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Dyslexia

April 12, 2023

Dyslexia, also known until the 1960s as word blindness, is a disorder characterized by reading below the expected level for one's age.[1][6] Different people are affected to different degrees.[3] Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads.[3][7] Often these difficulties are first noticed at school.[2] The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.[3] People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.[2][8]

Dyslexia
Other namesReading disorder, alexia
Dyslexic handwriting in Greek
SpecialtyNeurology, pediatrics
SymptomsTrouble reading[1]
Usual onsetSchool age[2]
TypesSurface dyslexia
CausesGenetic and environmental factors[2]
Risk factorsFamily history, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder[3]
Diagnostic methodSeries memory, spelling, vision, and reading test[4]
Differential diagnosisHearing or vision problems, insufficient teaching[2]
TreatmentAdjusting teaching methods[1]
Frequency3–7%[2][5]

Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.[2] Some cases run in families.[3] Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia is sometimes called "acquired dyslexia"[1] or alexia.[3] The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences within the brain's language processing.[3] Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, vision, spelling, and reading skills.[4] Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn.[2]

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.[1] While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.[9] Treatments targeting vision are not effective.[10] Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world.[11] It affects 3–7% of the population;[2][5] however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.[12] While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals.[2][13] It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally.[11] Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides.[14][15]

Classification

Main article: Pure alexia

Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms.[16] Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches.[17] Pure alexia, also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness, is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" group.[18]

Signs and symptoms

See also: Characteristics of dyslexia

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.[10] A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.[19] These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.[10]

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness.[20] They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.[21]

Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.[22]: 647  People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.[10]

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness.[23]

Associated conditions

Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.[24] These associated disabilities include:

Dysgraphia
A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.[25] In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.[25]
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.[26] Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.[5][27][28] Approximately 15%[10] or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;[29] and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.[10]
Auditory processing disorder
A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.[30][31] This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.[32][33]
Developmental coordination disorder
A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control and kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization.[34]

Causes

 
Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.[35][36] For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.[37]

Neuroanatomy

Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.[38] Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex.[32] Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed,[39] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.[40][41]

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading.[42] The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.[43]

Genetics

Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.[37] Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.[44] The previously cited studies and others[45] suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.[46] Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2[47] and KIAA0319[48] on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15.[49]

Gene–environment interaction

The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies, which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education[50] and teaching quality[51] have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.[52] However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.[52]

As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of gene expression, histone modifications, and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.[53][54]

Language

The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.[55]: 266  English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes.[56]: 421  Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.[55]: 266  Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters, have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners.[57]

Pathophysiology

 
Corpus callosum view, front part at top of image

For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.[58]

Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.[58] Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes.[59]

Dual route theory

The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s.[60] This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.[61] One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure.[62] The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word.[62][63] This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.[60] The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).[55][64]

Diagnosis

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.[65][66] Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing); and verbal working memory deficits.[67][68]

Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific").[69][70][71] Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties.[72] The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding".[1]

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed".[73] Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words.[74][75]

Assessment

The following can be done to assess for dyslexia:

Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.[76]

Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words).[77]

Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests.[78][79]

Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach,[80] which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach."[81]

Assessment tests

There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia.[82] If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.[83] Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.[84] Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.[84][85] Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:[86]

  • General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.[87]
  • Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.[88][89][90][91]
  • Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.[92][93][94]

Screening

Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.[95] In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.[96][97] When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check[98] used by United Kingdom schools during Year one.

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.[99]

Management

Main article: Management of dyslexia

Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.[100] There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.[101] Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.[102] For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.[103] Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.[104]

Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading.[105] Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts.[105] Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial.[105]

There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia.[106]

There is some evidence from an RCT that atomoxetine might be helpful for dyslexic with or without ADHD.[107]

Prognosis

Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.[108] The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.[1] The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading" and "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" so as to improve the individual's reading ability.[109]

Epidemiology

The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.[110] Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males.[2]

There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world. Further, differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes.[111] Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings.[112][113] The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.[114]

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.[115]

History

Main article: History of dyslexia research

Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881,[35] but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.[116][117][118] He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.[119] In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness".[120] The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.[121] Over time, we have changed from the intelligence-based model to the age-based model, in terms of those with Dyslexia.[122][85]

Society and culture

See also: List of artistic depictions of dyslexia

As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.[102] There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.[123] If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.[124]

Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families.[125] Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia.[125] Access to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia.[125] As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged status.[125]

Stigma and success

See also: List of people with dyslexia

Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability, individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self-stigma and perfectionistic self-presentation in order to cope with their disability.[126] The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections.[126] This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability.[126]

Research

Further information: Dyslexia research
 
Writing systems

Most dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems, and especially to European languages.[127] However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.[128] The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects.[129]

See also

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Further reading

  • Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L (January 2018). "Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 84: 434–452. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001. PMID 28797557. S2CID 33176236.
  • Beaton A (14 October 2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-135-42275-2.
  • Miles TR (4 August 2006). Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-02747-9.
  • Reid G, Fawcett A (12 May 2008). Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-77801-2.
  • Thomson M (18 March 2009). The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-74197-9.
  • Reid G (17 March 2011). Dyslexia (3 ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-6585-5.
  • Selikowitz M (2 July 2012). Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969177-7.
  • Ellis AW (25 February 2014). Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-317-71630-3.
  • Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL (24 March 2014). The Dyslexia Debate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11986-3.
  • Agnew S, Stewart J, Redgrave S (8 October 2014). Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 978-1-78333-250-2.
  • Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD (February 2015). "Neurobiology of dyslexia". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 30: 73–8. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007. hdl:1721.1/102416. PMC 4293303. PMID 25290881.
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April 12, 2023
dyslexia, also, known, until, 1960s, word, blindness, disorder, characterized, reading, below, expected, level, different, people, affected, different, degrees, problems, include, difficulties, spelling, words, reading, quickly, writing, words, sounding, words. Dyslexia also known until the 1960s as word blindness is a disorder characterized by reading below the expected level for one s age 1 6 Different people are affected to different degrees 3 Problems may include difficulties in spelling words reading quickly writing words sounding out words in the head pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads 3 7 Often these difficulties are first noticed at school 2 The difficulties are involuntary and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn 3 People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD developmental language disorders and difficulties with numbers 2 8 DyslexiaOther namesReading disorder alexiaDyslexic handwriting in GreekSpecialtyNeurology pediatricsSymptomsTrouble reading 1 Usual onsetSchool age 2 TypesSurface dyslexiaCausesGenetic and environmental factors 2 Risk factorsFamily history attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 3 Diagnostic methodSeries memory spelling vision and reading test 4 Differential diagnosisHearing or vision problems insufficient teaching 2 TreatmentAdjusting teaching methods 1 Frequency3 7 2 5 Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors 2 Some cases run in families 3 Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury stroke or dementia is sometimes called acquired dyslexia 1 or alexia 3 The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences within the brain s language processing 3 Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory vision spelling and reading skills 4 Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn 2 Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person s needs 1 While not curing the underlying problem it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms 9 Treatments targeting vision are not effective 10 Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world 11 It affects 3 7 of the population 2 5 however up to 20 of the general population may have some degree of symptoms 12 While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys this is partly explained by a self fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals 2 13 It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally 11 Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning with both benefits and downsides 14 15 Contents 1 Classification 2 Signs and symptoms 2 1 Associated conditions 3 Causes 3 1 Neuroanatomy 3 2 Genetics 3 3 Gene environment interaction 3 3 1 Language 4 Pathophysiology 4 1 Dual route theory 5 Diagnosis 5 1 Assessment 5 1 1 Assessment tests 6 Screening 7 Management 8 Prognosis 9 Epidemiology 10 History 11 Society and culture 11 1 Stigma and success 12 Research 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External linksClassificationMain article Pure alexia Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms 16 Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult such as traumatic brain injury or stroke People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches 17 Pure alexia also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness is one form of alexia which makes up the peripheral dyslexia group 18 Signs and symptomsSee also Characteristics of dyslexia In early childhood symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness 10 A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards 19 These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia 10 School age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words or counting the number of syllables in words both of which depend on phonological awareness 20 They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds such as sounding out the three sounds of k a and t in cat or may struggle to blend sounds indicating reduced phonemic awareness 21 Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia 22 647 People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia which depends on the skill of orthographic coding 10 Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories memorization reading aloud or learning foreign languages Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words a measure of phonological awareness 23 Associated conditions Dyslexia often co occurs with other learning disorders but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified 24 These associated disabilities include Dysgraphia A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing sometimes due to problems with eye hand coordination it also can impede direction or sequence oriented processes such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks 25 In dyslexia dysgraphia is often multifactorial due to impaired letter writing automaticity organizational and elaborative difficulties and impaired visual word forming which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling 25 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention hyperactivity or acting impulsively 26 Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together 5 27 28 Approximately 15 10 or 12 24 of people with dyslexia have ADHD 29 and up to 35 of people with ADHD have dyslexia 10 Auditory processing disorder A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information 30 31 This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia 32 33 Developmental coordination disorder A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance fine motor control and kinesthetic coordination difficulty in the use of speech sounds and problems with short term memory and organization 34 Causes Inferior parietal lobule superior view animation Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881 35 36 For example some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells 37 Neuroanatomy Neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI and positron emission tomography PET have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties 38 Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading such as the inferior frontal gyrus inferior parietal lobule and the middle and ventral temporal cortex 32 Over the past decade brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short term memory components have been proposed 39 with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task specific i e functional rather than structural fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading 40 41 The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks such as reading 42 The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties However the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies 43 Genetics Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia 37 Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias and more rarely vascular micro malformations and microgyrus a smaller than usual size for the gyrus 44 The previously cited studies and others 45 suggest that abnormal cortical development presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development may have caused the abnormalities Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non language cerebral and subcortical brain structures 46 Several genes have been associated with dyslexia including DCDC2 47 and KIAA0319 48 on chromosome 6 and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15 49 Gene environment interaction The contribution of gene environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person s environment and the proportion associated with their genes Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education 50 and teaching quality 51 have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive rather than less optimal environments 52 However more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized 52 As environment plays a large role in learning and memory it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability Measures of gene expression histone modifications and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes however all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain 53 54 Language The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it 55 266 English and French have comparatively deep phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels letter sound correspondence syllables and morphemes 56 421 Languages such as Spanish Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter sound correspondence so called shallow orthographies which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia 55 266 Logographic writing systems such as Chinese characters have extensive symbol use and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners 57 Pathophysiology Corpus callosum view front part at top of image For most people who are right hand dominant the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia In other studies dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres 58 Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language Finally the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia 58 Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia thus identifying the effects of dyslexia related genes 59 Dual route theory The dual route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s 60 This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms or cognitive routes are involved in reading aloud 61 One mechanism is the lexical route which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone through a dictionary lookup procedure 62 The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route which is the process whereby the reader can sound out a written word 62 63 This is done by identifying the word s constituent parts letters phonemes graphemes and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other for example how a string of neighboring letters sound together 60 The dual route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages e g the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish speaking children show a higher level of performance in non word reading when compared to English speakers 55 64 DiagnosisDyslexia is a heterogeneous dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling 65 66 Typical but not universal features include difficulties with phonological awareness inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language phonological processing and verbal working memory deficits 67 68 Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading ICD 11 prefixes developmental to learning disorder DSM 5 uses specific 69 70 71 Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties 72 The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as difficulty with phonological processing the manipulation of sounds spelling and or rapid visual verbal responding 1 The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling and is characterized by difficulties in phonological awareness verbal memory and verbal processing speed 73 Phonological awareness enables one to identify discriminate remember working memory and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language phonemes onsite rime segments syllables and words 74 75 Assessment The following can be done to assess for dyslexia Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child s parent s and teacher s school psychologist pediatrician and as appropriate speech and language pathologist speech therapist and occupational therapist 76 Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones and domain specific milestones such as phonological awareness recognizing rhyming words identifying the initial sounds in words 77 Do not rely on tests exclusively Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments and sensitive comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests 78 79 Look at the empirically supported response to intervention RTI approach 80 which involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching and they are readily identified using this approach 81 Assessment tests There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia 82 If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder 83 Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer others require specialized training and are given by psychologists 84 Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies 84 85 Because a variety of different cognitive behavioral emotional and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities These tests and observations can include 86 General measures of cognitive ability such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities or Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes such as verbal ability nonverbal and spatial reasoning working memory and processing speed There are different versions of these tests for different age groups Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly and are done by psychologists According to Mather and Schneider 2015 a confirmatory profile and or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling out reading disorder has not yet been identified 87 Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people Many checklists have similar versions for parents teachers and younger people old enough to read reasonably well often 11 years and older to complete Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire All of these have nationally representative norms making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person s age and biological sex Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders SCARED Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two three times higher in people with dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is more common as well 88 89 90 91 Review of academic achievement and skills Average spelling reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking lt 16 well below normal In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress These include group administered tests such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time They also could include individually administered tests of achievement such as the Wide Range Achievement Test or the Woodcock Johnson which also includes a set of achievement tests The individually administered tests again require more specialized training 92 93 94 ScreeningScreening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia In the preschool years a family history of dyslexia particularly in biological parents and siblings predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test 95 In primary school ages 5 7 the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils progress through the phonics curriculum and thereby identify children progressing slowly 96 97 When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check 98 used by United Kingdom schools during Year one In the medical setting child and adolescent psychiatrist M S Thambirajah emphasizes that g iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school aged children all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem s Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders including dyslexia by conducting a brief developmental history a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning 99 ManagementMain article Management of dyslexia Through the use of compensation strategies therapy and educational support individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write 100 There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder 101 Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension 102 For dyslexia intervention with alphabet writing systems the fundamental aim is to increase a child s awareness of correspondences between graphemes letters and phonemes sounds and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer lasting gains than oral phonological training alone 103 Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure 104 Research does not suggest that specially tailored fonts such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic help with reading 105 Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially tailored fonts 105 Some research has pointed to increased letter spacing being beneficial 105 There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia 106 There is some evidence from an RCT that atomoxetine might be helpful for dyslexic with or without ADHD 107 PrognosisDyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age 108 The prognosis generally speaking is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family 1 The New York educational system NYED indicates a daily uninterrupted 90 minute block of instruction in reading and instruction in phonemic awareness phonics vocabulary development reading fluency so as to improve the individual s reading ability 109 EpidemiologyThe prevalence of dyslexia is unknown but it has been estimated to be as low as 5 and as high as 17 of the population 110 Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males 2 There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world Further differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes 111 Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings 112 113 The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic monographic non alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme 114 The phonological processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages Furthermore the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography 115 HistoryMain article History of dyslexia research Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881 35 but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart 116 117 118 He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects 119 In 1896 W Pringle Morgan a British physician from Seaford East Sussex published a description of a reading specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled Congenital Word Blindness 120 The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms However studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance 121 Over time we have changed from the intelligence based model to the age based model in terms of those with Dyslexia 122 85 Society and cultureSee also List of artistic depictions of dyslexia As is the case with any disorder society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information Before the 1980s dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education rather than a neurological disability As a result society often misjudges those with the disorder 102 There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia 123 If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition there is often a negative effect on the student s learning participation 124 Since at least the 1960s in the UK the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families 125 Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia 125 Access to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia 125 As a result when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged status 125 Stigma and success See also List of people with dyslexia Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self stigma and perfectionistic self presentation in order to cope with their disability 126 The perfectionist self presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections 126 This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability 126 ResearchFurther information Dyslexia research Writing systems Most dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems and especially to European languages 127 However substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic Chinese Hebrew or other languages 128 The outward expression of individuals with reading disability and regular poor readers is the same in some respects 129 See alsoDyscalculia difficulty comprehending numbers and math Learning to read Orton GillinghamReferences a b c d e f g Dyslexia Information Page National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke 2 November 2018 a b c d e f g h i j k Peterson Robin L 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Retrieved 14 October 2019 Thambirajah M S 2011 Developmental assessment of the school aged child with developmental disabilities a clinician s guide London Jessica Kingsley Publishers ISBN 9780857003256 OCLC 747410566 Bogon Johana October 2014 TVA based assessment of visual attention functions in developmental dyslexia Frontiers in Psychology 5 1172 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2014 01172 PMC 4199262 PMID 25360129 Brunswick Nicola 10 April 2012 Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace John Wiley amp Sons pp 115 ISBN 978 0 470 97479 7 Archived from the original on 31 December 2013 Retrieved 10 April 2012 a b Schulte Korne G October 2010 The prevention diagnosis and treatment of dyslexia Deutsches Arzteblatt International 107 41 718 26 doi 10 3238 arztebl 2010 0718 PMC 2967798 PMID 21046003 Lyytinen Heikki Erskine Jane Aro Mikko and Richardson Ulla 2009 Reading and reading disorders In Hoff Erika ed Blackwell Handbook of Language Development Blackwell pp 454 474 ISBN 978 1 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Jack Lyon G Reid Fuchs Lynn Barnes Marcia A 2018 Learning disabilities from identification to intervention New York p 185 ISBN 978 1 4625 3637 5 OCLC 1057730675 O Hare Anne 2010 Dyslexia what do paediatricians need to know Paediatrics and Child Health 20 7 338 343 doi 10 1016 j paed 2010 04 004 Response to Intervention Guidance Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program RtI Instruction Matched to Student Need Special Education P12 NYSED p12 nysed gov Retrieved 10 January 2019 Tasman Allan Kay Jerald Lieberman Jeffrey A First Michael B Riba Michelle 29 January 2015 Psychiatry 2 Volume Set John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 9781118845493 Archived from the original on 6 September 2015 Protopapas Athanassios 2013 From temporal processing to developmental language disorders mind the gap Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 369 1634 20130090 doi 10 1098 rstb 2013 0090 PMC 3866431 PMID 24324245 Zhao Jing November 2014 The visual magnocellular dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition Scientific Reports 4 7068 Bibcode 2014NatSR 4E7068Z doi 10 1038 srep07068 PMC 4238300 PMID 25412386 Marshall Chloe 2012 Current Issues in Developmental Disorders Psychology Press p 152 ISBN 978 1 84872 084 8 Archived from the original on 9 January 2017 Garralda Elena Raynaud Jean Philippe 16 January 2012 Brain Mind and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood Jason Aronson ISBN 9780765708663 Navas Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto Ferraz Erica de Cassia Borges Juliana Postigo Amorina Navas Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto Ferraz Erica de Cassia Borges Juliana Postigo Amorina 2014 Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia evidence from different orthographies CoDAS 26 6 509 519 doi 10 1590 2317 1782 20142014135 PMID 25590915 Berlin Rudolf No title Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Wurttembergischen Arztlichen Landesvereins Correspondence Sheet of the Wurttemberg Medical Association 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participation of adults with developmental dyslexia BMC Public Health 14 77 doi 10 1186 1471 2458 14 77 PMC 3913008 PMID 24460949 Pino Marco Mortari Luigina 1 November 2014 The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in Higher Education A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis Dyslexia Chichester England 20 4 346 369 doi 10 1002 dys 1484 PMC 4253321 PMID 25293652 a b c d Kale Sirin 17 September 2020 The Battle over Dyslexia The Guardian Retrieved 28 September 2020 a b c Stoeber Joachim Rountree Margaret L February 2021 Perfectionism self stigma and coping in students with dyslexia The central role of perfectionistic self presentation Dyslexia Chichester England 27 1 62 78 doi 10 1002 dys 1666 ISSN 1099 0909 PMID 32803909 S2CID 221144226 Reid Gavin 2012 The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia Routledge p 16 ISBN 978 1 136 61710 2 Archived from the original on 9 January 2017 Richlan Fabio May 2014 Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia the role of orthographic depth Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8 347 doi 10 3389 fnhum 2014 00347 PMC 4033006 PMID 24904383 Reading Difficulty and Disability PDF report nih gov NIH Archived from the original PDF on 11 February 2019 Retrieved 10 January 2019 This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2018 reviewer reports The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a CC BY SA 3 0 license 2019 The version of record as reviewed is Osmin Anis et al 15 October 2019 Dyslexia WikiJournal of Medicine 6 1 5 doi 10 15347 WJM 2019 005 ISSN 2002 4436 Wikidata Q73053061 Further readingRamus F Altarelli I Jednorog K Zhao J Scotto di Covella L January 2018 Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia Pitfalls and promise Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 84 434 452 doi 10 1016 j neubiorev 2017 08 001 PMID 28797557 S2CID 33176236 Beaton A 14 October 2004 Dyslexia Reading and the Brain A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research Psychology Press ISBN 978 1 135 42275 2 Miles TR 4 August 2006 Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research Wiley ISBN 978 0 470 02747 9 Reid G Fawcett A 12 May 2008 Dyslexia in Context Research Policy and Practice John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 77801 2 Thomson M 18 March 2009 The Psychology of Dyslexia A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 74197 9 Reid G 17 March 2011 Dyslexia 3 ed A amp C Black ISBN 978 1 4411 6585 5 Selikowitz M 2 July 2012 Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 969177 7 Ellis AW 25 February 2014 Reading Writing and Dyslexia A Cognitive Analysis Psychology Press ISBN 978 1 317 71630 3 Elliott JG Grigorenko EL 24 March 2014 The Dyslexia Debate Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 11986 3 Agnew S Stewart J Redgrave S 8 October 2014 Dyslexia and Us A collection of personal stories Andrews UK Limited ISBN 978 1 78333 250 2 Norton ES Beach SD Gabrieli JD February 2015 Neurobiology of dyslexia Current Opinion in Neurobiology 30 73 8 doi 10 1016 j conb 2014 09 007 hdl 1721 1 102416 PMC 4293303 PMID 25290881 Serrallach B Gross C Bernhofs V Engelmann D Benner J Gundert N Blatow M Wengenroth M Seitz A Brunner M Seither S Parncutt R Schneider P Seither Preisler A 2016 Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia ADHD and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children Frontiers in Neuroscience 10 324 doi 10 3389 fnins 2016 00324 PMC 4945653 PMID 27471442 Shao S Niu Y Zhang X Kong R Wang J Liu L Luo X Zhang J Song R July 2016 Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations A Stratified Meta Analysis by the Study Population Scientific Reports 6 30454 Bibcode 2016NatSR 630454S doi 10 1038 srep30454 PMC 4964335 PMID 27464509 Brewer CC Zalewski CK King KA Zobay O Riley A Ferguson MA Bird JE McCabe MM Hood LJ Drayna D Griffith AJ Morell RJ Friedman TB Moore DR August 2016 Heritability of non speech auditory processing skills European Journal of Human Genetics 24 8 1137 44 doi 10 1038 ejhg 2015 277 PMC 4872837 PMID 26883091 Mascheretti S De Luca A Trezzi V Peruzzo D Nordio A Marino C Arrigoni F January 2017 Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms Translational Psychiatry 7 1 e987 doi 10 1038 tp 2016 240 PMC 5545717 PMID 28045463 Fraga Gonzalez G Zaric G Tijms J Bonte M van der Molen MW January 2017 Contributions of Letter Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies Brain Sciences 7 1 10 doi 10 3390 brainsci7010010 PMC 5297299 PMID 28106790 Rudov A Rocchi MB Accorsi A Spada G Procopio AD Olivieri F Rippo MR Albertini MC October 2013 Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia dyspraxia and specific language impairment Epigenetics 8 10 1023 9 doi 10 4161 epi 26026 PMC 3891682 PMID 23949389 Vagvolgyi R Coldea A Dresler T Schrader J Nuerk HC 2016 A Review about Functional Illiteracy Definition Cognitive Linguistic and Numerical Aspects Frontiers in Psychology 7 1617 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2016 01617 PMC 5102880 PMID 27891100 External linksListen to this article 32 minutes source This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 2 September 2022 2022 09 02 and does not reflect subsequent edits Audio help More spoken articles Scholia has a topic profile for Dyslexia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Dyslexia amp oldid 1147550574, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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