeley Website 2011 Archived 13 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 24 September 2011 Nieuwenhuys Rob Oost Indische spiegel Wat Nederlandse schrijvers en dichters over Indonesie hebben geschreven vanaf de eerste jaren der Compagnie tot op heden Publisher Querido Amsterdam 1978 p 555 6 Archived 28 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine Error Archived from the original on 1 November 2011 Retrieved 27 September 2011 Biran 2009 p 27 Biran 2009 p 35 Biran 2009 p 54 Biran 2009 pp 61 68 Biran 2009 p 145 Biran 2009 pp 319 332 Biran 2009 pp 334 340 Biran 2009 pp 367 370 Kahin 1952 p 445 sfn error no target CITEREFKahin1952 help Heider 1991 p 15 Prayogo 2009 p 14 Heider 1991 p 14 Biran 2009 p 351 NATUURWETENSCHAPPELIJKE raad voor Nederlandsch Indie te Batavia opac perpusnas go id Retrieved 12 March 2020 Selamat Ulang Tahun LIPI lipi go id in Indonesian Retrieved 12 March 2020 Geotravel Research Center The rise and fall of Indonesia s rice table Archived from the original on 7 October 2011 Retrieved 23 September 2011 a b Karin Engelbrecht Dutch Food Influences History of Dutch Food Culinary Influences on the Dutch Kitchen About Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 Retrieved 22 September 2011 Schoppert 1997 pp 38 39 a b Dawson B Gillow J The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia p 8 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd London ISBN 0 500 34132 X W Wangsadinata and T K Djajasudarma 1995 Architectural Design Consideration for Modern Buildings in Indonesia PDF INDOBEX Conf on Building Construction Technology for the Future Construction Technology for Highrises amp Intelligence Buildings Jakarta Archived from the original PDF on 14 June 2007 Retrieved 18 January 2007 a b Schoppert 1997 pp 72 77 Schoppert 1997 pp 104 105 Schoppert 1997 pp 102 105 VIckers 2005 p 24 Schoppert 1997 p 105 Pentasari R 2007 Chic in kebaya catatan inspiratif untuk tampil anggun berkebaya Jakarta Esensi Legene S amp Dijk J V 2011 The Netherlands East Indies at the Tropenmuseum a colonial history Amsterdam KIT p 146 Indonesian Batik intangible heritage Culture Sector UNESCO www unesco org Archived from the original on 3 May 2017 Retrieved 19 April 2017 To this day the Dutch Royal family is in fact the wealthiest family of the Netherlands one of the foundations of its wealth was the colonial trade In Pictures The World s Richest Royals Forbes com 30 August 2007 Archived from the original on 6 October 2008 Retrieved 5 March 2010 Some of the university faculties still include Indonesian Languages and Cultures Southeast Asia and Oceania Languages and Cultures Cultural Anthropology Note 1927 garden party at the country estate Arendsdorp on the Wassenaarse weg near The Hague for the benefit of the victims of the storm disaster of 2 June 1927 in the Netherlands The market is opened by the minister of Colonies dr J C Koningsberger Nieuwenhuys Robert 1973 Tempo doeloe fotografische documenten uit het oude Indie 1870 1914 door E Breton de Nijs pseud of Robert Nieuwenhuys Amsterdam Querido ISBN 90 214 1103 2 noting that the era wasn t fixed by any dates noting the use of Tio Tek Hong 2006 Keadaan Jakarta tempo doeloe sebuah kenangan 1882 1959 Depok Masup Jakarta ISBN 979 25 7291 0 Nieuwenhuys 1999 Etty Elsbeth literary editor for the NRC handelsblad Novels Coming to terms with Calvinism colonies and the war NRC Handelsblad July 1998 7 Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Bosma U Raben R Being Dutch in the Indies a history of creolisation and empire 1500 1920 University of Michigan NUS Press 2008 ISBN 9971 69 373 9 8 Archived 23 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Willems Wim De uittocht uit Indie 1945 1995 Publisher Bert Bakker Amsterdam 2001 pp 12 13 ISBN 90 351 2361 1 Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics Archived from the original on 11 June 2010 Retrieved 1 June 2010 De Vries Marlene Indisch is een gevoel de tweede en derde generatie Indische Nederlanders Amsterdam University Press 2009 ISBN 978 90 8964 125 0 IMES Second amp third generations Dutch Eurasians Archived from the original on 17 August 2009 Retrieved 4 February 2016 9 Archived 7 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine P 369 Startpagina B V Indisch eten Startpagina verzameling van interessante links Archived from the original on 30 March 2010 Retrieved 14 October 2010 Bibliography Edit Biran Misbach Yusa 2009 Sejarah Film 1900 1950 Bikin Film di Jawa History of Film 1900 1950 Making Films in Java in Indonesian Jakarta Komunitas Bamboo working with the Jakarta Art Council ISBN 978 979 3731 58 2 Cribb R B Kahin A Historical dictionary of Indonesia Scarecrow Press 2004 Dick Howard et al The Emergence of a National Economy An Economic History of Indonesia 1800 2000 U of Hawaii Press 2002 online edition Friend T 2003 Indonesian Destinies Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 01137 6 Heider Karl G 1991 Indonesian Cinema National Culture on Screen Honolulu University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 1367 3 Reid Anthony 1974 The Indonesian National Revolution 1945 1950 Melbourne Longman Pty Ltd ISBN 0 582 71046 4 Nieuwenhuys Rob Mirror of the Indies A History of Dutch Colonial Literature translated from Dutch by E M Beekman Publisher Periplus 1999 Google Books Prayogo Wisnu Agung 2009 Sekilas Perkembangan Perfilman di Indonesia An Overview of the Development of Film in Indonesia Kebijakan Pemerintahan Orde Baru Terhadap Perfilman Indonesia Tahun 1966 1980 New Order Policy Towards Indonesian Films 1966 1980 Bachelor s of History Thesis in Indonesian University of Indonesia Ricklefs M C 1991 A Modern History of Indonesia 2nd edition MacMillan chapters 10 15 ISBN 0 333 57690 X Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories New Haven and London Yale University Press ISBN 0 300 10518 5 Vickers Adrian 2005 A History of Modern Indonesia Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 54262 6 Further reading Edit Booth Anne et al Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era 1990 Borschberg Peter The Dutch East Indies 2016 doi 10 1002 9781118455074 wbeoe276 Bosma U Raben R Being Dutch in the Indies a history of creolisation and empire 1500 1920 University of Michigan NUS Press 2008 ISBN 9971 69 373 9 10 Bosma Ulbe Emigration Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2011 retrieved 23 May 2011 Colombijn Freek and Thomas Lindblad eds Roots of violence in Indonesia Contemporary violence in historical perspective Leiden KITLV Press 2002 Dick Howard et al The Emergence of a National Economy An Economic History of Indonesia 1800 2000 U of Hawaii Press 2002 online edition Elson Robert The idea of Indonesia A history Cambridge University Press 2008 Braudel Fernand The perspective of the World vol III in Civilization and Capitalism 1984 Furnivall J S 1944 Netherlands India A Study of Plural Economy Cambridge U P p viii ISBN 9781108011273 comprehensive coverage Gouda Frances Dutch Culture Overseas Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies 1900 1942 1996 online Nagtegaal Luc Riding the Dutch Tiger The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java 1680 1743 1996 250pp Robins Nick The Corporation that Changed the World How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational 2006 excerpt and text search Taylor Jean Gelman The Social World of Batavia Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia 1983 Lindblad J Thomas 1989 The Petroleum Industry in Indonesia before the Second World War Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 25 2 53 77 doi 10 1080 00074918812331335569 Panikkar K M 1953 Asia and Western dominance 1498 1945 by K M Panikkar London G Allen and Unwin External links Edit Media related to Dutch East Indies at Wikimedia Commons 11 Dutch Indies objects in The European Library Harvest Cribb Robert Digital Atlas of Indonesian History Chapter 4 The Netherlands Indies 1800 1942 Digital Atlas of Indonesian History By Robert Cribb Historical Documents of the Dutch Parliament 1814 1995 Archived 4 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj French Rule in Indochina Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East Indies Indonesia and American Rule in the Philippines Yasuo Uemura The Sugar Estates in Besuki and the Depression Hiroshima Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities Vol 4 page 30 78 Yasuo Uemura The Depression and the Sugar Industry in Surabaya Hiroshima Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities Vol 3 page 1 54 Surabaya Collier s New Encyclopedia 1921 Surabaya or Soerabaya The largest city in Java New International Encyclopedia 1905 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Dutch East Indies amp oldid 1132096619, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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