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Irish language

February 15, 2024

For other uses, see Irish language (disambiguation).
"Gaoidhealg" redirects here. For the shared literary form that was in use from the 13th to the 16th–18th century, see Classical Gaelic.

Irish (Standard Irish: Gaeilge), known as Gaelic in Ireland (/ˈɡeɪlɪk/ GAY-lik),[3][4][5] also sometimes known outside Ireland as Irish Gaelic,[6][7][8] is a Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, which is a part of the Indo-European language family.[4][7][9][10][3] Irish is indigenous to the island of Ireland[11] and was the population's first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century. Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in areas of Ireland collectively known as the Gaeltacht, in which only 2% of Ireland's population lived in 2016.[12] It is also spoken by a larger group of habitual but non-traditional speakers, mostly in urban areas where the majority are second-language speakers. From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 Irish Americans reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming "some knowledge" of the language.[13]

Irish
  • Irish Gaelic
  • Gaelic
Standard Irish: Gaeilge (na hÉireann)
PronunciationConnacht Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲɟə]
Munster Irish: [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ]
Ulster Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲəc]
RegionIreland
EthnicityIrish people
Native speakers
L1: unknown
People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish "very well":
(ROI, 2022) 195,029
Daily users outside education system:
(ROI, 2022) 71,968
(NI, 2021) 43,557
L2: unknown
People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish:
(ROI, 2022) 1,873,997
(NI, 2021) 228,600
Early forms
Standard forms
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil (written only)
Dialects
Latin (Irish alphabet)
Ogham (historically)
Irish Braille
Official status
Official language in
Ireland[a]
Northern Ireland[2]
European Union
Language codes
ISO 639-1ga
ISO 639-2gle
ISO 639-3gle
Glottologiris1253
ELPIrish
Linguasphere50-AAA
Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011
Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it, while a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within the education system.[14] Linguistic analysis of Irish speakers is therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in Ireland outside the education system, which in 2016 was 20,586 in the Gaeltacht and 53,217 outside it, totalling 73,803.[15] In 2021, in response to the Northern Ireland census, 43,557 said they spoke the language on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it.[16]

For most of recorded Irish history, Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people, who took it with them to other regions, such as Scotland and the Isle of Man, where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx. It was also, for a period, spoken widely across Canada, with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.[17] On the island of Newfoundland, a unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century.

With a writing system, Ogham, dating back to at least the 4th century AD, which was gradually replaced by Latin script since the 5th century AD, Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in Western Europe. On the island, the language has three major dialects: Munster, Connacht and Ulster. All three have distinctions in their speech and orthography. There is also a "standard written form" devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The traditional Irish alphabet, a variant of the Latin alphabet with 18 letters, has been succeeded by the standard Latin alphabet (albeit with 7–8 letters used primarily in loanwords).

Irish has constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland, and is also an official language of Northern Ireland and among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but the standard modern written form is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input.

Names edit

In Irish edit

In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official [Written] Standard") the name of the language is Gaeilge, from the South Connacht form, spelled Gaedhilge prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Gaelic.[18] The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent ⟨dh⟩ in Gaedhilge. Older spellings include Gaoidhealg [ˈɡeːʝəlˠɡ] in Classical Gaelic and Goídelc [ˈɡoiðelˠɡ] in Old Irish. Goidelic, used to refer to the language family, is derived from the Old Irish term.

Endonyms of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include: Gaeilge [ˈɡeːlʲɟə] in Galway, Gaeilg/Gaeilic/Gaeilig [ˈɡeːlʲəc] in Mayo and Ulster, and Gaelainn/Gaoluinn [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ] in West/Cork Kerry Munster, as well as Gaedhealaing in mid and East Kerry/Cork and Waterford Munster to reflect local pronunciation.[19][20]

Gaeilge also has a wider meaning, including the Gaelic of Scotland and the Isle of Man, as well as of Ireland. When required by the context, these are distinguished as Gaeilge na hAlban, Gaeilge Mhanann and Gaeilge na hÉireann respectively.[21]

In English edit

In English (including Hiberno-English), the language is usually referred to as Irish, as well as Gaelic and Irish Gaelic.[22][23] The term Irish Gaelic may be seen when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx).[24] Gaelic is a collective term for the Goidelic languages,[3][25][4][10][26] and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified, as Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic. Historically the name "Erse" was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish;[27] as well as Scottish Gaelic.

History edit

Main article: History of the Irish language

Written Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD, a stage of the language known as Primitive Irish. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish underwent a change into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some Latin words, some via Old Welsh, including ecclesiastical terms: examples are easpag (bishop) from episcopus, and Domhnach (Sunday, from dominica).

By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish, which was spoken throughout Ireland, Isle of Man and parts of Scotland. It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the Ulster Cycle. From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, and into the Manx language in the Isle of Man.

Early Modern Irish, dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, as attested in the work of such writers as Geoffrey Keating, may be said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on.

From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this shift were complex but came down to a number of factors:

  • Discouragement of its use by the Anglo-Irish administration.
  • The Catholic Church's support of English over Irish.
  • The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards.[28]
 
The distribution of the Irish language in 1871

The change was characterised by diglossia (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools.[29] Increasing interest in emigrating to the United States and Canada was also a driver, as fluency in English allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the Great Famine were Irish speakers.[30]

Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as is often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language.[31]

This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the Gaelic revival in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language.[32] The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature.

Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman Muircheartach Ó Cíonga, commissioned by Bishop Bedell, was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising' the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival.[33]

It has been estimated that there were around 800,000 monoglot Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by the end of the famine, and under 17,000 by 1911.[34] Seán Ó hEinirí, of Cill Ghallagáin, County Mayo, who died 26 July 1998, was possibly the last monolingual Irish speaker.

Status and policy edit

Main article: Status of the Irish language

Ireland edit

Irish is recognised by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of Ireland (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English.[35]

In 1938, the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge (Gaelic League), Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first President of Ireland. The record of his delivering his inaugural Declaration of Office in Roscommon Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect.[36][37][38][39]

 
Bilingual sign in Grafton Street, Dublin

In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication.[40]

From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 (see History of the Republic of Ireland), new appointees to the Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland, including postal workers, tax collectors, agricultural inspectors, Garda Síochána (police), etc., were required to have some proficiency in Irish. By law, a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well.[41]

In 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the Language Freedom Movement, the requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language.

Nevertheless, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic that receive public money (see Education in the Republic of Ireland). Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge. As of 2005, Garda Síochána recruits need a pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English, and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training. Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by An Coimisinéir Teanga, the Irish language ombudsman).

The National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE/GCSE examinations.[42] Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland, and students diagnosed with dyslexia.

NUI Galway is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3).[43] In 2016, the university faced controversy when it announced the appointment of a president who did not speak Irish. Misneach[further explanation needed] staged protests against this decision. The following year the university announced that Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh, a fluent Irish speaker, would be its 13th president.[citation needed]

 
Bilingual road signs in Creggs, County Galway

For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English-medium schools to achieve competence in Irish, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects.[44][45][46] The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern.[47][48][49][50]

In 2007, filmmaker Manchán Magan found few Irish speakers in Dublin, and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary No Béarla.[51]

There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in Dublin. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction. Such schools are known as Gaelscoileanna at primary level. These Irish-medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English-medium schools.[52] In 2009, a paper suggested that within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban, middle class, and highly educated minority.[53]

Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language, if not already passed in both official languages.[1]

In November 2016, RTÉ reported that over 2.3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the Duolingo app.[54] Irish president Michael Higgins officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project".[55]

Gaeltacht edit

Main article: Gaeltacht
 
The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State.to be updated

There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a first language. These regions are known individually and collectively as the Gaeltacht (plural Gaeltachtaí). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20–30,000,[56] are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in Gaeltacht areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent.

According to data compiled by the Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media, only 1/4 of households in Gaeltacht areas are fluent in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a "complete and absolute disaster". The Irish Times, referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper Foinse, quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000."[56]

In the 1920s, when the Irish Free State was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas.[57] In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as Gaeltacht. Today, the strongest Gaeltacht areas, numerically and socially, are those of South Connemara, the west of the Dingle Peninsula, and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the Fíor-Ghaeltacht (true Gaeltacht), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish.

There are Gaeltacht regions in the following counties:[58][59]

Gweedore (Gaoth Dobhair), County Donegal, is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to céilithe and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged.

Policy edit

Official Languages Act 2003 edit

Main article: Official Languages Act 2003
 
Dublin airport sign in both English and Irish languages

The Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies.[60] Compliance with the Act is monitored by the An Coimisinéir Teanga (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004[61] and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them.[60] There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames.[62] The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation.[63] All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions.[64]

Official Languages Scheme 2019–2022 edit

The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18-page document that adheres to the guidelines of the Official Languages Act 2003.[65] The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the Department of the Taoiseach, it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens."[66]

20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030 edit

Main article: 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030

The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language.[67] The 30-page document published by the Government of Ireland details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including:

  • "Education"
  • "The Gaeltacht"
  • "Family Transmission of the Language – Early Intervention"
  • "Administration, Services and Community"
  • "Media and Technology"
  • "Dictionaries"
  • "Legislation and Status"
  • "Economic Life"
  • "Cross-cutting Initiatives"[68]

The general goal for this strategy was to increase the amount of speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run.[69]

Northern Ireland edit

Main article: Irish language in Northern Ireland
 
A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and Ulster Scots.

Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, Northern Ireland had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the Stormont Parliament, the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists.[70] In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government.[71] After the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the language gradually received a degree of formal recognition in Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom,[72] and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In the 2006 St Andrews Agreement the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language[73] and in 2022 it approved legislation to recognise Irish as an official language alongside English. The bill received royal assent on 6 December 2022.[74]

The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as An Dream Dearg.[75]

European Parliament edit

Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the European Parliament and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages.

While an official language of the European Union, only co-decision regulations were available until 2022, due to a five-year derogation, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs.[76] This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022, making Irish a fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state's history.[77]

Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish.

Outside Ireland edit

Main articles: Irish language outside Ireland and Irish language in Newfoundland

The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast diaspora, chiefly to Great Britain and North America, but also to Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, which saw many Irish sent to the West Indies. Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine. This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them.

Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established: An Gaodhal. In Australia, too, the language found its way into print. The Gaelic revival, which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of Conradh na Gaeilge being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated.

The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada;[78] figures released for the period 2006–2008 show that 22,279 Irish Americans claimed to speak Irish at home.[13]

The Irish language is also one of the languages of the Celtic League, a non-governmental organisation that promotes self-determination, Celtic identity and culture in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man, known collectively as the Celtic nations.

Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the island of Newfoundland, in a form known as Newfoundland Irish.[79] Certain Irish vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features are still used in modern Newfoundland English.[80]

Usage edit

The 2016 census data shows:

The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, a slight decrease (0.7 per cent) on the 2011 figure of 1,774,437. This represents 39.8 per cent of respondents compared with 41.4 in 2011... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas.[81]

Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016 edit

Gaeltacht Area 2011 2016 Change 2011/2016 Change 2011/2016 (%)
County Cork 982 872   110   11.2%
County Donegal 7,047 5,929   1,118   15.9%
Galway City 636 647   11   1.6%
County Galway 10,085 9,445   640   6.3%
County Kerry 2,501 2,049   452   18.1%
County Mayo 1,172 895   277   23.6%
County Meath 314 283   31   9.9%
County Waterford 438 467   29   6.6%
All Gaeltacht Areas 23,175 20,586   2,589   11.2%
Source:[82]

In 1996, the three electoral divisions in the State where Irish had the most daily speakers were An Turloch (91%+), Scainimh (89%+), Min an Chladaigh (88%+).[83]

Dialects edit

Irish is represented by several traditional dialects and by various varieties of "urban" Irish. The latter have acquired lives of their own and a growing number of native speakers. Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress, intonation, vocabulary and structural features.

Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of Connacht (Cúige Chonnacht), Munster (Cúige Mumhan) and Ulster (Cúige Uladh). Records of some dialects of Leinster (Cúige Laighean) were made by the Irish Folklore Commission and others.[84] Newfoundland, in eastern Canada, had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century (see Newfoundland Irish).

Connacht edit

Main article: Connacht Irish

Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in Connemara and the Aran Islands. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway (Gaillimh) and Mayo (Maigh Eo). There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish, the Mid-Connacht/Joyce Country form (on the border between Mayo and Galway) and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province.

Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, e.g. lagachan instead of lagú, "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation of Cois Fharraige with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word-final /w/ as [w], rather than as [vˠ] in Munster. For example, sliabh ("mountain") is [ʃlʲiəw] in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to [ʃlʲiəβ] in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster, e.g. bhí muid is used for "we were" instead of bhíomar.

As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. This can be seen in ceann [cɑːn̪ˠ] "head", cam [kɑːmˠ] "crooked", gearr [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", ord [ouɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", gall [gɑːl̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", iontas [iːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", etc. The form ⟨(a)ibh⟩, when occurring at the end of words like agaibh, tends to be pronounced as [iː].

In South Connemara, for example, there is a tendency to replace word-final /vʲ/ with /bʲ/, in word such as sibh, libh and dóibh (pronounced respectively as "shiv," "liv" and "dófa" in the other areas). This placing of the B-sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels, such as acu ([ˈakəbˠ]) and 'leo ([lʲoːbˠ]). There is also a tendency to omit /g/ in agam, agat and againn, a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional.

The pronunciation prevalent in the Joyce Country (the area around Lough Corrib and Lough Mask) is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words agam, agat and againn and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as doiligh (difficult) and foscailte being preferred to the more usual deacair and oscailte. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as [iː]: eile (other), cosa (feet) and déanta (done) tend to be pronounced as eilí, cosaí and déantaí respectively.

The northern Mayo dialect of Erris (Iorras) and Achill (Acaill) is in grammar and morphology essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the Plantation of Ulster. For example, words ending -⟨bh, mh⟩ have a much softer sound, with a tendency to terminate words such as leo and dóibh with ⟨f⟩, giving leofa and dófa respectively. In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht, one also finds Ulster words like amharc (meaning "to look"), nimhneach (painful or sore), druid (close), mothaigh (hear), doiligh (difficult), úr (new), and tig le (to be able to – i.e. a form similar to féidir).

Irish President Douglas Hyde was possibly one of the last speakers of the Roscommon dialect of Irish.[37]

Munster edit

Main article: Munster Irish

Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the counties of Cork (Contae Chorcaí), Kerry (Contae Chiarraí), and Waterford (Contae Phort Láirge). The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in Cape Clear Island (Oileán Chléire) and Muskerry (Múscraí); those of Kerry lie in Corca Dhuibhne and Iveragh Peninsula; and those of Waterford in Ring (An Rinn) and Old Parish (An Sean Phobal), both of which together form Gaeltacht na nDéise. Of the three counties, the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry is quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct.

Some typical features of Munster Irish are:

  1. The use of synthetic verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system, thus "I must" is caithfead in Munster, while other dialects prefer caithfidh mé (mé means "I"). "I was" and "you were" are bhíos and bhís in Munster but more commonly bhí mé and bhí tú in other dialects. These are strong tendencies, and the personal forms bhíos etc. are used in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause.
  2. Use of independent/dependent forms of verbs that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is chím, which is the independent form; Ulster Irish also uses a similar form, tchím, whereas "I do not see" is ní fheicim, feicim being the dependent form, which is used after particles such as ní ("not"). Chím is replaced by feicim in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster bheirim "I give"/ní thugaim is tugaim/ní thugaim in the Standard; gheibhim I get/ní bhfaighim is faighim/ní bhfaighim.
  3. When before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩ and so on, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant, some short vowels are lengthened while others are diphthongised, in ceann [cɑun̪ˠ] "head", cam [kɑumˠ] "crooked", gearr [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", ord [oːɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", gall [gɑul̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", iontas [uːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", compánach [kəumˠˈpˠɑːnˠəx] "companion, mate", etc.
  4. A copular construction involving ea "it" is frequently used. Thus "I am an Irish person" can be said is Éireannach mé and Éireannach is ea mé in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word Éireannach. In effect the construction is a type of "fronting".
  5. Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after insan (sa/san) "in the", den "of the", and don "to/for the": sa tsiopa "in the shop", compared to the Standard sa siopa (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases).
  6. Eclipsis of ⟨f⟩ after sa: sa bhfeirm, "in the farm", instead of san fheirm.
  7. Eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ and ⟨d⟩ after preposition + singular article, with all prepositions except after insan, den and don: ar an dtigh "on the house", ag an ndoras "at the door".
  8. Stress is generally on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel, and the second syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or is -⟨(e)ach⟩, e.g. Ciarán is pronounced [[ciəˈɾˠaːn̪ˠ]] opposed to [ˈciəɾˠaːn̪ˠ] in Connacht and Ulster.

Ulster edit

Main article: Ulster Irish

Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal. These regions contain all of Ulster's communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland. The Irish-speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival – English-speaking families deciding to learn Irish. Census data shows that 4,130 people speak it at home.

Linguistically, the most important of the Ulster dialects today is that which is spoken, with slight differences, in both Gweedore (Gaoth Dobhair = Inlet of Streaming Water) and The Rosses (na Rossa).

Ulster Irish sounds quite different from the other two main dialects. It shares several features with southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic and Manx, as well as having many characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see present-day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish.

One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle cha(n) in place of the Munster and Connacht ní. Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use ní more than cha(n), cha(n) has almost ousted ní in northernmost dialects (e.g. Rosguill and Tory Island), though even in these areas níl "is not" is more common than chan fhuil or cha bhfuil.[85][86] Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending -(a)im as -(e)am, also common to the Isle of Man and Scotland (Munster/Connacht siúlaim "I walk", Ulster siúlam).

Leinster edit

Down to the early 19th century and even later, Irish was spoken in all twelve counties of Leinster. The evidence furnished by placenames, literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there was no Leinster dialect as such. Instead, the main dialect used in the province was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the Liffey estuary and southwards to Wexford, though with many local variations. Two smaller dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth, which extended as far south as the Boyne valley, and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois.

The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference (found in placenames) for the pronunciation ⟨cr⟩ where the standard spelling is ⟨cn⟩. The word cnoc (hill) would therefore be pronounced croc. Examples are the placenames Crooksling (Cnoc Slinne) in County Dublin and Crukeen (Cnoicín) in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like poll (hole), cill (monastery), coill (wood), ceann (head), cam (crooked) and dream (crowd). A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of ⟨ao⟩, which generally became [eː] in east Leinster (as in Munster), and [iː] in the west (as in Connacht).[87]

Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge (1547), by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde.[88] The illustrative phrases he uses include the following:

English Leinster Irish
Anglicised spelling Irish spelling
How are you? Kanys stato? [Canas 'tá tú?]
I am well, thank you Tam a goomah gramahagood. [Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat.]
Sir, can you speak Irish? Sor, woll galow oket? [Sir, 'bhfuil Gaeilig [Gaela'] agat?]
Wife, give me bread! Benytee, toor haran! [A bhean an tí, tabhair arán!]
How far is it to Waterford? Gath haad o showh go part laarg?. [Gá fhad as [a] seo go Port Láirge?]
It is one a twenty mile. Myle hewryht. [Míle a haon ar fhichid.]
When shall I go to sleep, wife? Gah hon rah moyd holow? [Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh?]

The Pale edit

 
The Pale – According to Statute of 1488

The Pale (An Pháil) was an area around late medieval Dublin under the control of the English government. By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from Dalkey, south of Dublin, to the garrison town of Dundalk, with an inland boundary encompassing Naas and Leixlip in the Earldom of Kildare and Trim and Kells in County Meath to the north. In this area of "Englyshe tunge" English had never actually been a dominant language – and was moreover a relatively late comer; the first colonisers were Normans who spoke Norman French, and before these Norse. The Irish language had always been the language of the bulk of the population. An English official remarked of the Pale in 1515 that "all the common people of the said half counties that obeyeth the King's laws, for the most part be of Irish birth, of Irish habit and of Irish language".[89]

With the strengthening of English cultural and political control, language change began to occur but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century. Even then, in the decennial period 1771–81, the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41%. By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3%.[90]

General decline edit

English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century but Irish speakers were still numerous. In the decennial period 1771–81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows (though the estimates are likely to be too low):[90]

Kilkenny 57%
Louth 57%
Longford 22%
Westmeath 17%

The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Wexford, and Wicklow. In recent years, County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland, with only 0.14% of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language.[91] The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s, and virtually none in the 1860s.[92] The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin.[90] Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in Omeath, County Louth (now available in digital form).[93] The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon (née Dobbin), who died in 1960.[29] Her dialect was, in fact, a branch of the Irish of south-east Ulster.[94]

Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century edit

Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The English administrator William Gerard (1518–1581) commented as follows: "All English, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irish,"[95] while the Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) lamented that "When their posterity became not altogether so wary in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker took such deep root, as the body that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified".[96]

The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural (a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects). In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: gnóthuimh (accusative case, the standard form being gnóthaí), tíorthuibh (accusative case, the standard form being tíortha) and leithscéalaibh (genitive case, the standard form being leithscéalta).[97]

English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy.[98] In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken".[99]

There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time. In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration (rejecting the authority of the Pope) read in Irish in Cork so that people could understand it.[100]

Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note.[101] Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin (Maurice Gorman), a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services (in English) in Faulkner's Dublin Journal.[102] There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census.[103]

In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo-Norman settlers, the so-called Old English, were Irish-speaking or bilingual by the 16th century.[104] The English administrator and traveller Fynes Moryson, writing in the last years of the 16th century, said that "the English Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us".[105] In Galway, a city dominated by Old English merchants and loyal to the Crown up to the Irish Confederate Wars (1641–1653), the use of the Irish language had already provoked the passing of an Act of Henry VIII (1536), ordaining as follows:

Item, that every inhabitant within oure said towne [Galway] endeavour themselfes to speake English, and to use themselfes after the English facon; and, speciallye, that you, and every one of you, doe put your children to scole, to lerne to speke English...[106]

The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed.[107] The census of 1851 showed, however, that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Much earlier, in 1819, James McQuige, a veteran Methodist lay preacher in Irish, wrote: "In some of the largest southern towns, Cork, Kinsale and even the Protestant town of Bandon, provisions are sold in the markets, and cried in the streets, in Irish".[108] Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851.[109]

Modern urban usage edit

The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a reduction in the number of Dublin's Irish speakers, in keeping with the trend elsewhere. This continued until the end of the 19th century, when the Gaelic revival saw the creation of a strong Irish–speaking network, typically united by various branches of the Conradh na Gaeilge, and accompanied by renewed literary activity.[110] By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish.[111]

Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, from the last decades of the 20th century, of a rapidly expanding system of Gaelscoileanna, teaching entirely through Irish. As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone.[112]

It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media.[113] Many are younger speakers who, after encountering Irish at school, made an effort to acquire fluency, while others have been educated through Irish and some have been raised with Irish. Those from an English-speaking background are now often described as nuachainteoirí ("new speakers") and use whatever opportunities are available (festivals, "pop-up" events) to practise or improve their Irish.[114]

It has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht,[115] but other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language.[116] A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants, which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar, is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish. This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even, over a long period, develop into a creole (i.e. a new language) distinct from Gaeltacht Irish.[113] It has also been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers, with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with "Dublin" (i.e. urban) Irish being under-represented in the media.[117] This, however, is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language.[113]

Standardisation edit

Main article: An Caighdeán Oifigiúil

There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language. Certain dictionaries, such as Foclóir Póca, provide a single pronunciation. Online dictionaries such as Foclóir Béarla-Gaeilge[118] provide audio files in the three major dialects. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a "standard Irish." In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable.[119]

An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to An Caighdeán, is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish, developed and used by the Irish government. Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland, though schools in and near Irish-speaking regions also use the local dialect. It was published by the translation department of Dáil Éireann in 1953[120] and updated in 2012[121] and 2017.

Phonology edit

Main article: Irish phonology

In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. One notable feature is that consonants (except /h/) come in pairs, one "broad" (velarised, pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate) and one "slender" (palatalised, pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate). While broad–slender pairs are not unique to Irish (being found, for example, in Russian), in Irish they have a grammatical function.

The diphthongs of Irish are /iə, uə, əi, əu/.

Syntax and morphology edit

Main articles: Irish grammar, Irish declension, Irish conjugation, and Irish syntax

Irish is a fusional, VSO, nominative-accusative language. It is neither verb nor satellite framed, and makes liberal use of deictic verbs.

Nouns decline for 3 numbers: singular, dual (only in conjunction with the number dhá "two"), plural; 2 genders: masculine, feminine; and 4 cases: nomino-accusative (ainmneach), vocative (gairmeach), genitive (ginideach), and prepositional-locative (tabharthach), with fossilised traces of the older accusative (cuspóireach). Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case. Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or prefix nouns. Demonstrative adjectives have proximal, medial, and distal forms. The prepositional-locative case is called the dative by convention, though it originates in the Proto-Celtic ablative.

Verbs conjugate for 3 tenses: past, present, future; 2 aspects: perfective, imperfective; 2 numbers: singular, plural; 4 moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; 2 relative forms, the present and future relative; and in some verbs, independent and dependent forms. Verbs conjugate for 3 persons and an impersonal form which is actor-free; the 3rd person singular acts as a person-free personal form that can be followed or otherwise refer to any person or number.

There are two verbs for "to be", one for inherent qualities with only two forms, is "present" and ba "past" and "conditional", and one for transient qualities, with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective. The two verbs share the one verbal noun.

Irish verb formation employs a mixed system during conjugation, with both analytic and synthetic methods employed depending on tense, number, mood and person. For example, in the official standard, present tense verbs have conjugated forms only in the 1st person and autonomous forms (i.e. molaim 'I praise', molaimid 'we praise', moltar 'is praised, one praises' ), whereas all other persons are conveyed analytically (i.e. molann sé 'he praises', molann sibh 'you pl. praise'). The ratio of analytic to synthetic forms in a given verb paradigm varies between the various tenses and moods. The conditional, imperative and past habitual forms prefer synthetic forms in most persons and numbers, whereas the subjunctive, past, future and present forms prefer mostly analytical forms.

The meaning of the passive voice is largely conveyed through the autonomous verb form, however there also exist other structures analogous to the passival and resultative constructions. There are also a number of preverbal particles marking the negative, interrogative, subjunctive, relative clauses, etc. There is a verbal noun and verbal adjective. Verb forms are highly regular, many grammars recognise only 11 irregular verbs.

Prepositions inflect for person and number. Different prepositions govern different cases. In Old and Middle Irish, prepositions governed different cases depending on intended semantics; this has disappeared in Modern Irish except in fossilised form.

Irish has no verb to express having; instead, the word ag ("at", etc.) is used in conjunction with the transient "be" verb bheith:

  • Tá leabhar agam. "I have a book." (Literally, "there is a book at me", cf. Russian У меня есть книга, Finnish minulla on kirja, French le livre est à moi)
  • Tá leabhar agat. "You (singular) have a book."
  • Tá leabhar aige. "He has a book."
  • Tá leabhar aici. "She has a book."
  • Tá leabhar againn. "We have a book."
  • Tá leabhar agaibh. "You (plural) have a book."
  • Tá leabhar acu. "They have a book."

Numerals have three forms: abstract, general and ordinal. The numbers from 2 to 10 (and these in combination with higher numbers) are rarely used for people, numeral nominals being used instead:

  • a dó "Two."
  • dhá leabhar "Two books."
  • beirt "Two people, a couple", beirt fhear "Two men", beirt bhan "Two women".
  • dara, tarna (free variation) "Second."

Irish has both decimal and vigesimal systems:

10: a deich

20: fiche

30: vigesimal – a deich is fiche; decimal – tríocha

40: v. daichead, dá fhichead; d. ceathracha

50: v. a deich is daichead; d. caoga (also: leathchéad "half-hundred")

60: v. trí fichid; d. seasca

70: v. a deich is trí fichid; d. seachtó

80: v. cheithre fichid; d. ochtó

90: v. a deich is cheithre fichid; d. nócha

100: v. cúig fichid; d. céad

A number such as 35 has various forms:

a cúigdéag is fichid "15 and 20"

a cúig is tríocha "5 and 30"

a cúigdéag ar fhichid "15 on 20"

a cúig ar thríochaid "5 on 30"

a cúigdéag fichead "15 of 20 (genitive)"

a cúig tríochad "5 of 30 (genitive)"

fiche 's a cúigdéag "20 and 15"

tríocha 's a cúig "30 and 5"

The latter is most commonly used in mathematics.

Initial mutations edit

Main article: Irish initial mutations

In Irish, there are two classes of initial consonant mutations, which express grammatical relationship and meaning in verbs, nouns and adjectives:

  • Lenition (séimhiú) describes the change of stops into fricatives.[122] Indicated in Gaelic type by an overdot (ponc séimhithe), it is shown in Roman type by adding an ⟨h⟩.
    • caith! "throw!" – chaith mé "I threw" (lenition as a past-tense marker, caused by the particle do, now generally omitted)
    • gá "requirement" – easpa an ghá "lack of the requirement" (lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
    • Seán "John" – a Sheáin! "John!" (lenition as part of the vocative case, the vocative lenition being triggered by a, the vocative marker before Sheáin)
  • Eclipsis (urú) covers the voicing of voiceless stops, and nasalisation of voiced stops.
    • Athair "Father" – ár nAthair "our Father"
    • tús "start", ar dtús "at the start"
    • Gaillimh "Galway" – i nGaillimh "in Galway"

Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms. For example, the only non-contextual way to distinguish possessive pronouns "her", "his" and "their", is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word a.

  • his shoe – a bhróg (lenition)
  • their shoe – a mbróg (eclipsis)
  • her shoe – a bróg (unchanged)

Due to initial mutation, prefixes, clitics, suffixes, root inflection, ending morphology, elision, sandhi, epenthesis, and assimilation; the beginning, core, and end of words can each change radically and even simultaneously depending on context.

Orthography edit

Main article: Irish orthography
 
The official symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, showing a Gaelic typeface with dot diacritics

A native writing system, Ogham, was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish until Latin script was introduced in the 5th century CE.[123] Since the introduction of Latin script, the main typeface used to write Irish was Gaelic type until it was replaced by Roman type during the mid-20th century.

The traditional Irish alphabet (áibítir) consists of 18 letters: ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩; it does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩.[124][125] However contemporary Irish uses the full Latin alphabet, with the previously unused letter used in modern loanwords; ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words and colloquialisms.

Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; Irish and Hiberno-English: (síneadh) fada "long (sign)"), but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation.[126] It is used, among other conventions, to mark long vowels, e.g. ⟨e⟩ is /ɛ/ and ⟨é⟩ is /eː/.

The overdot (ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition") was used in traditional orthography to indicate lenition; An Caighdeán uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose, i.e. the dotted letters (litreacha buailte "struck letters") ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.

The use of Gaelic type and the overdot today is restricted to when a traditional style is consciously being used, e.g. Óglaiġ na h-Éireann on the Irish Defence Forces cap badge (see above). Extending the use of the overdot to Roman type would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter, e.g. gheobhaidh sibh "you (pl.) will get" would become ġeoḃaiḋ siḃ.

Spelling reform edit

Around the time of the Second World War, Séamas Daltún, in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin [ga] (The Translation Department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved by the State and developed into an Caighdeán Oifigiúil, which simplified and standardised the orthography and grammar by removing inter-dialectal silent letters and simplifying vowel combinations. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one was selected, for example:

  • beirbhiughadh → beiriú "cook"
  • biadh → bia "food"
  • Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn → Gaeilge "Irish language"

An Caighdeán does not reflect all dialects to the same degree, e.g. cruaidh /kɾˠuəj/ "hard", leabaidh /ˈl̠ʲabˠəj/ "bed", and tráigh /t̪ˠɾˠaːj/ "beach" were standardised as crua, leaba, and trá despite the reformed spellings only reflecting South Connacht realisations [kɾˠuə], [ˈl̠ʲabˠə], and [t̪ˠɾˠaː], failing to represent the other dialectal realisations [kɾˠui], [ˈl̠ʲabˠi], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːi] (in Mayo and Ulster) or [kɾˠuəɟ], [ˈl̠ʲabˠəɟ], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːɟ] (in Munster), which were previously represented by the pre-reformed spellings.[127] For this reason, the pre-reform spellings are used by some speakers to reflect the dialectal pronunciations.

Other examples include the genitive of bia "food" (/bʲiə/; pre-reform biadh) and saol "life, world" (/sˠeːlˠ/; pre-reform saoghal), realised [bʲiːɟ] and [sˠeːlʲ] in Munster, reflecting the pre-Caighdeán spellings bídh and saoghail, which were standardised as bia and saoil despite not representing the Munster pronunciations.[128][129]

Sample text edit

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Irish:
Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.[130]		 English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[131]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Irish was the first official language of the Irish state.[1] Irish is not widely used as an L2 in most of Ireland, but its use is encouraged by the government.

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ a b "Constitution of Ireland". Government of Ireland. 1 July 1937. Archived from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
  2. ^ Ainsworth, Paul (6 December 2022). "'Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law". The Irish News. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  3. ^ a b c "Gaelic definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary.
  4. ^ a b c "Gaelic". Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  5. ^ "Irish language". Britannica. 2021.
  6. ^ "Our Role Supporting You". Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ...  between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'
  7. ^ a b O'Gallagher, J. (1877). Sermons in Irish-Gaelic. Gill.
  8. ^ Ó Flannghaile, Tomás (1896). For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects. Gill.
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  • McCabe, Richard A.. Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference. Oxford University Press 2002. ISBN 0-19-818734-3.
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  • Hickey, Raymond. The Sound Structure of Modern Irish. De Gruyter Mouton 2014. ISBN 978-3-11-022659-1.
  • De Brún, Pádraig. Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818–1827. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 2009. ISBN 978-1-85500-212-8
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  • Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117–1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984.
  • Garvin, Tom, Preventing the Future: Why was Ireland so poor for so long?, Gill and MacMillan, 2005.
  • Hindley, Reg (1991, new ed.). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4150-6481-1
  • McMahon, Timothy G.. Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910. Syracuse University Press 2008. ISBN 978-0-8156-3158-3
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  • Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa. 'An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe's private library: Muiris Ó Gormáin's books' in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Volume 110C, 2010, pp. 239–276.
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External links edit

 
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February 15, 2024
irish, language, other, uses, disambiguation, gaoidhealg, redirects, here, shared, literary, form, that, from, 13th, 16th, 18th, century, classical, gaelic, irish, standard, irish, gaeilge, known, gaelic, ireland, also, sometimes, known, outside, ireland, iris. For other uses see Irish language disambiguation Gaoidhealg redirects here For the shared literary form that was in use from the 13th to the 16th 18th century see Classical Gaelic Irish Standard Irish Gaeilge known as Gaelic in Ireland ˈ ɡ eɪ l ɪ k GAY lik 3 4 5 also sometimes known outside Ireland as Irish Gaelic 6 7 8 is a Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family which is a part of the Indo European language family 4 7 9 10 3 Irish is indigenous to the island of Ireland 11 and was the population s first language until the 19th century when English gradually became dominant particularly in the last decades of the century Today Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in areas of Ireland collectively known as the Gaeltacht in which only 2 of Ireland s population lived in 2016 12 It is also spoken by a larger group of habitual but non traditional speakers mostly in urban areas where the majority are second language speakers From 2006 to 2008 over 22 000 Irish Americans reported speaking Irish as their first language at home with several times that number claiming some knowledge of the language 13 IrishIrish GaelicGaelicStandard Irish Gaeilge na hEireann PronunciationConnacht Irish ˈɡeːlʲɟe Munster Irish ˈɡeːl ˠen ʲ Ulster Irish ˈɡeːlʲec RegionIrelandEthnicityIrish peopleNative speakersL1 unknownPeople aged 3 stating they could speak Irish very well ROI 2022 195 029Daily users outside education system ROI 2022 71 968 NI 2021 43 557L2 unknownPeople aged 3 stating they could speak Irish ROI 2022 1 873 997 NI 2021 228 600Language familyIndo European CelticInsular CelticGoidelicIrishEarly formsPrimitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Early Modern IrishStandard formsAn Caighdean Oifigiuil written only DialectsConnacht Irish Leinster Irish Munster Irish Newfoundland Ulster IrishWriting systemLatin Irish alphabet Ogham historically Irish BrailleOfficial statusOfficial language inIreland a Northern Ireland 2 European UnionLanguage codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks ga span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks gle span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code gle class extiw title iso639 3 gle gle a Glottologiris1253ELPIrishLinguasphere50 AAAProportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World s Languages in Danger 2010 This article contains IPA phonetic symbols Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode characters For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA The total number of people aged 3 and over in Ireland who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1 873 997 representing 40 of respondents but of these 472 887 said they never spoke it while a further 551 993 said they only spoke it within the education system 14 Linguistic analysis of Irish speakers is therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in Ireland outside the education system which in 2016 was 20 586 in the Gaeltacht and 53 217 outside it totalling 73 803 15 In 2021 in response to the Northern Ireland census 43 557 said they spoke the language on a daily basis 26 286 spoke it on a weekly basis 47 153 spoke it less often than weekly and 9 758 said they could speak Irish but never spoke it 16 For most of recorded Irish history Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people who took it with them to other regions such as Scotland and the Isle of Man where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx It was also for a period spoken widely across Canada with an estimated 200 000 250 000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890 17 On the island of Newfoundland a unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century With a writing system Ogham dating back to at least the 4th century AD which was gradually replaced by Latin script since the 5th century AD Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in Western Europe On the island the language has three major dialects Munster Connacht and Ulster All three have distinctions in their speech and orthography There is also a standard written form devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s The traditional Irish alphabet a variant of the Latin alphabet with 18 letters has been succeeded by the standard Latin alphabet albeit with 7 8 letters used primarily in loanwords Irish has constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and is also an official language of Northern Ireland and among the official languages of the European Union The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island Irish has no regulatory body but the standard modern written form is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input Contents 1 Names 1 1 In Irish 1 2 In English 2 History 3 Status and policy 3 1 Ireland 3 1 1 Gaeltacht 3 2 Policy 3 2 1 Official Languages Act 2003 3 2 2 Official Languages Scheme 2019 2022 3 2 3 20 Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010 2030 3 3 Northern Ireland 3 4 European Parliament 3 5 Outside Ireland 4 Usage 4 1 Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016 5 Dialects 5 1 Connacht 5 2 Munster 5 3 Ulster 5 4 Leinster 5 4 1 The Pale 5 4 2 General decline 5 5 Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century 5 6 Modern urban usage 5 7 Standardisation 6 Phonology 7 Syntax and morphology 7 1 Initial mutations 8 Orthography 8 1 Spelling reform 9 Sample text 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Citations 12 2 Bibliography 13 External links 13 1 Grammar and pronunciation 13 2 DictionariesNames editIn Irish edit In An Caighdean Oifigiuil The Official Written Standard the name of the language is Gaeilge from the South Connacht form spelled Gaedhilge prior the spelling reform of 1948 which was originally the genitive of Gaedhealg the form used in Classical Gaelic 18 The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in Gaedhilge Older spellings include Gaoidhealg ˈɡeːʝelˠɡ in Classical Gaelic and Goidelc ˈɡoidelˠɡ in Old Irish Goidelic used to refer to the language family is derived from the Old Irish term Endonyms of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include Gaeilge ˈɡeːlʲɟe in Galway Gaeilg Gaeilic Gaeilig ˈɡeːlʲec in Mayo and Ulster and Gaelainn Gaoluinn ˈɡeːl ˠen ʲ in West Cork Kerry Munster as well as Gaedhealaing in mid and East Kerry Cork and Waterford Munster to reflect local pronunciation 19 20 Gaeilge also has a wider meaning including the Gaelic of Scotland and the Isle of Man as well as of Ireland When required by the context these are distinguished as Gaeilge na hAlban Gaeilge Mhanann and Gaeilge na hEireann respectively 21 In English edit In English including Hiberno English the language is usually referred to as Irish as well as Gaelic and Irish Gaelic 22 23 The term Irish Gaelic may be seen when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages Irish Scottish Gaelic and Manx 24 Gaelic is a collective term for the Goidelic languages 3 25 4 10 26 and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually When the context is specific but unclear the term may be qualified as Irish Gaelic Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic Historically the name Erse was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish 27 as well as Scottish Gaelic History editMain article History of the Irish language Written Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD a stage of the language known as Primitive Irish These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain Primitive Irish underwent a change into Old Irish through the 5th century Old Irish dating from the 6th century used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts During this time the Irish language absorbed some Latin words some via Old Welsh including ecclesiastical terms examples are easpag bishop from episcopus and Domhnach Sunday from dominica By the 10th century Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish which was spoken throughout Ireland Isle of Man and parts of Scotland It is the language of a large corpus of literature including the Ulster Cycle From the 12th century Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland into Scottish Gaelic in Scotland and into the Manx language in the Isle of Man Early Modern Irish dating from the 13th century was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic speaking Scotland Modern Irish as attested in the work of such writers as Geoffrey Keating may be said to date from the 17th century and was the medium of popular literature from that time on From the 18th century on the language lost ground in the east of the country The reasons behind this shift were complex but came down to a number of factors Discouragement of its use by the Anglo Irish administration The Catholic Church s support of English over Irish The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards 28 nbsp The distribution of the Irish language in 1871The change was characterised by diglossia two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations and transitional bilingualism monoglot Irish speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English speaking grandchildren By the mid 18th century English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class the Catholic Church and public intellectuals especially in the east of the country Increasingly as the value of English became apparent parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools 29 Increasing interest in emigrating to the United States and Canada was also a driver as fluency in English allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the Great Famine were Irish speakers 30 Irish was not marginal to Ireland s modernisation in the 19th century as is often assumed In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts even when they knew English and Irish was also common in commercial transactions The language was heavily implicated in the devotional revolution which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards the language was in use by all classes Irish being an urban as well as a rural language 31 This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language At the end of the 19th century they launched the Gaelic revival in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish although few adult learners mastered the language 32 The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League Conradh na Gaeilge and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition which in Irish is particularly rich Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman Muircheartach o Cionga commissioned by Bishop Bedell was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament Otherwise Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with civilising the native Irish Currently modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival 33 It has been estimated that there were around 800 000 monoglot Irish speakers in 1800 which dropped to 320 000 by the end of the famine and under 17 000 by 1911 34 Sean o hEiniri of Cill Ghallagain County Mayo who died 26 July 1998 was possibly the last monolingual Irish speaker Status and policy editMain article Status of the Irish language Ireland edit Irish is recognised by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of Ireland English being the other official language Despite this almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English 35 In 1938 the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge Gaelic League Douglas Hyde was inaugurated as the first President of Ireland The record of his delivering his inaugural Declaration of Office in Roscommon Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect 36 37 38 39 nbsp Bilingual sign in Grafton Street DublinIn the 2016 census 10 5 of respondents stated that they spoke Irish either daily or weekly while over 70 000 people 4 2 speak it as a habitual daily means of communication 40 From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 see History of the Republic of Ireland new appointees to the Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland including postal workers tax collectors agricultural inspectors Garda Siochana police etc were required to have some proficiency in Irish By law a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well 41 In 1974 in part through the actions of protest organisations like the Language Freedom Movement the requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language Nevertheless Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic that receive public money see Education in the Republic of Ireland Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called Scrudu Cailiochta sa Ghaeilge As of 2005 Garda Siochana recruits need a pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003 enforced by An Coimisineir Teanga the Irish language ombudsman The National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE GCSE examinations 42 Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland and students diagnosed with dyslexia NUI Galway is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act 1929 Section 3 43 In 2016 the university faced controversy when it announced the appointment of a president who did not speak Irish Misneach further explanation needed staged protests against this decision The following year the university announced that Ciaran o hogartaigh a fluent Irish speaker would be its 13th president citation needed nbsp Bilingual road signs in Creggs County GalwayFor a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English medium schools to achieve competence in Irish even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects 44 45 46 The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern 47 48 49 50 In 2007 filmmaker Manchan Magan found few Irish speakers in Dublin and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks as portrayed in his documentary No Bearla 51 There is however a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas particularly in Dublin Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction Such schools are known as Gaelscoileanna at primary level These Irish medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English medium schools 52 In 2009 a paper suggested that within a generation non Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban middle class and highly educated minority 53 Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English This is notwithstanding that Article 25 4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an official translation of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language if not already passed in both official languages 1 In November 2016 RTE reported that over 2 3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the Duolingo app 54 Irish president Michael Higgins officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition and said the push for Irish language rights remains an unfinished project 55 Gaeltacht edit Main article Gaeltacht nbsp The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State to be updatedThere are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a first language These regions are known individually and collectively as the Gaeltacht plural Gaeltachtai While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas whose numbers have been estimated at 20 30 000 56 are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in Gaeltacht areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent According to data compiled by the Department of Tourism Culture Arts Gaeltacht Sport and Media only 1 4 of households in Gaeltacht areas are fluent in Irish The author of a detailed analysis of the survey Donncha o hEallaithe of the Galway Mayo Institute of Technology described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a complete and absolute disaster The Irish Times referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper Foinse quoted him as follows It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250 000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish speaking or semi Irish speaking areas but the number now is between 20 000 and 30 000 56 In the 1920s when the Irish Free State was founded Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas 57 In the 1930s areas where more than 25 of the population spoke Irish were classified as Gaeltacht Today the strongest Gaeltacht areas numerically and socially are those of South Connemara the west of the Dingle Peninsula and northwest Donegal where many residents still use Irish as their primary language These areas are often referred to as the Fior Ghaeltacht true Gaeltacht a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50 of the population spoke Irish There are Gaeltacht regions in the following counties 58 59 County Galway Contae na Gaillimhe Connemara Conamara Aran Islands Oileain Arann Carraroe An Cheathru Rua Spiddal An Spideal County Donegal Contae Dhun na nGall County Kerry Contae Chiarrai Dingle Peninsula Corca Dhuibhne Iveragh Peninsula Uibh Rathach County Mayo Contae Mhaigh Eo County Meath Contae na Mi County Waterford Contae Phort Lairge County Cork Contae Chorcai Gweedore Gaoth Dobhair County Donegal is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually Students live with Gaeltacht families attend classes participate in sports go to ceilithe and are obliged to speak Irish All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged Policy edit Official Languages Act 2003 edit Main article Official Languages Act 2003 nbsp Dublin airport sign in both English and Irish languagesThe Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies 60 Compliance with the Act is monitored by the An Coimisineir Teanga Irish Language Commissioner which was established in 2004 61 and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them 60 There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts official publications and placenames 62 The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation 63 All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions 64 Official Languages Scheme 2019 2022 edit The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18 page document that adheres to the guidelines of the Official Languages Act 2003 65 The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and or English According to the Department of the Taoiseach it is meant to develop a sustainable economy and a successful society to pursue Ireland s interests abroad to implement the Government s Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens 66 20 Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010 2030 edit Main article 20 Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010 2030 The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030 it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language 67 The 30 page document published by the Government of Ireland details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including Education The Gaeltacht Family Transmission of the Language Early Intervention Administration Services and Community Media and Technology Dictionaries Legislation and Status Economic Life Cross cutting Initiatives 68 The general goal for this strategy was to increase the amount of speakers from 83 000 to 250 000 by the end of its run 69 Northern Ireland edit Main article Irish language in Northern Ireland nbsp A sign for the Department of Culture Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland in English Irish and Ulster Scots Before the partition of Ireland in 1921 Irish was recognised as a school subject and as Celtic in some third level institutions Between 1921 and 1972 Northern Ireland had devolved government During those years the political party holding power in the Stormont Parliament the Ulster Unionist Party UUP was hostile to the language The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists 70 In broadcasting there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government 71 After the 1998 Good Friday Agreement the language gradually received a degree of formal recognition in Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom 72 and then in 2003 by the British government s ratification in respect of the language of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages In the 2006 St Andrews Agreement the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language 73 and in 2022 it approved legislation to recognise Irish as an official language alongside English The bill received royal assent on 6 December 2022 74 The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland prompting protests from organisations and groups such as An Dream Dearg 75 European Parliament edit Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007 meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the European Parliament and at committees although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages While an official language of the European Union only co decision regulations were available until 2022 due to a five year derogation requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language s new official status The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs 76 This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022 making Irish a fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state s history 77 Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest level documents of the EU were made available in Irish Outside Ireland edit Main articles Irish language outside Ireland and Irish language in Newfoundland The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast diaspora chiefly to Great Britain and North America but also to Australia New Zealand and Argentina The first large movements began in the 17th century largely as a result of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland which saw many Irish sent to the West Indies Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine This flight also affected Britain Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language though English was establishing itself as the primary language Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers and many Irish speaking settlers followed particularly in the 1860s New Zealand also received some of this influx Argentina was the only non English speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants and there were few Irish speakers among them Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established An Gaodhal In Australia too the language found its way into print The Gaelic revival which started in Ireland in the 1890s found a response abroad with branches of Conradh na Gaeilge being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad along with natural attrition in the host countries Despite this small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America Australia and Europe and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language There are significant Irish speaking networks in the United States and Canada 78 figures released for the period 2006 2008 show that 22 279 Irish Americans claimed to speak Irish at home 13 The Irish language is also one of the languages of the Celtic League a non governmental organisation that promotes self determination Celtic identity and culture in Ireland Scotland Wales Brittany Cornwall and the Isle of Man known collectively as the Celtic nations Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the island of Newfoundland in a form known as Newfoundland Irish 79 Certain Irish vocabulary grammar and pronunciation features are still used in modern Newfoundland English 80 Usage editThe 2016 census data shows The total number of people who answered yes to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1 761 420 a slight decrease 0 7 per cent on the 2011 figure of 1 774 437 This represents 39 8 per cent of respondents compared with 41 4 in 2011 Of the 73 803 daily Irish speakers outside the education system 20 586 27 9 lived in Gaeltacht areas 81 Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016 edit Gaeltacht Area 2011 2016 Change 2011 2016 Change 2011 2016 County Cork 982 872 nbsp 110 nbsp 11 2 County Donegal 7 047 5 929 nbsp 1 118 nbsp 15 9 Galway City 636 647 nbsp 11 nbsp 1 6 County Galway 10 085 9 445 nbsp 640 nbsp 6 3 County Kerry 2 501 2 049 nbsp 452 nbsp 18 1 County Mayo 1 172 895 nbsp 277 nbsp 23 6 County Meath 314 283 nbsp 31 nbsp 9 9 County Waterford 438 467 nbsp 29 nbsp 6 6 All Gaeltacht Areas 23 175 20 586 nbsp 2 589 nbsp 11 2 Source 82 In 1996 the three electoral divisions in the State where Irish had the most daily speakers were An Turloch 91 Scainimh 89 Min an Chladaigh 88 83 Dialects editIrish is represented by several traditional dialects and by various varieties of urban Irish The latter have acquired lives of their own and a growing number of native speakers Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress intonation vocabulary and structural features Roughly speaking the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of Connacht Cuige Chonnacht Munster Cuige Mumhan and Ulster Cuige Uladh Records of some dialects of Leinster Cuige Laighean were made by the Irish Folklore Commission and others 84 Newfoundland in eastern Canada had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century see Newfoundland Irish Connacht edit Main article Connacht Irish Historically Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in Connemara and the Aran Islands Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway Gaillimh and Mayo Maigh Eo There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish the Mid Connacht Joyce Country form on the border between Mayo and Galway and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in achan e g lagachan instead of lagu weakening The non standard pronunciation of Cois Fharraige with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word final w as w rather than as vˠ in Munster For example sliabh mountain is ʃlʲiew in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to ʃlʲieb in the south In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the we pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster e g bhi muid is used for we were instead of bhiomar As in Munster Irish some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before ll m nn rr rd in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant This can be seen in ceann cɑːn ˠ head cam kɑːmˠ crooked gearr ɟɑːɾˠ short ord ouɾˠd ˠ sledgehammer gall gɑːl ˠ foreigner non Gael iontas iːn ˠt ˠesˠ a wonder a marvel etc The form a ibh when occurring at the end of words like agaibh tends to be pronounced as iː In South Connemara for example there is a tendency to replace word final vʲ with bʲ in word such as sibh libh and doibh pronounced respectively as shiv liv and dofa in the other areas This placing of the B sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels such as acu ˈakebˠ and leo lʲoːbˠ There is also a tendency to omit g in agam agat and againn a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects All these pronunciations are distinctively regional The pronunciation prevalent in the Joyce Country the area around Lough Corrib and Lough Mask is quite similar to that of South Connemara with a similar approach to the words agam agat and againn and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary with certain words such as doiligh difficult and foscailte being preferred to the more usual deacair and oscailte Another interesting aspect of this sub dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as iː eile other cosa feet and deanta done tend to be pronounced as eili cosai and deantai respectively The northern Mayo dialect of Erris Iorras and Achill Acaill is in grammar and morphology essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large scale immigration of dispossessed people following the Plantation of Ulster For example words ending bh mh have a much softer sound with a tendency to terminate words such as leo and doibh with f giving leofa and dofa respectively In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht one also finds Ulster words like amharc meaning to look nimhneach painful or sore druid close mothaigh hear doiligh difficult ur new and tig le to be able to i e a form similar to feidir Irish President Douglas Hyde was possibly one of the last speakers of the Roscommon dialect of Irish 37 Munster edit Main article Munster Irish Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the counties of Cork Contae Chorcai Kerry Contae Chiarrai and Waterford Contae Phort Lairge The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in Cape Clear Island Oilean Chleire and Muskerry Muscrai those of Kerry lie in Corca Dhuibhne and Iveragh Peninsula and those of Waterford in Ring An Rinn and Old Parish An Sean Phobal both of which together form Gaeltacht na nDeise Of the three counties the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry is quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct Some typical features of Munster Irish are The use of synthetic verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system thus I must is caithfead in Munster while other dialects prefer caithfidh me me means I I was and you were are bhios and bhis in Munster but more commonly bhi me and bhi tu in other dialects These are strong tendencies and the personal forms bhios etc are used in the West and North particularly when the words are last in the clause Use of independent dependent forms of verbs that are not included in the Standard For example I see in Munster is chim which is the independent form Ulster Irish also uses a similar form tchim whereas I do not see is ni fheicim feicim being the dependent form which is used after particles such as ni not Chim is replaced by feicim in the Standard Similarly the traditional form preserved in Munster bheirim I give ni thugaim is tugaim ni thugaim in the Standard gheibhim I get ni bhfaighim is faighim ni bhfaighim When before ll m nn rr rd and so on in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant some short vowels are lengthened while others are diphthongised in ceann cɑun ˠ head cam kɑumˠ crooked gearr ɟɑːɾˠ short ord oːɾˠd ˠ sledgehammer gall gɑul ˠ foreigner non Gael iontas uːn ˠt ˠesˠ a wonder a marvel companach keumˠˈpˠɑːnˠex companion mate etc A copular construction involving ea it is frequently used Thus I am an Irish person can be said is Eireannach me and Eireannach is ea me in Munster there is a subtle difference in meaning however the first choice being a simple statement of fact while the second brings emphasis onto the word Eireannach In effect the construction is a type of fronting Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after insan sa san in the den of the and don to for the sa tsiopa in the shop compared to the Standard sa siopa the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases Eclipsis of f after sa sa bhfeirm in the farm instead of san fheirm Eclipsis of t and d after preposition singular article with all prepositions except after insan den and don ar an dtigh on the house ag an ndoras at the door Stress is generally on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel and the second syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or is e ach e g Ciaran is pronounced cieˈɾˠaːn ˠ opposed to ˈcieɾˠaːn ˠ in Connacht and Ulster Ulster edit Main article Ulster Irish Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal These regions contain all of Ulster s communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland The Irish speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival English speaking families deciding to learn Irish Census data shows that 4 130 people speak it at home Linguistically the most important of the Ulster dialects today is that which is spoken with slight differences in both Gweedore Gaoth Dobhair Inlet of Streaming Water and The Rosses na Rossa Ulster Irish sounds quite different from the other two main dialects It shares several features with southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic and Manx as well as having many characteristic words and shades of meanings However since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland it is probably an exaggeration to see present day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non Ulster features in common with Munster Irish One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle cha n in place of the Munster and Connacht ni Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use ni more than cha n cha n has almost ousted ni in northernmost dialects e g Rosguill and Tory Island though even in these areas nil is not is more common than chan fhuil or cha bhfuil 85 86 Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending a im as e am also common to the Isle of Man and Scotland Munster Connacht siulaim I walk Ulster siulam Leinster edit Down to the early 19th century and even later Irish was spoken in all twelve counties of Leinster The evidence furnished by placenames literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there was no Leinster dialect as such Instead the main dialect used in the province was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the Liffey estuary and southwards to Wexford though with many local variations Two smaller dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth which extended as far south as the Boyne valley and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word and showed a preference found in placenames for the pronunciation cr where the standard spelling is cn The word cnoc hill would therefore be pronounced croc Examples are the placenames Crooksling Cnoc Slinne in County Dublin and Crukeen Cnoicin in Carlow East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like poll hole cill monastery coill wood ceann head cam crooked and dream crowd A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of ao which generally became eː in east Leinster as in Munster and iː in the west as in Connacht 87 Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge 1547 by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde 88 The illustrative phrases he uses include the following English Leinster IrishAnglicised spelling Irish spellingHow are you Kanys stato Canas ta tu I am well thank you Tam a goomah gramahagood Ta me go maith go raibh maith agat Sir can you speak Irish Sor woll galow oket Sir bhfuil Gaeilig Gaela agat Wife give me bread Benytee toor haran A bhean an ti tabhair aran How far is it to Waterford Gath haad o showh go part laarg Ga fhad as a seo go Port Lairge It is one a twenty mile Myle hewryht Mile a haon ar fhichid When shall I go to sleep wife Gah hon rah moyd holow Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh The Pale edit nbsp The Pale According to Statute of 1488The Pale An Phail was an area around late medieval Dublin under the control of the English government By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from Dalkey south of Dublin to the garrison town of Dundalk with an inland boundary encompassing Naas and Leixlip in the Earldom of Kildare and Trim and Kells in County Meath to the north In this area of Englyshe tunge English had never actually been a dominant language and was moreover a relatively late comer the first colonisers were Normans who spoke Norman French and before these Norse The Irish language had always been the language of the bulk of the population An English official remarked of the Pale in 1515 that all the common people of the said half counties that obeyeth the King s laws for the most part be of Irish birth of Irish habit and of Irish language 89 With the strengthening of English cultural and political control language change began to occur but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century Even then in the decennial period 1771 81 the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41 By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3 90 General decline edit English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century but Irish speakers were still numerous In the decennial period 1771 81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows though the estimates are likely to be too low 90 Kilkenny 57 Louth 57 Longford 22 Westmeath 17 The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin Kildare Laois Wexford and Wicklow In recent years County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland with only 0 14 of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language 91 The proportion of Irish speaking children in Leinster went down as follows 17 in the 1700s 11 in the 1800s 3 in the 1830s and virtually none in the 1860s 92 The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin 90 Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in Omeath County Louth now available in digital form 93 The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath and in Leinster as a whole was Annie O Hanlon nee Dobbin who died in 1960 29 Her dialect was in fact a branch of the Irish of south east Ulster 94 Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century edit Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale The English administrator William Gerard 1518 1581 commented as follows All English and the most part with delight even in Dublin speak Irish 95 while the Old English historian Richard Stanihurst 1547 1618 lamented that When their posterity became not altogether so wary in keeping as their ancestors were valiant in conquering the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale this canker took such deep root as the body that before was whole and sound was by little and little festered and in manner wholly putrified 96 The Irish of Dublin situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster Connacht dialect further south may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following gnothuimh accusative case the standard form being gnothai tiorthuibh accusative case the standard form being tiortha and leithscealaibh genitive case the standard form being leithscealta 97 English authorities of the Cromwellian period aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin arranged for its official use In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest Seamas Corcy was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride s parish every Sunday and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy 98 In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself there is Irish commonly and usually spoken 99 There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration rejecting the authority of the Pope read in Irish in Cork so that people could understand it 100 Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Sean and Tadhg o Neachtain both poets of note 101 Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century An outstanding example was Muiris o Gormain Maurice Gorman a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services in English in Faulkner s Dublin Journal 102 There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census 103 In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo Norman settlers the so called Old English were Irish speaking or bilingual by the 16th century 104 The English administrator and traveller Fynes Moryson writing in the last years of the 16th century said that the English Irish and the very citizens excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides though they could speak English as well as we yet commonly speak Irish among themselves and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us 105 In Galway a city dominated by Old English merchants and loyal to the Crown up to the Irish Confederate Wars 1641 1653 the use of the Irish language had already provoked the passing of an Act of Henry VIII 1536 ordaining as follows Item that every inhabitant within oure said towne Galway endeavour themselfes to speake English and to use themselfes after the English facon and speciallye that you and every one of you doe put your children to scole to lerne to speke English 106 dd The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed 107 The census of 1851 showed however that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish speaking populations Much earlier in 1819 James McQuige a veteran Methodist lay preacher in Irish wrote In some of the largest southern towns Cork Kinsale and even the Protestant town of Bandon provisions are sold in the markets and cried in the streets in Irish 108 Irish speakers constituted over 40 of the population of Cork even in 1851 109 Modern urban usage edit The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a reduction in the number of Dublin s Irish speakers in keeping with the trend elsewhere This continued until the end of the 19th century when the Gaelic revival saw the creation of a strong Irish speaking network typically united by various branches of the Conradh na Gaeilge and accompanied by renewed literary activity 110 By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish 111 Urban Irish has been the beneficiary from the last decades of the 20th century of a rapidly expanding system of Gaelscoileanna teaching entirely through Irish As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone 112 It has been suggested that Ireland s towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers reflected in the expansion of Irish language media 113 Many are younger speakers who after encountering Irish at school made an effort to acquire fluency while others have been educated through Irish and some have been raised with Irish Those from an English speaking background are now often described as nuachainteoiri new speakers and use whatever opportunities are available festivals pop up events to practise or improve their Irish 114 It has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht 115 but other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language 116 A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even over a long period develop into a creole i e a new language distinct from Gaeltacht Irish 113 It has also been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with Dublin i e urban Irish being under represented in the media 117 This however is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language 113 Standardisation edit Main article An Caighdean Oifigiuil There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language Certain dictionaries such as Focloir Poca provide a single pronunciation Online dictionaries such as Focloir Bearla Gaeilge 118 provide audio files in the three major dialects The differences between dialects are considerable and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a standard Irish In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable 119 An Caighdean Oifigiuil The Official Standard often shortened to An Caighdean is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish developed and used by the Irish government Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland though schools in and near Irish speaking regions also use the local dialect It was published by the translation department of Dail Eireann in 1953 120 and updated in 2012 121 and 2017 Phonology editMain article Irish phonology In pronunciation Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives Scottish Gaelic and Manx One notable feature is that consonants except h come in pairs one broad velarised pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate and one slender palatalised pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate While broad slender pairs are not unique to Irish being found for example in Russian in Irish they have a grammatical function Consonant phonemes Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottalbroad slender broad slender broad slenderStop voiceless pˠ pʲ t ˠ tʲ k cvoiced bˠ bʲ d ˠ dʲ ɡ ɟFricative Approximant voiceless fˠ fʲ sˠ ʃ x c hvoiced w vʲ ɣ jNasal mˠ mʲ n ˠ nʲ ŋ ɲTap ɾˠ ɾʲLateral l ˠ lʲVowel phonemes Front Central Backshort long short short longClose ɪ iː ʊ uːMid ɛ eː e ɔ oːOpen a ɑːThe diphthongs of Irish are ie ue ei eu Syntax and morphology editMain articles Irish grammar Irish declension Irish conjugation and Irish syntax Irish is a fusional VSO nominative accusative language It is neither verb nor satellite framed and makes liberal use of deictic verbs Nouns decline for 3 numbers singular dual only in conjunction with the number dha two plural 2 genders masculine feminine and 4 cases nomino accusative ainmneach vocative gairmeach genitive ginideach and prepositional locative tabharthach with fossilised traces of the older accusative cuspoireach Adjectives agree with nouns in number gender and case Adjectives generally follow nouns though some precede or prefix nouns Demonstrative adjectives have proximal medial and distal forms The prepositional locative case is called the dative by convention though it originates in the Proto Celtic ablative Verbs conjugate for 3 tenses past present future 2 aspects perfective imperfective 2 numbers singular plural 4 moods indicative subjunctive conditional imperative 2 relative forms the present and future relative and in some verbs independent and dependent forms Verbs conjugate for 3 persons and an impersonal form which is actor free the 3rd person singular acts as a person free personal form that can be followed or otherwise refer to any person or number There are two verbs for to be one for inherent qualities with only two forms is present and ba past and conditional and one for transient qualities with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective The two verbs share the one verbal noun Irish verb formation employs a mixed system during conjugation with both analytic and synthetic methods employed depending on tense number mood and person For example in the official standard present tense verbs have conjugated forms only in the 1st person and autonomous forms i e molaim I praise molaimid we praise moltar is praised one praises whereas all other persons are conveyed analytically i e molann se he praises molann sibh you pl praise The ratio of analytic to synthetic forms in a given verb paradigm varies between the various tenses and moods The conditional imperative and past habitual forms prefer synthetic forms in most persons and numbers whereas the subjunctive past future and present forms prefer mostly analytical forms The meaning of the passive voice is largely conveyed through the autonomous verb form however there also exist other structures analogous to the passival and resultative constructions There are also a number of preverbal particles marking the negative interrogative subjunctive relative clauses etc There is a verbal noun and verbal adjective Verb forms are highly regular many grammars recognise only 11 irregular verbs Prepositions inflect for person and number Different prepositions govern different cases In Old and Middle Irish prepositions governed different cases depending on intended semantics this has disappeared in Modern Irish except in fossilised form Irish has no verb to express having instead the word ag at etc is used in conjunction with the transient be verb bheith Ta leabhar agam I have a book Literally there is a book at me cf Russian U menya est kniga Finnish minulla on kirja French le livre est a moi Ta leabhar agat You singular have a book Ta leabhar aige He has a book Ta leabhar aici She has a book Ta leabhar againn We have a book Ta leabhar agaibh You plural have a book Ta leabhar acu They have a book Numerals have three forms abstract general and ordinal The numbers from 2 to 10 and these in combination with higher numbers are rarely used for people numeral nominals being used instead a do Two dha leabhar Two books beirt Two people a couple beirt fhear Two men beirt bhan Two women dara tarna free variation Second Irish has both decimal and vigesimal systems 10 a deich20 fiche30 vigesimal a deich is fiche decimal triocha40 v daichead da fhichead d ceathracha50 v a deich is daichead d caoga also leathchead half hundred 60 v tri fichid d seasca70 v a deich is tri fichid d seachto80 v cheithre fichid d ochto90 v a deich is cheithre fichid d nocha100 v cuig fichid d ceadA number such as 35 has various forms a cuigdeag is fichid 15 and 20 a cuig is triocha 5 and 30 a cuigdeag ar fhichid 15 on 20 a cuig ar thriochaid 5 on 30 a cuigdeag fichead 15 of 20 genitive a cuig triochad 5 of 30 genitive fiche s a cuigdeag 20 and 15 triocha s a cuig 30 and 5 The latter is most commonly used in mathematics Initial mutations edit Main article Irish initial mutations In Irish there are two classes of initial consonant mutations which express grammatical relationship and meaning in verbs nouns and adjectives Lenition seimhiu describes the change of stops into fricatives 122 Indicated in Gaelic type by an overdot ponc seimhithe it is shown in Roman type by adding an h caith throw chaith me I threw lenition as a past tense marker caused by the particle do now generally omitted ga requirement easpa an gha lack of the requirement lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun Sean John a Sheain John lenition as part of the vocative case the vocative lenition being triggered by a the vocative marker before Sheain Eclipsis uru covers the voicing of voiceless stops and nasalisation of voiced stops Athair Father ar nAthair our Father tus start ar dtus at the start Gaillimh Galway i nGaillimh in Galway Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms For example the only non contextual way to distinguish possessive pronouns her his and their is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word a his shoe a bhrog lenition their shoe a mbrog eclipsis her shoe a brog unchanged Due to initial mutation prefixes clitics suffixes root inflection ending morphology elision sandhi epenthesis and assimilation the beginning core and end of words can each change radically and even simultaneously depending on context Orthography editMain article Irish orthography nbsp The official symbol of the Irish Defence Forces showing a Gaelic typeface with dot diacriticsA native writing system Ogham was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish until Latin script was introduced in the 5th century CE 123 Since the introduction of Latin script the main typeface used to write Irish was Gaelic type until it was replaced by Roman type during the mid 20th century The traditional Irish alphabet aibitir consists of 18 letters a b c d e f g h i l m n o p r s t u it does not contain j k q v w x y z 124 125 However contemporary Irish uses the full Latin alphabet with the previously unused letter used in modern loanwords v occurs in a small number of mainly onomatopoeic native words and colloquialisms Vowels may be accented with an acute accent a e i o u Irish and Hiberno English sineadh fada long sign but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation 126 It is used among other conventions to mark long vowels e g e is ɛ and e is eː The overdot ponc seimhithe dot of lenition was used in traditional orthography to indicate lenition An Caighdean uses a following h for this purpose i e the dotted letters litreacha buailte struck letters ḃ ċ ḋ ḟ ġ ṁ ṗ ṡ ṫ are equivalent to bh ch dh fh gh mh ph sh th The use of Gaelic type and the overdot today is restricted to when a traditional style is consciously being used e g oglaiġ na h Eireann on the Irish Defence Forces cap badge see above Extending the use of the overdot to Roman type would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter e g gheobhaidh sibh you pl will get would become ġeoḃaiḋ siḃ Spelling reform edit Around the time of the Second World War Seamas Daltun in charge of Rannog an Aistriuchain ga The Translation Department of the Irish government issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar This de facto standard was subsequently approved by the State and developed into an Caighdean Oifigiuil which simplified and standardised the orthography and grammar by removing inter dialectal silent letters and simplifying vowel combinations Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word one was selected for example beirbhiughadh beiriu cook biadh bia food Gaedhealg Gaedhilg Gaedhealaing Gaeilic Gaelainn Gaoidhealg Gaolainn Gaeilge Irish language An Caighdean does not reflect all dialects to the same degree e g cruaidh kɾˠuej hard leabaidh ˈl ʲabˠej bed and traigh t ˠɾˠaːj beach were standardised as crua leaba and tra despite the reformed spellings only reflecting South Connacht realisations kɾˠue ˈl ʲabˠe and t ˠɾˠaː failing to represent the other dialectal realisations kɾˠui ˈl ʲabˠi and t ˠɾˠaːi in Mayo and Ulster or kɾˠueɟ ˈl ʲabˠeɟ and t ˠɾˠaːɟ in Munster which were previously represented by the pre reformed spellings 127 For this reason the pre reform spellings are used by some speakers to reflect the dialectal pronunciations Other examples include the genitive of bia food bʲie pre reform biadh and saol life world sˠeːlˠ pre reform saoghal realised bʲiːɟ and sˠeːlʲ in Munster reflecting the pre Caighdean spellings bidh and saoghail which were standardised as bia and saoil despite not representing the Munster pronunciations 128 129 Sample text editArticle 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Irish Saolaitear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndinit agus i gcearta Ta bua an reasuin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart doibh gniomhu i dtreo a cheile i spiorad an bhraithreachais 130 English All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 131 See also editBearlachas Anglicisms in Irish Buntus Cainte a course in basic spoken Irish Comparison of Scottish Gaelic and Irish Cumann Gaelach Irish language Society Dictionary of the Irish Language Fainne a lapel pin for Irish speakers Goidelic substrate hypothesis Hiberno Latin a variety of Medieval Latin used in Irish monasteries It included Greek Hebrew and Celtic neologisms Irish language outside Ireland Irish name and Place names in Ireland Irish words used in the English language Irish a subject of the Junior Cycle examination in Secondary schools in Ireland List of artists who have released Irish language songs List of English words of Irish origin List of Ireland related topics List of Irish language given names List of Irish language media Modern literature in Irish Status of the Irish language a detailed account of the current state of the language Teastas Eorpach na GaeilgeNotes edit Irish was the first official language of the Irish state 1 Irish is not widely used as an L2 in most of Ireland but its use is encouraged by the government References 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Gaelic The Free Dictionary House of Commons 1 August 1922 Ireland Erse language 18 Hansard London UK Houses of Parliament 157 1240 1242 1 August 1922 Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible MR CHURCHILL I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence De Freine Sean 1978 The Great Silence The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality Irish Books amp Media ISBN 978 0 85342 516 8 a b o Grada 2013 O Reilly Edward 17 March 2015 The unadulterated Irish language Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York New York Historical Society Archived from the original on 29 July 2017 Retrieved 29 July 2017 See the discussion in Wolf Nicholas M 2014 An Irish Speaking Island State Religion Community and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland 1770 1870 University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 978 0 299 30274 0 McMahon 2008 pp 130 131 The Irish language and the Church of Ireland Church of Ireland Archived from the original on 10 July 2017 Retrieved 29 July 2017 Watson Iarfhlaith Nic Ghiolla Phadraig Maire September 2009 Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2009 199 143 156 doi 10 1515 IJSL 2009 039 hdl 10197 5649 S2CID 144222872 Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic The New York Times 29 March 2005 Archived from the original on 8 January 2014 Retrieved 19 February 2017 Murphy Brian 25 January 2018 Douglas Hyde s inauguration a signal of a new Ireland RTE Archived from the original on 7 September 2018 Retrieved 6 September 2018 a b Douglas Hyde Opens 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Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century University of Notre Dame Press 1997 p 51 ISBN 978 0268014278 Ellis Henry ed The Description of Ireland An Electronic Edition Chapter 1 The Names of Ireland with the Compasse of the Same also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth the Diuision or Partition of the Land and of the Language of the People See o hogain 2011 Berresford Ellis Peter 1975 Hell or Connnaught The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652 1660 p 156 Hamish Hamilton SBN 241 89071 3 Berresford Ellis 1975 p 193 Berresford Ellis 1975 p 190 Caerwyn Williams amp Ui Mhuiriosa 1979 pp 279 and 284 Ni Mhunghaile 2010 pp 239 276 See Fitzgerald 1984 McCabe p 31 Quoted in Graham Kew ed The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson s unpublished itinerary IMC Dublin 1998 p 50 Quoted in Hardiman James The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway Dublin 1820 p 80 o Laoire 2007 p 164 Quoted in de Brun 2009 pp 11 12 Fitzgerald Garrett Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts 117 1781 to 1861 1871 Volume 84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984 o Conluain amp o Ceileachair 1976 pp 148 153 163 169 210 215 Mairin Ni Mhuiriosa Cumann na Scribhneoiri Memoir in Scriobh 5 pp 168 181 Sean o Mordha ed An Clochomhar Tta 1981 Dublin Gaelscoileanna Irish Medium Education Retrieved 8 April 2020 a b c o Broin Brian 16 January 2010 Schism fears for Gaeilgeoiri The Irish Times Archived from the original on 16 February 2018 Retrieved 16 February 2018 Walsh John OʼRourke Bernadette Rowland Hugh October 2015 Research Report on New Speakers of Irish PDF Report Foras na Gaeilge Retrieved 8 June 2023 Seoighe Stiofan 22 July 2019 Ga le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoiri na Gaeilge Cen chaoi gur feidir cainteoiri gniomhacha feinmhuinineacha a dheanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimionn an Ghaeilge ar scoil Need to open doors for new speakers of Irish How can active self confident speakers be made from those who learn Irish at school The Irish Times in Irish Retrieved 19 August 2019 Nic Fhlannchadha S Hickey T M 12 January 2016 Minority Language Ownership and Authority Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 21 1 38 53 doi 10 1080 13670050 2015 1127888 hdl 10197 7394 S2CID 67833553 Ni Thuathalain Meabh 23 July 2019 I m gonna speak Irish the way that s natural for me craoltoir buartha faoi eiliteachas shaol na Gaeilge Tuairisc ie Archived from the original on 4 September 2019 Retrieved 19 August 2019 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Leabharlann Teanga agus Focloireachta www teanglann ie Retrieved 8 April 2020 Irish Dialects copy of Irishlanguage net Archived from the original on 1 July 2016 Retrieved 31 October 2015 Beginners Blas BBC June 2005 Archived from the original on 3 March 2009 Retrieved 18 March 2011 An Caighdean Oifigiuil The Official Standard PDF in Irish January 2012 Archived PDF from the original on 25 April 2018 Retrieved 26 February 2018 III the morphonology of Irish The Sound Structure of Modern Irish De Gruyter Mouton 11 April 2014 pp 235 316 doi 10 1515 9783110226607 235 ISBN 978 3 11 022660 7 Celtic languages Irish Britannica www britannica com Graimear Gaeilge na mBraithre Criostai L A o hAnluain Christian Brothers Eagran nua ed Baile Atha Cliath An Gum 1999 ISBN 1 85791 327 2 OCLC 46449130 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Irish Orthography www nualeargais ie Retrieved 23 October 2022 Irish fada to get legal protection and must appear in all State IT systems and computer keyboards independent 8 July 2021 Retrieved 31 December 2022 Doyle Aidan Gussmann Edmund 2005 An Ghaeilge Podrecznik Jezyka Irlandzkiego Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego p 417 ISBN 83 7363 275 1 Doyle Aidan Gussmann Edmund 2005 An Ghaeilge Podrecznik Jezyka Irlandzkiego Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego p 412 ISBN 83 7363 275 1 Doyle Aidan Gussmann Edmund 2005 An Ghaeilge Podrecznik Jezyka Irlandzkiego Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego p 432 ISBN 83 7363 275 1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations Bibliography edit Caerwyn Williams J E amp Ni Mhuiriosa Mairin ed Traidisiun Liteartha na nGael An Clochomhar Tta 1979 McCabe Richard A Spenser s Monstrous Regiment Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference Oxford University Press 2002 ISBN 0 19 818734 3 Hickey Raymond The Dialects of Irish Study of a Changing Landscape Walter de Gruyter 2011 ISBN 3110238306 Hickey Raymond The Sound Structure of Modern Irish De Gruyter Mouton 2014 ISBN 978 3 11 022659 1 De Brun Padraig Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818 1827 Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 2009 ISBN 978 1 85500 212 8 Doyle Aidan A History of the Irish Language From the Norman Invasion to Independence Oxford 2015 Fitzgerald Garrett Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts 117 1781 to 1861 1871 Volume 84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984 Garvin Tom Preventing the Future Why was Ireland so poor for so long Gill and MacMillan 2005 Hindley Reg 1991 new ed The Death of the Irish Language A Qualified Obituary Routledge ISBN 978 0 4150 6481 1 McMahon Timothy G Grand Opportunity The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society 1893 1910 Syracuse University Press 2008 ISBN 978 0 8156 3158 3 o Grada Cormac Ce Fada le Fan in Dublin Review of Books Issue 34 6 May 2013 CE FADA LE FAN Drb ie Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 23 September 2017 Kelly James amp Mac Murchaidh Ciaran eds Irish and English Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600 1900 Four Courts Press 2012 ISBN 978 1846823404 Ni Mhunghaile Lesa An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe s private library Muiris o Gormain s books in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Volume 110C 2010 pp 239 276 Ni Mhuiriosa Mairin Cumann na Scribhneoiri Memoir in Scriobh 5 ed Sean o Mordha Baile Atha Cliath An Clochomhar Tta 1981 o hogain Daithi Labhrann Laighnigh Teacsanna agus Cainteanna o Shean Chuige Laighean Coisceim 2011 o Laoire Muiris Language Use and Language Attitudes in Ireland in Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts Language Use and Attitudes ed David Lasagabaster and Angel Huguet Multilingual Matters Ltd 2007 ISBN 1 85359 929 8 Shibakov Alexey Irish Word Forms Irische Wortformen epubli 2017 ISBN 9783745066500 Williams Nicholas Na Canuinti a Theacht chun Solais in Stair na Gaeilge ed Kim McCone and others Maigh Nuad 1994 ISBN 0 901519 90 1External links editthe Irish language at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Phrasebook from Wikivoyage nbsp Irish edition of Wikipedia nbsp Wikisource has original text related to this article Main Page Gaeilge Discover Irish Learning Irish BBC Giotai and Top 40 Offigiula na hEireann programmes Irish Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words from Wiktionary s Swadesh list appendix Grammar and pronunciation edit Learn Irish Grammar with audio and pronunciation An Gael Magazine Irish Gaelic Arts Culture And History Alive Worldwide Today Trinity College Dublin The Irish Language SynthesiserDictionaries edit Teanglann ie Dictionaries and terminology resource General Gaelic Dictionaries Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Irish language amp oldid 1207240563, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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