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East Turkestan

February 15, 2024

Not to be confused with Chinese Turkestan, an older geographical term. For the government-in-exile that claims East Turkestan, see East Turkistan Government in Exile. For the Chinese province-level division that corresponds to the region, see Xinjiang.

East Turkestan or East Turkistan (Uyghur: شەرقىي تۈركىستان, ULY: Sherqiy Türkistan, UKY: Шәрқий Туркистан), also called Uyghuristan (ئۇيغۇرىستان, Уйғуристан), is a loosely-defined geographical region in the northwestern part of the People's Republic of China, which varies in meaning by context and usage. The term was coined in the 19th century by Russian Turkologists, including Nikita Bichurin, who intended the name to replace the common Western term for the region, "Chinese Turkestan", which referred to the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang or Xinjiang as a whole[6] during the Qing dynasty. Beginning in the 17th century, Altishahr, which means "Six Cities" in Uyghur, became the Uyghur name for the Tarim Basin. Uyghurs also called the Tarim Basin "Yettishar," which means "Seven Cities," and even "Sekkizshahr", which means "Eight Cities" in Uyghur. Chinese dynasties from the Han dynasty to the Tang dynasty had called an overlapping area the "Western Regions".

East Turkestan
شەرقىي تۈركىستان (Uyghur)
Extent of East Turkestan in Central Asia, per the East Turkistan Government in Exile
Largest cityÜrümqi
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
Formation
• State of Yettishar (Kashgaria)
November 12, 1864
November 12, 1933
November 12, 1944
September 14, 2004
Area
• Total
1,828,418 km2 (705,956 sq mi), as claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile[2]
Population
• Estimate
24,870,000[3]
30–40 million (claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile and the World Uyghur Congress)[2][4]
Time zoneÜrümqi Time (UTC+06:00)[5]

Starting in the 20th century, Uyghur separatists and their supporters used East Turkestan as an appellation for the whole of Xinjiang (the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria) or for a future independent state in present-day Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. They reject the name Xinjiang (meaning "New Frontier" in Chinese)[7] because of the Chinese perspective reflected in the name, and prefer East Turkestan to emphasize the connection to other, western Turkic groups.

The First East Turkestan Republic existed from November 12, 1933, to April 16, 1934, and the Second East Turkestan Republic existed between November 12, 1944, and December 22, 1949.[8] East Turkestan is a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) formed in 1991, where it was represented by the World Uyghur Congress.[9] In September 2004, the East Turkistan Government in Exile was established in Washington, D.C.

Etymology edit

The term "East Turkestan" was coined in the 19th century by Russian Turkologists, including Nikita Bichurin, who intended the name to replace the common Western term for the region, "Chinese Turkestan", which referred to the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang or sometimes Xinjiang as a whole during the Qing dynasty. The term "Uyghuristan" means 'land of Uyghurs'.[10][11] The latter name was given to the region by medieval Muslim geographers.[12]

History edit

See also: History of Xinjiang, Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin, and Migration to Xinjiang

Pre-20th century edit

 
Cities of the Tarim Basin region, 1 BC

In China, the term Western Regions (Chinese: 西域; pinyin: Xīyù; Wade–Giles: Hsi1-yü4; Uyghur: Qurighar, Қуриғар)[13][14] referred to the regions west of the Yumen Pass. During the 2nd century BC, Chinese writers called the city states of the northern and southern rim of the Taklamakan Desert the "Walled city-states of the Western Regions".[15] In 60 BC, the Han dynasty established the Protectorate of the Western Regions "in charge of all the oasis-states of the Tarim Basin" which they ruled in indirectly with small agricultural military colonies.[15] The Protector General was stationed at Wulei (west of Karasahr,[16] in present Luntai County[17]). The city-states were able to conduct their own independent policies with each other. After the Western Han period that ended in 9 AD, China lost its authority over the Western Regions until it was restored in 94 AD and officially lasted until 107 AD.[15] After the crackdown of internal separatist forces, the Eastern Han dynasty set up another protectorate known as the Chief Official of the Western Regions instead.[18] Since the Han, successive Chinese governments had to deal with secessionist movements and local rebellions from different peoples in the region.[19] However, even when Xinjiang was not under Chinese political control, Xinjiang has long had "close contacts with China" that distinguish it from the independent Turkic countries of Central Asia.[20] The Gökturks, known in ancient Chinese with pronunciation as Tutkyud as well as modern Chinese pronunciation as Tujue (Tu-chueh; Chinese: 突厥; pinyin: Tūjué; Wade–Giles: T'u1-chüeh2), united the Turkic peoples and created a large empire, which broke into various Khanates or Khaganates; the Western Turkic Khaganate inherited Xinjiang, but West Tujue became part of China's Tang dynasty until the ninth century. However, the terms for West Tujue and East Tujue do not have any relation with the terms West and East Turkestan.[19] "Turkestan", which means "region of the Turks", was defined by Arab geographers in the ninth and tenth centuries as the areas northeast of the Sir River.[21] For those Arab writers, the Turks were Turkic-speaking nomads and not the sedentary Persian-speaking oasis dwellers.[20] With the various migrations and political upheavals following the collapse of the Gökturk confederation and the Mongol invasions, "Turkestan", according to the official Chinese position, gradually ceased to be a useful geographic descriptor and was not used.[22]

 
Qing-era painting depicting a Chinese campaign against Jahangir Khoja's forces in Xinjiang, 1828

During the sixteenth century, the Chagatai Khanate completed the Islamification and Turkification of western Xinjiang and the surrounding region, known then as Moghulistan, while China's Ming dynasty held the Eastern Areas. After the Fall of the Ming dynasty, a western Mongol group established a polity in "Chinese Tartary", as it was sometimes known, or in eastern Xinjiang, expanding southward into southern Xinjiang.[23] In 1755, the Qing dynasty defeated the Mongol Dzungar Khanate and captured two territories in Xinjiang. The northern territory, where the Dzungars lived, was called Dzungaria, while the southern areas, which the Dzungars controlled and mined, were called Huijiang (Hui-chiang; Chinese: 回疆; pinyin: Huíjiāng; Wade–Giles: Hui2-chiang1; lit. 'Muslim territory') or Altishahr.[20] The term "Xinjiang", which, up until that time, simply meant all territories new to the Qing, gradually shifted in meaning for the Qing court to exclusively mean Dzungaria and Altishahr taken together. In 1764, the Qianlong Emperor made this use of Xinjiang as a proper name official and issued an imperial order defining Xinjiang as a "provincial administrative area". After General Tso (Tso Ts'ung T'ang) suppressed the Dungan revolt in 1882, Xinjiang was officially reorganized into a province and the name Xinjiang was popularized,[21] superseding "Xiyu" in writing.[24]

At the same time as the Chinese consolidation of control in Xinjiang, explorers from the British and Russian Empires explored, mapped, and delineated Central Asia in a competition of colonial expansion. Several influential Russians would propose new terms for the territories, as in 1805 when the Russian explorer Timovski revived the use of "Turkestan" to refer to Middle Asia and "East Turkestan" to refer to the Tarim Basin east of Middle Asia in southern Xinjiang or, in 1829, when the Russian sinologist Nikita Bichurin proposed the use of "East Turkestan" to replace "Chinese Turkestan" for the Chinese territory east of Bukhara.[25] The Russian Empire mused expansion into Xinjiang,[26] which it informally called "Little Bukhara". Between 1851 and 1881, Russia occupied the Ili valley in Xinjiang and continued to negotiate with the Qing for trading and settlement rights for Russians.[27] Regardless of the new Russian appellations, the original inhabitants of Central Asia generally continued not to use the word "Turkestan" to refer to their own territories.[28]

 
Map including part of Chinese Turkistan (1893)

After a spate of annexations in Middle Asia, Russia consolidated its holdings west of the Pamir Mountains as the Turkestan Governorate or "Russian Turkestan" in 1867.[29] It is at this time that Western writers began to divide Turkestan into a Russian and a Chinese part.[22] Although foreigners acknowledged that Xinjiang was a Chinese polity, and that there were Chinese names for the region, some travelers preferred to use "names that emphasized Turkic, Islamic, or Central Asian, i.e., non-Chinese characteristics".[23] For contemporary British travelers and English-language material, there was no consensus on a designation for Xinjiang, with "Chinese Turkestan", "East Turkestan", "Chinese Central Asia", "Serindia",[30] and "Sinkiang" being used interchangeably to describe the region of Xinjiang.[25] Until the 20th century, locals used the names of cities or oases in their "territorial self-perception", which expanded or contracted as needed, such as Kashgaria out of Kashgar to refer to southwestern Xinjiang. Altishahr, or "six cities", collectively referred to six vaguely defined cities south of the Tian Shan.[23]

Early 20th century edit

 
Map including "Sin-kiang" (also labelled "East Turkestan") and other territories of China (NGS, 1912)

In 1912, the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and created a Republic of China. As Yuan Dahua, the last Qing governor, fled from Xinjiang, one of his subordinates, Yang Zengxin (楊增新), took control of the province and acceded in name to the Republic of China in March of the same year. In 1921, the Soviet Union officially defined the Uyghurs as the sedentary Turkic peoples from Chinese Turkestan as part of their nation building policy in Central Asia.[25] Multiple insurgencies arose against Yang's successor Jin Shuren (金树仁) in the early 1930s throughout Xinjiang, usually led by Hui people.[31] "East Turkestan" became a rallying cry for people who spoke Turki and believed in Islam to rebel against Chinese authorities.[22]

 
 
Territorial extent (left) and flag (right) of the First East Turkestan Republic (1933–1934)

In the Kashgar region on November 12, 1933, Uyghur separatists declared the short-lived[32] and self-proclaimed East Turkestan Republic (ETR), using the term "East Turkestan" to emphasize the state's break from China and new anti-China orientation.[28] Influenced by pan-Islamism and pan-Turkism, these separatists established a constitution which mandated Sharia law in the short-lived Islamic republic.[33]

The First ETR gave political meaning to the erstwhile geographical term of East Turkestan.[20] It was not recognized by any country, however.[33] Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai (盛世才) quickly defeated the ETR and ruled Xinjiang for the decade after 1934 with close support from the Soviet Union.[34]

 
 
Territorial extent (left) and flag (right) of the Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949)

Eventually, the Soviet Union exploited the change in power from Sheng to Kuomintang officials to create the puppet Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949) in present-day Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture to exploit its minerals,[35] later justifying it as a national liberation movement against the "reactionary" Kuomintang regime.[25] Amid the anti-Han programs and policies[34] and exclusion of "pagans",[22] or non-Muslims, from the separatist government,[35] Kuomintang leaders based in Dihua (Ürümqi) appealed to the long Chinese history in the region to justify its sovereignty over Xinjiang. In response, Soviet historians produced revisionist histories to help the ETR justify its own claims to sovereignty, with statements such as that the Uyghurs were the "most ancient Turkic people" that had contributed to world civilization.[25] In June 1946, the Soviet Union withdrew its support for the ETR.[33]

Traditionally, scholars had thought of Xinjiang as a "cultural backwater" compared to the other Central Asian states during the Islamic Golden Age.[23] Local British and US consuls, also intrigued by the separatist government, published their own histories of the region. The Soviet Uyghur histories produced during its support of the ETR remain the basis of Uyghur nationalist publications today.[25]

Late 20th century edit

 
According to one definition of East Turkestan, the Tian Shan mountain system separates East Turkestan from Dzungaria in Xinjiang.

At the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, with Xinjiang divided between Kuomintang forces and ETR secessionists, the Communist leadership persuaded both governments to surrender and accept the succession of the People's Republic of China government[34] and negotiated the establishment of Communist provincial governments in Yining (Ghulja) and Dihua.[36] On October 1, 1955, Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong designated Xinjiang a "Uyghur Autonomous Region",[24] creating a regionwide Uyghur identity which overtook Uyghurs' traditionally local and oasis-based identities.[37] Although the Soviet Union initially suppressed the publications of its past Uyghur studies programs, after the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, it revived its Uyghur studies program as part of an "ideological war" against China.[25][38] The term "East Turkestan" was popularized in academic works,[19] but inconsistently: at times, the term East Turkestan only referred to as the area in Xinjiang south of the Tian Shan mountains, corresponding to the Tarim Basin;[19] the areas north of the Tian Shan mountains were called Dzungaria or Zungaria.[21][39][40] Tursun Rakhimov, a Uyghur historian for the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the Sino-Soviet split,[41] argued in his 1981 book "Fate of the Non-Han Peoples of the PRC" that "both" East Turkestan and Dzungaria were conquered by China and "renamed" Xinjiang. Occasionally, he used East Turkestan and Xinjiang interchangeably.[25] Concurrently, during the Cultural Revolution and the Revolution's campaigns against "local nationalism", the government had come to associate the term East Turkestan with Uyghur separatism and "foreign hostile forces [zh]" and forbade its usage.[21] Uyghur nationalist historian Turghun Almas and his book Uyghurlar (The Uyghurs) and Uyghur nationalist accounts of history were galvanized by Soviet stances on history, "firmly grounded" in Soviet Turcological works, and both heavily influenced and partially created by Soviet historians and Soviet works on Turkic peoples.[42] Soviet historiography spawned the rendering of Uyghur history found in Uyghurlar.[43] Almas claimed that Central Asia was "the motherland of the Uyghurs" and also the "ancient golden cradle of world culture".[44] The global trends set by the Dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s and the rise of global Islamism[24] and pan-Turkism[45][46] revived separatist sentiments in Xinjiang and led to a wave of political violence that killed 162 people between 1990 and 2001.[19]

21st century edit

In 2001, the government of China lifted its ban on state media's using the terms "Uyghurstan"[24] or "East Turkestan",[47] as part of a general opening up after the September 11 attacks to the world about political violence in Xinjiang and a plea for international help to suppress East Turkestan terrorists.[48][19] In 2004, the East Turkistan Government in Exile was established in Washington, D.C. under the leadership of Anwar Yusuf Turani to strive for East Turkistan's independence.[49] To justify the PRC's claim to East Turkestan, a white paper was published in 2019 which made a statement that 'East Turkestan' never existed and it was only called 'Xinjiang' and been part of China since early history.[50] East Turkestan was historically not treated as an inseparable part of China, but rather colonized by Han Chinese who had little in common with the Uyghur population.[50]

On February 28, 2017, it was announced by the Qira County government in Hotan Prefecture that those who reported others for stitching the 'star and crescent moon' insignia on their clothing or personal items or having the words 'East Turkestan' on their mobile phone case, purse, or other jewelry, would be eligible for cash payments.[51]

Current status edit

As the history of Xinjiang in particular is contested between the government of China and Uyghur separatists, the official and common name of Xinjiang (with its Uyghur loanword counterpart, Shinjang) is rejected by those seeking independence.[24] "East Turkestan", a term of Russian origin, asserts a continuity with a "West Turkestan" or the now-independent states of Soviet Central Asia.[25] Not all of those states accept the designation of "Turkestan", however. For instance, Tajikistan's Persian-speaking population feels more closely aligned with Iran and Afghanistan.[52] For separatists,[53][54] East Turkestan is coterminous with Xinjiang or the independent state that they would like to lead in Xinjiang.[55] Proponents of the term "East Turkestan" argue that the name Xinjiang is arrogant, because if the individual Chinese characters are to be taken literally and not as a proper name, then Xinjiang means "New Territory".[21] Some Chinese scholars have advocated a name change for the region or a reversion to the older term Xiyu ("Western Regions"), arguing that "Xinjiang" might mislead people into thinking that Xinjiang is "new" to China. Other scholars defend the name, noting that Xinjiang was new to the late Qing dynasty, which gave Xinjiang its current name.[21]

 
The term "East Turkestan" is primarily used by, and is associated with, Uyghur separatists (diasporic protest in Washington, D.C. shown)

In modern separatist usage,[24] "Uyghuristan", which means "land of the Uyghurs", is a synonym for Xinjiang or a potential state in Xinjiang,[48] like "East Turkestan".[56][38] There is no consensus among separatists about whether to use "East Turkestan" or "Uyghurstan".[23] "East Turkestan" has the advantage of also being the name of two historic political entities in the region, while Uyghurstan appeals to modern ideas of ethnic self-determination. East Turkistan was also used in the context of Yaqub Beg's Kashgaria in the mid-1800s. Uyghurstan is also a difference in emphasis in that it excludes more peoples in Xinjiang than just the Han,[57] but the "East Turkestan" movement[32] is still a Uyghur phenomenon. Kazakhs and Hui Muslims are largely alienated from the movement,[48] as are Uyghurs who live closer to the eastern provinces of China. Separatist sentiment is strongest among the Uyghur diaspora,[24] who practice what has been called "cyber-separatism", encouraging the use of "East Turkestan" on their websites and literature.[58] Historically, "Uyghurstan" referred to the northeastern oasis region of "Kumul-Turfan".[59] "Chinese Turkestan", while synonymous with East Turkestan in historical terms,[39] is not used today, rejected by Uyghur separatists for the "Chinese" part of the name and by China for the "Turkestan" part.[20] In China, the terms "East Turkestan", "Uyghurstan",[57] and even "Turkestan" alone connote old Western imperialism and the past East Turkestan republics and modern militant groups, such as the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM). The government of China conflates the violence of differing separatist groups, such as the ETIM and the East Turkestan Liberation Organization, as coming simply from "East Turkestan forces".[20] Chinese diplomatic missions have objected to foreigners' use of "East Turkestan". They argue that the term is political and no longer geographical or historical and that its use represents "a provocation" to the sovereignty of China.[21] The historical definitions for "East Turkestan" are multifarious and ambiguous, reflecting that, outside of Chinese administration,[23] the area now called "Xinjiang" was not geographically or demographically a single region.[24]

The territorial definition, as claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile[2] and International Support for Uyghurs,[60] includes the bulk of Xinjiang (excluding the disputed territory of Aksai Chin), as well as parts of western Gansu (including Subei Mongol Autonomous County, Aksay Kazakh Autonomous County, Dunhuang city, and Guazhou County) and Qinghai (Lenghu and Mangnai). The World Uyghur Congress considers East Turkestan to be the area of Xinjiang along with territory claimed to be annexed by a "neighboring Chinese province" in 1949.[61]

See also edit

References edit

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  30. ^ Meyer, Karl Ernest; Brysac, Shareen Blair (2006). Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia. Basic Books. p. 347. Stein repeatedly crossed 18,000-foot passes, settling down to work in the deserts of Chinese Turkestan. It took 182 packing cases to hold the finds of his third expedition (1913–16) to the region he preferred calling Serindia, from the Greek word for China, Seres, meaning silkworm.
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  40. ^ Hughes, William (1892). A Class-Book of Modern Geography. G. Philip & son. p. 238. Zungaria includes the wild and desolate region between the Thian-Shan and the Altai Mountains, and is bounded by Eastern Turkestan on the south, and by Russian Central Asia on the west.
  41. ^ Canadian Slavonic Papers. Canadian Association of Slavists. 17: 352. 1975. [Tursun Rakhimov] is not only the author and editor of a number of Uighur linguistic studies, but also an expert on articles about the persecution of the national minorities in the PRC. One may say that this 'personal union' of the Uighur scholar and the Soviet propagandist once more illustrates the intense interdependence of the status of the Soviet Uighurs and their role in Soviet Policy.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link)
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  48. ^ a b c Van Wie Davis, Elizabeth (January 2008). "Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China". Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2011. The desired outcome by groups that use violence is, broadly speaking, a separate Uyghur state, called either Uyghuristan or Eastern Turkistan, which lays claim to a large part of China.... The largest [Muslim] group, the Hui who have blended fairly well into Chinese society, regard some Uyghurs as unpatriotic separatists who give other Chinese Muslims a bad name.... China's official statement on "East Turkestan terrorists" published in January 2002 listed several groups allegedly responsible for violence
  49. ^ "Voice of America Report on Chinese Opposition of ETGIE". Voice of America News. September 14, 2004.
  50. ^ a b Rukiye Turdush, Uyhgur Research Institute (August 8, 2019). "Genocide as Nation Building: China's Historically Evolving Policy in East Turkistan". The Journal of Political Risk. Archived from the original on December 20, 2021. Retrieved December 20, 2021.
  51. ^ Joshua Lipes; Jilil Kashgary (April 4, 2017). "Xinjiang Police Search Uyghur Homes For 'Illegal Items'". Radio Free Asia. Translated by Mamatjan Juma. from the original on December 16, 2019. Retrieved December 16, 2019. A second announcement, issued February 28 by the Chira (Cele) county government, said those who report individuals for having "stitched the 'star and crescent moon' insignia on their clothing or personal items" or the words "East Turkestan"—referring to the name of a short-lived Uyghur republic—on their mobile phone case, purse or other jewelry, were also eligible for cash payments.
  52. ^ Humphrey, Caroline; Sneath, David (1999). The End of Nomadism? Society, State, and the Environment in Inner Asia. Duke University Press. pp. v–vi.
  53. ^ Sheridan, Michael (July 27, 2008). "Islamist bombers target Olympics". The Sunday Times. London. Retrieved February 5, 2011. The group may be allied with the East Turkestan Islamic Movement – designated a terrorist organisation by the US, China and several other countries – which seeks independence for the Muslim Uighur people of China's far west province of Xinjiang, which Uighur separatists call East Turkestan.
  54. ^ Chung, Chien-peng (July–August 2002). "China's "War on Terror": September 11 and Uighur Separatism". Foreign Affairs. 81 (4): 8–12. doi:10.2307/20033235. JSTOR 20033235. from the original on December 11, 2014. Retrieved February 6, 2011. Beijing now labels as terrorists those who are fighting for an independent state in the northwestern province of Xinjiang, which the separatists call "Eastern Turkestan."
  55. ^ Wong, Edward (July 9, 2010). "Chinese Separatists Tied to Norway Bomb Plot". The New York Times. Beijing. from the original on August 27, 2011. Retrieved February 5, 2011. Many Uighurs call Xinjiang their homeland, and some want an independent state there called East Turkestan.
  56. ^ Bovingdon, Gardner (2005). Autonomy in Xinjiang: Han nationalist imperatives and Uyghur discontent (PDF). Political Studies 15. Washington: East-West Center. p. 17. ISBN 1-932728-20-1. (PDF) from the original on September 12, 2018. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
  57. ^ a b Priniotakis, Manolis (October 26, 2001). "China's Secret Separatists: Uyghuristan's Ever-Lengthening Path to Independence". The American Prospect. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
  58. ^ Moneyhon, Matthew D. (October 2003). (PDF). Peace, Conflict, and Development (5): 9, 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 3, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
  59. ^ Gladney, Dru C (1990). "The Ethnogenesis of the Uighur". Central Asian Survey. 9 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1080/02634939008400687.
  60. ^ "East Turkistan". International Support For Uyghurs. Retrieved October 20, 2023.
  61. ^ "East Turkistan". World Uyghur Congress. September 29, 2016. Retrieved October 20, 2023.

Further reading edit

 
Look up East Turkestan or East Turkistan in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Bregel, Yuri (2003), An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Brill
  • East Turkistan to the Twelfth Century (by William Samolin, 1964)

February 15, 2024
east, turkestan, confused, with, chinese, turkestan, older, geographical, term, government, exile, that, claims, east, turkistan, government, exile, chinese, province, level, division, that, corresponds, region, xinjiang, east, turkistan, uyghur, شەرقىي, تۈركى. Not to be confused with Chinese Turkestan an older geographical term For the government in exile that claims East Turkestan see East Turkistan Government in Exile For the Chinese province level division that corresponds to the region see Xinjiang East Turkestan or East Turkistan Uyghur شەرقىي تۈركىستان ULY Sherqiy Turkistan UKY Shәrkij Turkistan also called Uyghuristan ئۇيغۇرىستان Ujguristan is a loosely defined geographical region in the northwestern part of the People s Republic of China which varies in meaning by context and usage The term was coined in the 19th century by Russian Turkologists including Nikita Bichurin who intended the name to replace the common Western term for the region Chinese Turkestan which referred to the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang or Xinjiang as a whole 6 during the Qing dynasty Beginning in the 17th century Altishahr which means Six Cities in Uyghur became the Uyghur name for the Tarim Basin Uyghurs also called the Tarim Basin Yettishar which means Seven Cities and even Sekkizshahr which means Eight Cities in Uyghur Chinese dynasties from the Han dynasty to the Tang dynasty had called an overlapping area the Western Regions East Turkestanشەرقىي تۈركىستان Uyghur Extent of East Turkestan in Central Asia per the East Turkistan Government in ExileLargest cityUrumqiSpoken languagesUyghurChineseand 42 other languages 1 Ethnic groups45 84 Uyghur40 48 Han Chinese6 50 Kazakh4 51 Hui2 67 otherFormation State of Yettishar Kashgaria November 12 1864 First East Turkestan RepublicNovember 12 1933 Second East Turkestan RepublicNovember 12 1944 East Turkistan Government in ExileSeptember 14 2004Area Total1 828 418 km2 705 956 sq mi as claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile 2 Population Estimate24 870 000 3 30 40 million claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile and the World Uyghur Congress 2 4 Time zoneUrumqi Time UTC 06 00 5 Starting in the 20th century Uyghur separatists and their supporters used East Turkestan as an appellation for the whole of Xinjiang the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria or for a future independent state in present day Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region They reject the name Xinjiang meaning New Frontier in Chinese 7 because of the Chinese perspective reflected in the name and prefer East Turkestan to emphasize the connection to other western Turkic groups The First East Turkestan Republic existed from November 12 1933 to April 16 1934 and the Second East Turkestan Republic existed between November 12 1944 and December 22 1949 8 East Turkestan is a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization UNPO formed in 1991 where it was represented by the World Uyghur Congress 9 In September 2004 the East Turkistan Government in Exile was established in Washington D C Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Pre 20th century 2 2 Early 20th century 2 3 Late 20th century 2 4 21st century 3 Current status 4 See also 5 References 6 Further readingEtymology editThe term East Turkestan was coined in the 19th century by Russian Turkologists including Nikita Bichurin who intended the name to replace the common Western term for the region Chinese Turkestan which referred to the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang or sometimes Xinjiang as a whole during the Qing dynasty The term Uyghuristan means land of Uyghurs 10 11 The latter name was given to the region by medieval Muslim geographers 12 History editSee also History of Xinjiang Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin and Migration to Xinjiang Pre 20th century edit nbsp Cities of the Tarim Basin region 1 BCIn China the term Western Regions Chinese 西域 pinyin Xiyu Wade Giles Hsi1 yu4 Uyghur Qurighar Қurigar 13 14 referred to the regions west of the Yumen Pass During the 2nd century BC Chinese writers called the city states of the northern and southern rim of the Taklamakan Desert the Walled city states of the Western Regions 15 In 60 BC the Han dynasty established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in charge of all the oasis states of the Tarim Basin which they ruled in indirectly with small agricultural military colonies 15 The Protector General was stationed at Wulei west of Karasahr 16 in present Luntai County 17 The city states were able to conduct their own independent policies with each other After the Western Han period that ended in 9 AD China lost its authority over the Western Regions until it was restored in 94 AD and officially lasted until 107 AD 15 After the crackdown of internal separatist forces the Eastern Han dynasty set up another protectorate known as the Chief Official of the Western Regions instead 18 Since the Han successive Chinese governments had to deal with secessionist movements and local rebellions from different peoples in the region 19 However even when Xinjiang was not under Chinese political control Xinjiang has long had close contacts with China that distinguish it from the independent Turkic countries of Central Asia 20 The Gokturks known in ancient Chinese with pronunciation as Tutkyud as well as modern Chinese pronunciation as Tujue Tu chueh Chinese 突厥 pinyin Tujue Wade Giles T u1 chueh2 united the Turkic peoples and created a large empire which broke into various Khanates or Khaganates the Western Turkic Khaganate inherited Xinjiang but West Tujue became part of China s Tang dynasty until the ninth century However the terms for West Tujue and East Tujue do not have any relation with the terms West and East Turkestan 19 Turkestan which means region of the Turks was defined by Arab geographers in the ninth and tenth centuries as the areas northeast of the Sir River 21 For those Arab writers the Turks were Turkic speaking nomads and not the sedentary Persian speaking oasis dwellers 20 With the various migrations and political upheavals following the collapse of the Gokturk confederation and the Mongol invasions Turkestan according to the official Chinese position gradually ceased to be a useful geographic descriptor and was not used 22 nbsp Qing era painting depicting a Chinese campaign against Jahangir Khoja s forces in Xinjiang 1828During the sixteenth century the Chagatai Khanate completed the Islamification and Turkification of western Xinjiang and the surrounding region known then as Moghulistan while China s Ming dynasty held the Eastern Areas After the Fall of the Ming dynasty a western Mongol group established a polity in Chinese Tartary as it was sometimes known or in eastern Xinjiang expanding southward into southern Xinjiang 23 In 1755 the Qing dynasty defeated the Mongol Dzungar Khanate and captured two territories in Xinjiang The northern territory where the Dzungars lived was called Dzungaria while the southern areas which the Dzungars controlled and mined were called Huijiang Hui chiang Chinese 回疆 pinyin Huijiang Wade Giles Hui2 chiang1 lit Muslim territory or Altishahr 20 The term Xinjiang which up until that time simply meant all territories new to the Qing gradually shifted in meaning for the Qing court to exclusively mean Dzungaria and Altishahr taken together In 1764 the Qianlong Emperor made this use of Xinjiang as a proper name official and issued an imperial order defining Xinjiang as a provincial administrative area After General Tso Tso Ts ung T ang suppressed the Dungan revolt in 1882 Xinjiang was officially reorganized into a province and the name Xinjiang was popularized 21 superseding Xiyu in writing 24 At the same time as the Chinese consolidation of control in Xinjiang explorers from the British and Russian Empires explored mapped and delineated Central Asia in a competition of colonial expansion Several influential Russians would propose new terms for the territories as in 1805 when the Russian explorer Timovski revived the use of Turkestan to refer to Middle Asia and East Turkestan to refer to the Tarim Basin east of Middle Asia in southern Xinjiang or in 1829 when the Russian sinologist Nikita Bichurin proposed the use of East Turkestan to replace Chinese Turkestan for the Chinese territory east of Bukhara 25 The Russian Empire mused expansion into Xinjiang 26 which it informally called Little Bukhara Between 1851 and 1881 Russia occupied the Ili valley in Xinjiang and continued to negotiate with the Qing for trading and settlement rights for Russians 27 Regardless of the new Russian appellations the original inhabitants of Central Asia generally continued not to use the word Turkestan to refer to their own territories 28 nbsp Map including part of Chinese Turkistan 1893 After a spate of annexations in Middle Asia Russia consolidated its holdings west of the Pamir Mountains as the Turkestan Governorate or Russian Turkestan in 1867 29 It is at this time that Western writers began to divide Turkestan into a Russian and a Chinese part 22 Although foreigners acknowledged that Xinjiang was a Chinese polity and that there were Chinese names for the region some travelers preferred to use names that emphasized Turkic Islamic or Central Asian i e non Chinese characteristics 23 For contemporary British travelers and English language material there was no consensus on a designation for Xinjiang with Chinese Turkestan East Turkestan Chinese Central Asia Serindia 30 and Sinkiang being used interchangeably to describe the region of Xinjiang 25 Until the 20th century locals used the names of cities or oases in their territorial self perception which expanded or contracted as needed such as Kashgaria out of Kashgar to refer to southwestern Xinjiang Altishahr or six cities collectively referred to six vaguely defined cities south of the Tian Shan 23 Early 20th century edit nbsp Map including Sin kiang also labelled East Turkestan and other territories of China NGS 1912 In 1912 the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and created a Republic of China As Yuan Dahua the last Qing governor fled from Xinjiang one of his subordinates Yang Zengxin 楊增新 took control of the province and acceded in name to the Republic of China in March of the same year In 1921 the Soviet Union officially defined the Uyghurs as the sedentary Turkic peoples from Chinese Turkestan as part of their nation building policy in Central Asia 25 Multiple insurgencies arose against Yang s successor Jin Shuren 金树仁 in the early 1930s throughout Xinjiang usually led by Hui people 31 East Turkestan became a rallying cry for people who spoke Turki and believed in Islam to rebel against Chinese authorities 22 nbsp nbsp Territorial extent left and flag right of the First East Turkestan Republic 1933 1934 In the Kashgar region on November 12 1933 Uyghur separatists declared the short lived 32 and self proclaimed East Turkestan Republic ETR using the term East Turkestan to emphasize the state s break from China and new anti China orientation 28 Influenced by pan Islamism and pan Turkism these separatists established a constitution which mandated Sharia law in the short lived Islamic republic 33 The First ETR gave political meaning to the erstwhile geographical term of East Turkestan 20 It was not recognized by any country however 33 Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai 盛世才 quickly defeated the ETR and ruled Xinjiang for the decade after 1934 with close support from the Soviet Union 34 nbsp nbsp Territorial extent left and flag right of the Second East Turkestan Republic 1944 1949 Eventually the Soviet Union exploited the change in power from Sheng to Kuomintang officials to create the puppet Second East Turkestan Republic 1944 1949 in present day Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture to exploit its minerals 35 later justifying it as a national liberation movement against the reactionary Kuomintang regime 25 Amid the anti Han programs and policies 34 and exclusion of pagans 22 or non Muslims from the separatist government 35 Kuomintang leaders based in Dihua Urumqi appealed to the long Chinese history in the region to justify its sovereignty over Xinjiang In response Soviet historians produced revisionist histories to help the ETR justify its own claims to sovereignty with statements such as that the Uyghurs were the most ancient Turkic people that had contributed to world civilization 25 In June 1946 the Soviet Union withdrew its support for the ETR 33 Traditionally scholars had thought of Xinjiang as a cultural backwater compared to the other Central Asian states during the Islamic Golden Age 23 Local British and US consuls also intrigued by the separatist government published their own histories of the region The Soviet Uyghur histories produced during its support of the ETR remain the basis of Uyghur nationalist publications today 25 Late 20th century edit nbsp According to one definition of East Turkestan the Tian Shan mountain system separates East Turkestan from Dzungaria in Xinjiang At the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 with Xinjiang divided between Kuomintang forces and ETR secessionists the Communist leadership persuaded both governments to surrender and accept the succession of the People s Republic of China government 34 and negotiated the establishment of Communist provincial governments in Yining Ghulja and Dihua 36 On October 1 1955 Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong designated Xinjiang a Uyghur Autonomous Region 24 creating a regionwide Uyghur identity which overtook Uyghurs traditionally local and oasis based identities 37 Although the Soviet Union initially suppressed the publications of its past Uyghur studies programs after the Sino Soviet split in the 1960s it revived its Uyghur studies program as part of an ideological war against China 25 38 The term East Turkestan was popularized in academic works 19 but inconsistently at times the term East Turkestan only referred to as the area in Xinjiang south of the Tian Shan mountains corresponding to the Tarim Basin 19 the areas north of the Tian Shan mountains were called Dzungaria or Zungaria 21 39 40 Tursun Rakhimov a Uyghur historian for the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the Sino Soviet split 41 argued in his 1981 book Fate of the Non Han Peoples of the PRC that both East Turkestan and Dzungaria were conquered by China and renamed Xinjiang Occasionally he used East Turkestan and Xinjiang interchangeably 25 Concurrently during the Cultural Revolution and the Revolution s campaigns against local nationalism the government had come to associate the term East Turkestan with Uyghur separatism and foreign hostile forces zh and forbade its usage 21 Uyghur nationalist historian Turghun Almas and his book Uyghurlar The Uyghurs and Uyghur nationalist accounts of history were galvanized by Soviet stances on history firmly grounded in Soviet Turcological works and both heavily influenced and partially created by Soviet historians and Soviet works on Turkic peoples 42 Soviet historiography spawned the rendering of Uyghur history found in Uyghurlar 43 Almas claimed that Central Asia was the motherland of the Uyghurs and also the ancient golden cradle of world culture 44 The global trends set by the Dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s and the rise of global Islamism 24 and pan Turkism 45 46 revived separatist sentiments in Xinjiang and led to a wave of political violence that killed 162 people between 1990 and 2001 19 21st century edit In 2001 the government of China lifted its ban on state media s using the terms Uyghurstan 24 or East Turkestan 47 as part of a general opening up after the September 11 attacks to the world about political violence in Xinjiang and a plea for international help to suppress East Turkestan terrorists 48 19 In 2004 the East Turkistan Government in Exile was established in Washington D C under the leadership of Anwar Yusuf Turani to strive for East Turkistan s independence 49 To justify the PRC s claim to East Turkestan a white paper was published in 2019 which made a statement that East Turkestan never existed and it was only called Xinjiang and been part of China since early history 50 East Turkestan was historically not treated as an inseparable part of China but rather colonized by Han Chinese who had little in common with the Uyghur population 50 On February 28 2017 it was announced by the Qira County government in Hotan Prefecture that those who reported others for stitching the star and crescent moon insignia on their clothing or personal items or having the words East Turkestan on their mobile phone case purse or other jewelry would be eligible for cash payments 51 Current status editAs the history of Xinjiang in particular is contested between the government of China and Uyghur separatists the official and common name of Xinjiang with its Uyghur loanword counterpart Shinjang is rejected by those seeking independence 24 East Turkestan a term of Russian origin asserts a continuity with a West Turkestan or the now independent states of Soviet Central Asia 25 Not all of those states accept the designation of Turkestan however For instance Tajikistan s Persian speaking population feels more closely aligned with Iran and Afghanistan 52 For separatists 53 54 East Turkestan is coterminous with Xinjiang or the independent state that they would like to lead in Xinjiang 55 Proponents of the term East Turkestan argue that the name Xinjiang is arrogant because if the individual Chinese characters are to be taken literally and not as a proper name then Xinjiang means New Territory 21 Some Chinese scholars have advocated a name change for the region or a reversion to the older term Xiyu Western Regions arguing that Xinjiang might mislead people into thinking that Xinjiang is new to China Other scholars defend the name noting that Xinjiang was new to the late Qing dynasty which gave Xinjiang its current name 21 nbsp The term East Turkestan is primarily used by and is associated with Uyghur separatists diasporic protest in Washington D C shown In modern separatist usage 24 Uyghuristan which means land of the Uyghurs is a synonym for Xinjiang or a potential state in Xinjiang 48 like East Turkestan 56 38 There is no consensus among separatists about whether to use East Turkestan or Uyghurstan 23 East Turkestan has the advantage of also being the name of two historic political entities in the region while Uyghurstan appeals to modern ideas of ethnic self determination East Turkistan was also used in the context of Yaqub Beg s Kashgaria in the mid 1800s Uyghurstan is also a difference in emphasis in that it excludes more peoples in Xinjiang than just the Han 57 but the East Turkestan movement 32 is still a Uyghur phenomenon Kazakhs and Hui Muslims are largely alienated from the movement 48 as are Uyghurs who live closer to the eastern provinces of China Separatist sentiment is strongest among the Uyghur diaspora 24 who practice what has been called cyber separatism encouraging the use of East Turkestan on their websites and literature 58 Historically Uyghurstan referred to the northeastern oasis region of Kumul Turfan 59 Chinese Turkestan while synonymous with East Turkestan in historical terms 39 is not used today rejected by Uyghur separatists for the Chinese part of the name and by China for the Turkestan part 20 In China the terms East Turkestan Uyghurstan 57 and even Turkestan alone connote old Western imperialism and the past East Turkestan republics and modern militant groups such as the East Turkestan Islamic Movement ETIM The government of China conflates the violence of differing separatist groups such as the ETIM and the East Turkestan Liberation Organization as coming simply from East Turkestan forces 20 Chinese diplomatic missions have objected to foreigners use of East Turkestan They argue that the term is political and no longer geographical or historical and that its use represents a provocation to the sovereignty of China 21 The historical definitions for East Turkestan are multifarious and ambiguous reflecting that outside of Chinese administration 23 the area now called Xinjiang was not geographically or demographically a single region 24 The territorial definition as claimed by the East Turkistan Government in Exile 2 and International Support for Uyghurs 60 includes the bulk of Xinjiang excluding the disputed territory of Aksai Chin as well as parts of western Gansu including Subei Mongol Autonomous County Aksay Kazakh Autonomous County Dunhuang city and Guazhou County and Qinghai Lenghu and Mangnai The World Uyghur Congress considers East Turkestan to be the area of Xinjiang along with territory claimed to be annexed by a neighboring Chinese province in 1949 61 See also editAfghan Turkestan Chinese Turkestan East Turkistan Government in Exile History of the Uyghur people Xinjiang internment camps Pan Islamism and Pan Turkism Turkic migration Qurtulush YolidaReferences edit VI Progress in Education Science and Technology Culture and Health Work History and Development of Xinjiang State Council of the People s Republic of China May 26 2003 Archived from the original on January 29 2011 Retrieved December 31 2010 a b c East Turkistan at a Glance East Turkistan Government in Exile March 4 2021 Retrieved October 20 2023 National Data Archived from the original on April 15 2020 Retrieved April 10 2020 East Turkistan World Uyghur Congress September 29 2016 Retrieved March 17 2021 Kelter Frederik August 9 2023 Conflict over clocks China among countries where time is political Al Jazeera Retrieved January 14 2024 Xinjiang s provincial capital Urumqi is geographically two hours behind Beijing Sinha Dilip Xinjiang China s new territory or East Turkestan The Times of India Retrieved August 22 2023 Introduction The Lost Frontier Treaty Maps that Changed Qing s Northwestern Boundaries Archived from the original on January 29 2020 Retrieved January 29 2020 The Qianlong emperor 1736 1796 named the region Xinjiang for New Territory Sands Gary December 28 2016 Xinjiang Uighurs Grapple with Travel Restrictions Eurasia Net Retrieved September 10 2020 UNPO East Turkestan Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization December 16 2015 Archived from the original on September 7 2019 Retrieved April 24 2019 6 From Party to Nation Uyghur Nation Harvard University Press 2016 pp 173 203 doi 10 4159 9780674970441 009 ISBN 9780674970441 Gladney Dru C 2000 New Perspectives on the New Region of China Reconsidering Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Inner Asia 2 2 119 120 doi 10 1163 146481700793647841 Brophy David 2018 The Uyghurs Making a Nation Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780190277727 013 318 ISBN 978 0 19 027772 7 Tikhvinskiĭ Sergeĭ Leonidovich and Leonard Sergeevich Perelomov 1981 China and her neighbours from ancient times to the Middle Ages a collection of essays Progress Publishers p 124 Han Enze August 31 2010 External Kin Ethnic Identity and the Politics of Ethnic Mobilization in the People s Republic of China Doctor of Philosophy The Faculty of Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University pp 113 114 a b c Bregel 2003 p 10 https www google ca books edition Thought and Law in Qin and Han China YZo3AAAAIAAJ hl en amp gbpv 1 amp dq wulei han dynasty amp pg PA176 amp printsec frontcover https www google com books edition The General Theory of Dunhuang Studies Kd9mEAAAQBAJ hl en amp gbpv 1 amp pg PA14 amp printsec frontcover Ge Jianxiong 2018 China s Belt and Road Initiatives Economic Geography Reformation Springer Nature Singapore p 6 a b c d e f Rumer Eugene B Trenin Dmitrii Huasheng Zhao 2007 Central Asia Views from Washington Moscow and Beijing pp 141 143 a b c d e f Millward James A 2007 Eurasian Crossroads A History of Xinjiang Columbia University Press pp ix x 95 a b c d e f g Rahman Anwar 2005 Sinicization Beyond the Great Wall China s Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region Troubador Publishing Ltd pp 20 26 a b c d Origin of the East Turkistan Issue State Council of the People s Republic of China May 1 2003 Archived from the original on March 8 2019 Retrieved February 5 2011 a b c d e f Beller Hann Ildiko 2008 Place and People Community Matters in Xinjiang 1880 1949 Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur Brill pp 35 38 44 45 a b c d e f g h Starr S Frederick 2004 Xinjiang China s Muslim Borderland M E Sharpe pp 6 7 11 14 a b c d e f g h i Beller Hann Ildiko 2007 Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia Ashgate Publishing pp 4 5 32 40 Tayler Jeffrey 2008 Murderers in Mausoleums Riding the Back Roads of Empire Between Moscow and Beijing Houghton Mifflin Harcourt p 244 Russia whether or not it had designs on India was expanding throughout Central Asia and saw no reason that Xinjiang should not belong to the tsar as did other Central Asian lands to the west Rahul Ram 1997 Central Asia An Outline History Concept Publishing Company p 88 a b Central Asian Review London University of Virginia 13 1 5 1965 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint untitled periodical link Bregel Yuri 1996 Notes on the Study of Central Asia Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies Strictly speaking Russian Turkestan as a political term was limited only to the territory of the governorate general of Turkestan and did not include the khanates of Bukhara and Khiva Meyer Karl Ernest Brysac Shareen Blair 2006 Tournament of Shadows The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia Basic Books p 347 Stein repeatedly crossed 18 000 foot passes settling down to work in the deserts of Chinese Turkestan It took 182 packing cases to hold the finds of his third expedition 1913 16 to the region he preferred calling Serindia from the Greek word for China Seres meaning silkworm Sinkiang Land at the Back of Nowhere LIFE Vol 15 no 24 December 1943 pp 95 103 The Chinese rule Sinkiang Every now and then 1970 1932 they have to contend with a rebellion of the Moslem masses usually led by Chinese speaking Moslems a b Pan Guang 2006 East Turkestan Terrorism and the Terrorist Arc China s Post 9 11 Anti Terror Strategy PDF China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly Central Asia Caucasus Institute and Silk Road Studies Program 4 2 19 24 Archived from the original PDF on January 6 2011 a b c Zhao Huasheng 2016 Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking The new great game China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform Thomas Fingar Stanford California Stanford University Press p 175 ISBN 978 0 8047 9764 1 OCLC 939553543 a b c Dillon Michael 2004 Xinjiang China s Muslim Far Northwest Psychology Press pp 32 35 a b Dickens Mark 1990 The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911 1949 Oxus Communications Archived from the original on October 23 2008 Retrieved February 6 2011 H A R Gibb 1954 Kuldja The Encyclopaedia of Islam new ed Brill p 364 Laciner Sedat Ozcan Mehmet Bal Ihsan 2001 USAK Yearbook of International Politics and Law Vol 3 p 408 a b Shulsky Abram N 2000 Deterrence Theory and Chinese Behavior RAND Corporation p 13 a b Herbertson Fanny Dorothea 1903 Asia Adam amp Charles Black p xxxv Sin tsiang is made up of the Tarim basin or Chinese Eastern Turkestan and Zungaria The former is a desert with marginal oases where rivers descend from the mountains The chief centres are Yarkand and Kashgar Zungaria is a relatively low and fertile steppe land leading from the low lands of Southern Siberia to the Mongolian plateau Hughes William 1892 A Class Book of Modern Geography G Philip amp son p 238 Zungaria includes the wild and desolate region between the Thian Shan and the Altai Mountains and is bounded by Eastern Turkestan on the south and by Russian Central Asia on the west Canadian Slavonic Papers Canadian Association of Slavists 17 352 1975 Tursun Rakhimov is not only the author and editor of a number of Uighur linguistic studies but also an expert on articles about the persecution of the national minorities in the PRC One may say that this personal union of the Uighur scholar and the Soviet propagandist once more illustrates the intense interdependence of the status of the Soviet Uighurs and their role in Soviet Policy a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint untitled periodical link Beller Hann 2007 Archived August 22 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 42 Beller Hann 2007 Archived August 22 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 33 Beller Hann 2007 Archived August 22 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 4 Covarrubias Jack Lansford Tom 2007 Strategic Interests in the Middle East Opposition and Support for US Foreign Policy Ashgate Publishing p 91 Roy Olivier 2005 Turkey Today A European Country Anthem Press p 20 Gladney Dru July 20 2002 Ethnic Conflict Prevention in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region New Models for China s New Region PDF Archived PDF from the original on September 28 2011 Retrieved February 5 2011 a b c Van Wie Davis Elizabeth January 2008 Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang China Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies Archived from the original on October 11 2017 Retrieved February 6 2011 The desired outcome by groups that use violence is broadly speaking a separate Uyghur state called either Uyghuristan or Eastern Turkistan which lays claim to a large part of China The largest Muslim group the Hui who have blended fairly well into Chinese society regard some Uyghurs as unpatriotic separatists who give other Chinese Muslims a bad name China s official statement on East Turkestan terrorists published in January 2002 listed several groups allegedly responsible for violence Voice of America Report on Chinese Opposition of ETGIE Voice of America News September 14 2004 a b Rukiye Turdush Uyhgur Research Institute August 8 2019 Genocide as Nation Building China s Historically Evolving Policy in East Turkistan The Journal of Political Risk Archived from the original on December 20 2021 Retrieved December 20 2021 Joshua Lipes Jilil Kashgary April 4 2017 Xinjiang Police Search Uyghur Homes For Illegal Items Radio Free Asia Translated by Mamatjan Juma Archived from the original on December 16 2019 Retrieved December 16 2019 A second announcement issued February 28 by the Chira Cele county government said those who report individuals for having stitched the star and crescent moon insignia on their clothing or personal items or the words East Turkestan referring to the name of a short lived Uyghur republic on their mobile phone case purse or other jewelry were also eligible for cash payments Humphrey Caroline Sneath David 1999 The End of Nomadism Society State and the Environment in Inner Asia Duke University Press pp v vi Sheridan Michael July 27 2008 Islamist bombers target Olympics The Sunday Times London Retrieved February 5 2011 The group may be allied with the East Turkestan Islamic Movement designated a terrorist organisation by the US China and several other countries which seeks independence for the Muslim Uighur people of China s far west province of Xinjiang which Uighur separatists call East Turkestan Chung Chien peng July August 2002 China s War on Terror September 11 and Uighur Separatism Foreign Affairs 81 4 8 12 doi 10 2307 20033235 JSTOR 20033235 Archived from the original on December 11 2014 Retrieved February 6 2011 Beijing now labels as terrorists those who are fighting for an independent state in the northwestern province of Xinjiang which the separatists call Eastern Turkestan Wong Edward July 9 2010 Chinese Separatists Tied to Norway Bomb Plot The New York Times Beijing Archived from the original on August 27 2011 Retrieved February 5 2011 Many Uighurs call Xinjiang their homeland and some want an independent state there called East Turkestan Bovingdon Gardner 2005 Autonomy in Xinjiang Han nationalist imperatives and Uyghur discontent PDF Political Studies 15 Washington East West Center p 17 ISBN 1 932728 20 1 Archived PDF from the original on September 12 2018 Retrieved February 6 2011 a b Priniotakis Manolis October 26 2001 China s Secret Separatists Uyghuristan s Ever Lengthening Path to Independence The American Prospect Archived from the original on October 11 2017 Retrieved February 5 2011 Moneyhon Matthew D October 2003 Taming China s Wild West Ethnic Conflict in Xinjiang PDF Peace Conflict and Development 5 9 17 Archived from the original PDF on January 3 2011 Retrieved February 6 2011 Gladney Dru C 1990 The Ethnogenesis of the Uighur Central Asian Survey 9 1 1 28 doi 10 1080 02634939008400687 East Turkistan International Support For Uyghurs Retrieved October 20 2023 East Turkistan World Uyghur Congress September 29 2016 Retrieved October 20 2023 Further reading edit nbsp Look up East Turkestan or East Turkistan in Wiktionary the free dictionary Bregel Yuri 2003 An Historical Atlas of Central Asia Brill East Turkistan to the Twelfth Century by William Samolin 1964 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title East Turkestan amp oldid 1199900220, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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