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History of architecture

January 07, 2023

"Architectural history" redirects here. For the journal, see Architectural History (journal). For the book, see A History of Architecture.

This article describes the history of building types and styles—what things were built. See History of construction for the history of construction tools and techniques—how things were built.

History of architecture
The Architect's Dream, by Thomas Cole, 1840, oil on canvas, in the Toledo Museum of Art (Toledo, Ohio, USA)

The history of architecture traces the changes in architecture through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelter and protection.[1] The term "architecture" generally refers to buildings, but in its essence is much broader, including fields we now consider specialized forms of practice, such as urbanism, civil engineering, naval, military,[2] and landscape architecture.

Trends in architecture were influenced, among other factors, by technological innovations, particularly in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. The improvement and/or use of steel, cast iron, tile, reinforced concrete, and glass helped for example Art Nouveau appear and made Beaux Arts more grandiose.[3]

Neolithic

Main article: Neolithic architecture

Architectural advances are an important part of the Neolithic period (10,000-2000 BC), during which some of the major innovations of human history occurred. The domestication of plants and animals, for example, led to both new economics and a new relationship between people and the world, an increase in community size and permanence, a massive development of material culture and new social and ritual solutions to enable people to live together in these communities. New styles of individual structures and their combination into settlements provided the buildings required for the new lifestyle and economy, and were also an essential element of change.[6]

Although many dwellings belonging to all prehistoric periods and also some clay models of dwellings have been uncovered enabling the creation of faithful reconstructions, they seldom included elements that may relate them to art. Some exceptions are provided by wall decorations and by finds that equally apply to Neolithic and Chalcolithic rites and art.

In South and Southwest Asia, Neolithic cultures appear soon after 10,000 BC, initially in the Levant (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by c. 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes include the Starčevo-Koros (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča).[7][8][9][10]

Neolithic settlements and "cities" include:

Antiquity

Mesopotamian

Main article: Architecture of Mesopotamia
See also: Ziggurat

Mesopotamia is most noted for its construction of mud-brick buildings and the construction of ziggurats, occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city of Uruk had a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known.[14]

The word ziggurat is an anglicized form of the Akkadian word ziqqurratum, the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verb zaqaru, ("to be high"). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. The Ziggurat of Ur, excavated by Leonard Woolley, is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built under Ur-Nammu (circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt under Nabonidus (555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.[15]

Ancient Egyptian

Main articles: Ancient Egyptian architecture and Egyptian temple

Modern imaginings of ancient Egypt are heavily influenced by the surviving traces of monumental architecture. Many formal styles and motifs were established at the dawn of the pharaonic state, around 3100 BC. The most iconic Ancient Egyptian buildings are the pyramids, built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms (c.2600–1800 BC) as tombs for the pharaoh. However, there are also impressive temples, like the Karnak Temple Complex.

The Ancient Egyptians believed in the afterlife. They also believed that in order for their soul (known as ka) to live eternally in their afterlife, their bodies would have to remain intact for eternity. So, they had to create a way to protect the deceased from damage and grave robbers. This way, the mastaba was born. These were adobe structures with flat roofs, which had underground rooms for the coffin, about 30 m down. Imhotep, an ancient Egyptian priest and architect, had to design a tomb for the Pharaoh Djoser. For this, he placed five mastabas, one above the next, this way creating the first Egyptian pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (c.2667–2648 BC), which is a step pyramid. The first smooth-sided one was built by Pharaoh Sneferu, who ruled between c.2613 and 2589 BC. The most imposing one is the Great Pyramid of Giza, made for Sneferu's son: Khufu (c.2589–2566 BC), being the last surviving wonder of the ancient world and the largest pyramid in Egypt. The stone blocks used for pyramids were held together by mortar, and the entire structure was covered with highly polished white limestone, with their tops topped in gold. What we see today is actually the core structure of the pyramid. Inside, narrow passages led to the royal burial chambers. Despite being highly associated with the Ancient Egypt, pyramids have been built by other civilisations too, like the Mayans.

Due to the lack of resources and a shift in power towards priesthood, ancient Egyptians stepped away from pyramids, and temples became the focal point of cult construction. Just like the pyramids, Ancient Egyptian temples were also spectacular and monumental. They evolved from small shrines made of perishable materials to large complexes, and by the New Kingdom (circa 1550–1070 BC) they have become massive stone structures consisting of halls and courtyards. The temple represented a sort of 'cosmos' in stone, a copy of the original mound of creation on which the god could rejuvenate himself and the world. The entrance consisted of a twin gateway (pylon), symbolizing the hills of the horizon. Inside there were columned halls symbolizing a primeval papyrus thicket. It was followed by a series of hallways of decreasing size, until the sanctuary was reached, where a god's cult statue was placed. Back in ancient times, temples were painted in bright colours, mainly red, blue, yellow, green, orange, and white. Because of the desert climate of Egypt, some parts of these painted surfaces were preserved well, especially in interiors.

An architectural element specific to ancient Egyptian architecture is the cavetto cornice (a concave moulding), introduced by the end of the Old Kingdom. It was widely used to accentuate the top of almost every formal pharaonic building. Because of how often it was used, it will later decorate many Egyptian Revival buildings and objects.[22][19]

Harappan

Main article: Harappan architecture

The first Urban Civilization in the Indian subcontinent is traceable originally to the Indus Valley civilisation mainly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in modern-day Pakistan as well western states of the Republic of India. The earliest settlements are seen during the Neolithic period in Merhgarh, Balochistan. The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning with baked brick buildings, elaborate drainage and water systems, and handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving). This civilisation transitioned from the Neolithic period into the Chalcolithic period and beyond with their expertise in metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).[23] Their urban centres possibly grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,[24] and the civilisation itself may have contained between one and five million individuals.[25]

Greek

Main article: Ancient Greek architecture

Without a doubt, ancient Greek architecture, together with Roman, is one of the most influential styles of all time[citation needed]. Since the advent of the Classical Age in Athens, in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.[32] From circa circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, ancient Greek culture flourished on the Greek mainland, on the Peloponnese, and on the Aegean islands. Five of the Wonders of the World were Greek: the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, and the Parthenon is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for Neoclassical architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the Parthenon and the Erechtheion, both on the Acropolis of Athens. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.

Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with continuous stairs of a few steps at each edges (known as crepidoma), a cella (or naos) with a cult statue in it, columns, an entablature, and two pediments, one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as the orders: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by the capitals). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has four scrolls (called volutes) at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated with acanthus leafs and four scrolls.[26] Besides columns, the frieze was different based on order. While the Doric one has metopes and triglyphs with guttae, Ionic and Corinthian friezes consist of one big continuous band with reliefs.

Besides the columns, the temples were highly decorated with sculptures, in the pediments, on the friezes, metopes and triglyphs. Ornaments used by Ancient Greek architects and artists include palmettes, vegetal or wave-like scrolls, lion mascarons (mostly on lateral cornices), dentils, acanthus leafs, bucrania, festoons, egg-and-dart, rais-de-cœur, beads, meanders, and acroteria at the corners of the pediments. Pretty often, ancient Greek ornaments are used continuously, as bands. They will later be used in Etruscan, Roman and in the post-medieval styles that tried to revive Greco-Roman art and architecture, like Renaissance, Baroque, Neoclassical etc.

Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient and medieval buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was polychromed in much of the Ancient and Medieval world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the Parthenon (c. 447–432 BC) in Athens, had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on capitals and columns.[33] This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because Leonardo da Vinci and other Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo, promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.[34]

Roman

Main article: Ancient Roman architecture

The architecture of ancient Rome has been one of the most influential in the world. Its legacy is evident throughout the medieval and early modern periods, and Roman buildings continue to be reused in the modern era in both New Classical and Postmodern architecture. It was particularly influenced by Greek and Etruscan styles. A range of temple types was developed during the republican years (509–27 BC), modified from Greek and Etruscan prototypes.

Wherever the Roman army conquered, they established towns and cities, spreading their empire and advancing their architectural and engineering achievements. While the most important works are to be found in Italy, Roman builders also found creative outlets in the western and eastern provinces, of which the best examples preserved are in modern-day North Africa, Turkey, Syria and Jordan. Extravagant projects appeared, like the Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna (present-day Libya, built in 216 AD), with broken pediments on all sides, or the Arch of Caracalla in Thebeste (present-day Algeria, built in c.214 AD), with paired columns on all sides, projecting entablatures and medallions with divine busts. Due to the fact that the empire was formed from multiple nations and cultures, some buildings were the product of combining the Roman style with the local tradition. An example is the Palmyra Arch (present-day Syria, built in c.212–220), some of its arches being embellished with a repeated band design consisting of four ovals within a circle around a rosette, which are of Eastern origin.

Surpassing most civilisations of their time[citation needed], the Romans developed new engineering skills, architectural techniques and materials[citation needed]. Among the many Roman architectural achievements were domes (which were created for temples), baths, villas, palaces and tombs. The most well known example is the one of the Pantheon in Rome, being the largest surviving Roman dome and having a large oculus at its centre. Another important innovation is the rounded stone arch, used in arcades, aqueducts and other structures. Besides the Greek orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), the Romans invented two more. The Tuscan order was influenced by the Doric, but with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae, while the Composite was a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order.

Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio published a major treatise, De architectura, which influenced architects around the world for centuries. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture.[40]

Just like the Greeks, the Romans built amphiteatres too. The largest amphitheatre ever built, the Colosseum in Rome, could hold around 50,000 spectators. Another iconic Roman structure that demonstrates their precision and technological advancement is the Pont du Gard in southern France, the highest surviving Roman aqueduct.[41][36]

Americas (Pre-Columbian)

Main articles: Mesoamerican architecture, Aztec architecture, Maya architecture, and Inca architecture

From over 3,000 years before the Europeans 'discovered' America, complex societies had already been established across North, Central and South America. The most complex ones were in Mesoamerica, notably the Mayans, the Olmecs and the Aztecs, but also Incas in South America. Although knowledge of astronomy and engineering was limited, structures and buildings were often aligned with astronomical features or with the cardinal directions. Much of the architecture developed through cultural exchange – for example the Aztecs learnt much from earlier Mayan architecture.

Many cultures built entire cities, with monolithic temples and pyramids decoratively carved with animals, gods and kings. Most of these cities had a central plaza with governmental buildings and temples, plus public ball courts, or tlachtli, on raised platforms. Just like in ancient Egypt, here were built pyramids too, being generally stepped. They were probably not used as burial chambers, but had important religious sites at the top.[43] They had few rooms, as interiors mattered less that the ritual presence of these imposing structures and the public ceremonies they hosted; so, platforms, altars, processional stairs, statuary, and carving were all important.[46]

South Asia

After the fall of the Indus Valley, South Asian architecture entered the Dharmic period which saw the development of Ancient Indian architectural styles which further developed into various unique forms in the Middle Ages, along with the combination of Islamic styles, and later, other global traditions.

Ancient Buddhist

Main article: Buddhist architecture

Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 2nd century BC, and spread first to China and then further across Asia. Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places. The most iconic Buddhist type of building is the stupa, which consists of a domed structure containing relics, used as a place of meditation to commemorate Buddha. The dome symbolised the infinite space of the sky.[47]

Buddhism had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture after its introduction,[48] and ancient Sri Lankan architecture was mainly religious, with over 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries.[49] Monasteries were designed using the Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra, which outlines the layout of the structure.

After the fall of the Gupta empire, Buddhism mainly survived in Bengal under the Palas,[50] and has had a significant impact on pre-Islamic Bengali architecture of that period.[51]

Ancient Hindu

Main article: Hindu temple architecture

Across the Indian subcontinent, Hindu architecture evolved from simple rock-cut cave shrines to monumental temples. From the 4th to 5th centuries AD, Hindu temples were adapted to the worship of different deities and regional beliefs, and by the 6th or 7th centuries larger examples had evolved into towering brick or stone-built structures that symbolise the sacred five-peaked Mount Meru. Influenced by early Buddhist stupas, the architecture was not designed for collective worship, but had areas for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals.[52]

Many Indian architectural styles for structures such as temples, statues, homes, markets, gardens and planning are as described in Hindu texts.[53][54] The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These include the Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, the Brihat Samhita, architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the Manasara among others.[55][56]

Since this architectural style emerged in the classical period, it has had a considerable influence on various medieval architectural styles like that of the Gurjaras, Dravidians, Deccan, Odias, Bengalis, and the Assamese.

Maru Gurjara

Main articles: Māru-Gurjara architecture, Architecture of Gujarat, and Architecture of Rajasthan

This style of North Indian architecture has been observed in Hindu as well as Jain places of worship and congregation. It emerged in the 11th to 13th centuries under the Chaulukya (Solanki) period.[58] It eventually became more popular among the Jain communities who spread it in the greater region and across the world.[59] These structures have the unique features like a large number of projections on external walls with sharply carved statues, and several urushringa spirelets on the main shikhara.

Himalayan

Main articles: Architecture of Nepal and Architecture of Tibet

The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including the Paharis, Sino-Tibetans, Kashmiris, and many more groups. Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, the architecture has also had multiple influences. Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas, artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings. These styles exist in different forms from Tibet and Kashmir to Assam and Nagaland.[60] A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples, mosques, and civic buildings.[61]

Dravidian

Main article: Dravidian architecture
See also: Architecture of Tamil Nadu, Architecture of Kerala, Architecture of Karnataka, Pallava art and architecture, Pandyan art and architecture, Chola art and architecture, Kadamba architecture, Badami Chalukya architecture, Hoysala architecture, Vijayanagara architecture, and Western Chalukya architecture

This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka. These include Hindu temples with a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana, where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikharas. These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region. In the Tamil country, this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it. This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs.[64] Further north, the Karnata Dravida style varies based on the diversity of influences, often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties.[65]

Kalinga

Main article: Kalinga architecture

The ancient Kalinga region corresponds to the present-day eastern Indian areas of Odisha, West Bengal and northern Andhra Pradesh. Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of the Somavamsi dynasty of Odisha. Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures, Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes. Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers called deul or deula and prayer halls called jagmohan.[67]

East and Southeast Asia

Sinosphere

Main article: Chinese architecture
See also: Chinese garden, Korean architecture, and Japanese architecture

What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in the Neolithic period (10,000–2000 BC), covering the cultural sites of Yangshao, Longshan, and Liangzhu in central China. Sections of present-day north-east China also contain sites of the Neolithic Hongshan culture that manifested aspects of proto-Chinese culture. Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic, animistic and hero worship. In general, open-air platforms (tan, or altar) were used for worshipping naturalistic deities, such as the gods of wind and earth, whereas formal buildings (miao, or temple) were for heroes and deceased ancestors.

Most early buildings in China were timber structures. Columns with sets of brackets on the face of the buildings, mostly in even numbers, made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening. Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth.

The transmission of Buddhism into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices, and so to new building types. Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China, based on Indian rock-cut ones. Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form of stupa (ta) or pagoda. In India, stupas were erected to commemorate well-known people or teachers: consequently, the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher, the Buddha. In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life. Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China. More than 4,600 official and 40,000 unofficial monasteries were built. They varies in size by the number of cloisters they conatined, ranging from 6 to 120. Each cloister consisted of a main stand-alone building – a hall, pagoda of pavilion – and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building.[68]

Chinese and Confucian culture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in the Sinosphere (mainly Vietnam, Korea, Japan).[69] Korean architecture, especially post Choson period showcases Ming-Qing influences.[70]

Traditionally, Japanese architecture was made of wood and fusuma (sliding doors) in place of walls, allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes. The introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century, via the neighbouring Korean kingdom of Paekche, initiated large-scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity, and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures. By the end of this century, Japan was constructing Continental-style monasteries, notably the temple, known as Horyu-ji in Ikaruga.[71] In contrast with Western architecture, Japanese structures rarely use stone, except for specific elements such as foundations. Walls are light, thin, never load-bearing and often movable.[40]

Khmer

Main article: Khmer architecture

From the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century, Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, was its capital city, and most of its surviving buildings are east-facing stone temples, many of them constructed in pyramidal, tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers, or prasats, that represent the sacred five-peaked Mount Meru of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist doctrine. As the residences of gods, temples were made of durable materials such as sandstone, brick or laterite, a clay-like substance that dries hard.[73]

Cham architecture in Vietnam also follows a similar style.[72]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Main article: Architecture of Africa

Traditional Sub-Saharan African architecture is diverse, varying significantly across regions. Included among traditional house types, are huts, sometimes consisting of one or two rooms, as well as various larger and more complex structures.

West African and Bantu styles

  •  

    King's palace in Nyanza (Rwanda), unknown date

  •  

    Illustration from 1854 of Lunda street and houses

  •  

    Yoruba architecture depicted in a book by Anna Hinderer in the mid-1800s[74]

  •  

    Traditional Bamileke architecture, main hall of the Bandjoun palace in Cameroon, with decoratively carved wooden columns and doorway, unknown date

In much of West Africa, rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards, sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards, are also traditionally found (sometimes decorated, with adobe reliefs as among the Ashanti of Ghana,[75][76] or carved pillars as among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy)[77] Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof, widespread in West Africa and Madagascar, there also other types of houses: beehive houses made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof, and the round one, with a cone-shaped roof. The first type, which also existed in America, is characteristic especially for Southern Africa. These were used by Bantu-speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa, which was made with mud, poles, thatch, and cow dung (rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu-speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa). The round hut with a cone-shaped roof is widespread especially in Sudan and Eastern Africa, but is also present in Colombia and New Caledonia, as well as in the Western Sudan and Sahel regions of west Africa, where they are sometimes arranged into compounds.[78] A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon, such as the Bamileke.

In several West African societies, including the kingdom of Benin (and of other Edo peoples), and the kingdoms of the Yoruba, Hausa, at sites like Jenne-Jeno (a pre-Islamic city in Mali),[79][80] and elsewhere, towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe,[81] and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks, such as Sungbo's Eredo (in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu) and the Walls of Benin (of the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin).[82][83] In medieval southern Africa, a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such as Great Zimbabwe and Khami.

The famed Benin City of southwest Nigeria (capital of the Kingdom of Benin) destroyed by the Punitive Expedition, was a large complex of homes in coursed clay, with hipped roofs of shingles or palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated with brass plaques. It was surrounded by a monumental complex of earthworks and walls whose construction is thought to have begun by the early Middle Ages.[82][83][84][85]

Sahelian

Main article: Sudano-Sahelian architecture

In the Western Sahel region, Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques, as described by al-bakri, with one centered on Friday prayer.[86] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[87]

Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné. The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood, mud-brick and adobe. Though later acquiring Islamic influences, the style also had roots in local pre-Islamic building styles, such as those found in ancient settlements like Jenne-Jeno, Dia, Mali, and Dhar Tichitt,[88] some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick.[79]

Ethiopian

Ethiopian architecture (including modern-day Eritrea) expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the rock-cut monolithic churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region of Tigray, which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town.[89] During the early modern period in Ethiopia, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati style began with the arrival of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Oceania

Main article: Oceanic art and architecture

Most Oceanic buildings consist of huts, made of wood and other vegetal materials. Art and architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion. The architecture of the Pacific Islands was varied and sometimes large in scale. Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them, with considerable symbolic detail. Technically, most buildings in Oceania were no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings; only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known. Fakhua shen, Taboa shen and Kuhua shen (the shen triplets) designed the first oceanian architecture.

An important Oceanic archaeological site is Nan Madol from the Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty, which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628.[90] Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island, it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctive megalithic architecture beginning 1180–1200 AD.[91]

Islamic

Main article: Islamic architecture

Due to the extent of the Islamic conquests, Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of architectural styles from the foundation of Islam (7th century) to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[96][97] Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles, including but not limited to: Umayyad, Abbasid, Persian, Moorish, Fatimid, Mamluk, Ottoman, Indo-Islamic (particularly Mughal), Medieval Bengali, Sino-Islamic and Sahelian architecture.

Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture are mosques, madrasas, tombs, palaces, baths, and forts. Notable types of Islamic religious architecture include hypostyle mosques, domed mosques and mausoleums, structures with vaulted iwans, and madrasas built around central courtyards. In secular architecture, major examples of preserved historic palaces include the Alhambra and the Topkapi Palace. Islam does not encourage the worship of idols; therefore the architecture tends to be decorated with Arabic calligraphy (including Qur'anic verses or other poetry) and with more abstract motifs such as geometric patterns, muqarnas, and arabesques, as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories.[98][99][100][101]

European

Medieval

Main article: Medieval architecture
See also: Norse architecture and Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe. Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. New types of civic, military, as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period.

Byzantine

Main article: Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architects built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges, aqueducts, and churches. They built many types of churches, including the basilica (the most widespread type, and the one that reached the greatest development). After the early period, the most common layout was the cross-in-square with five domes, also found in Moscow, Novgorod or Kiev, as well as in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia and Albania. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in all Eastern Orthodox countries.[106] For example, in Romania, the Brâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.

 
 
 
 
The Hagia Sophia (Istanbul, Turkey), 537, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus[107]

Just as the Parthenon is the most famous building of Ancient Greek architecture, Hagia Sophia remains the iconic church of Orthodox Christianity. In Greek and Roman temples, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, where sacrifices were made; the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, often had limited access by the general public. But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches, Byzantine exteriors usually having little if any ornamentation.[108]

Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns, coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of mosaics with golden backgrounds.[109] The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin alabaster sheets for windows.[110] Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where fresco wouldn't resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki (Greece), the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo and the Basilica of San Vitale, both in Ravenna (Italy), and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

Romanesque

Main article: Romanesque architecture

The term 'Romanesque' is rooted in the 19th century, when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century, before the rise of steeply pointed arches, flying buttresses and other Gothic elements. For 19th-century critics, the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carved capitals of the ancient Romans, but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate, lacking the sophistication of their classical models.

Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a 'failure' to reproduce the achievements of the past, and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms, as a series of creative new inventions. At the time, however, research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term. On the surface, it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of rounded arches and thick stone masonry, and appear in between the Carolingian revival of classical antiquity in the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century. One problem, however, is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations, some with closer links to Rome than others. It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear. There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today, making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories. Nevertheless, Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations, because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past, but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner.[6]

Romanesque cathedrals can be differentiated pretty easy from Gothic and Byzantine ones, since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns, round arches and severity. Here, the possibilities of the round-arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full. Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic, the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns. In comparison to Byzantine churches, Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. An example of this is the Périgueux Cathedral (Périgueux, France), built in the early 12th century and designed on the model of St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, but lacking mosaics, leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic.[116]

Gothic

Main article: Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments, which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever-growing number of pilgrims visiting sites that housed precious relics. Pilgrims in the high Middle Ages (circa 1000 to 1250 AD) increasingly travelled to well-known pilgrimage sites, but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles. The churches and monasteries housing important relics therefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them. These shrines were not merely gem-encrusted reliquaries, but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas of stained glass. The use of stained glass, however, is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the rose window or the flying buttress, as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions. It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements, along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time, that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture.

Consequently, it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged; however, it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with the Basilica of St Denis (circa 1135–1344) and its patrons, Abbot Suger, who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church. As he wrote in his De Administratione, the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis, and the solution for this twofold: a west façade with three large portals and the innovative new choir, which combined an ambulatory with radiating chapels that were unique as they were not separated by walls. Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults. The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space, while also experiencing the large stained-glass windows within the chapels. As confirmed by Suger, the desire for more stained-glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light, rather like mosaics or precious stones, which would make the wall vanish. The demand for ever more stained-glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture, as is evident in the writings of Suger, who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting.[6]

Renaissance

Main article: Renaissance architecture
See also: Henry II style and Henry IV style

During the Renaissance, Italy consisted of many states, and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments. The Medici Family, an Italian banking family and political dynasty, is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture.

The period began in around 1452, when the architect and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) completed his treatise De Re Aedificatoria (On the Art of Building) after studying the ancient ruins of Rome and Vitruvius's De Architectura. His writings covered numerous subjects, including history, town planning, engineering, sacred geometry, humanism and philosophies of beauty, and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions. In the last decades of the 15th century, artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins, especially the Colosseum and the Pantheon. They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings. While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century (dating back at least to Petrarch in the 14th century), antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary, epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains. Although some artists and architects, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), Donatello (circa 1386–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti, are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins, almost no direct evidence of this work survives. By the 1480s, prominent architects, such as Francesco di Giorgio (1439-1502) and Giuliano da Sabgallo (circa 1445–1516), were making numerous studies of ancient monuments, undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun. In many cases, drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination, as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of the Campidoglio, noting 'largely imagined by me, since very little can be understood from the ruins.[132]

Soon, grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style, like the Pazzi Chapel (1441-1478) or the Palazzo Pitti (1458-1464). The Renaissance begun in Italy, but slowly spread to other parts of Europe, with varying interpretations.[124]

Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome's culture, it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman. However, because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had were Roman, Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome. The most iconic one is the margent, a vertical arrangement of flowers, leaves or hanging vines, used at pilasters. Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the round medallion, containing a profile of a person, similar with Ancient cameos. Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and other post-medieval styles use putti (chubby baby angels) much more often compared to Greco-Roman art and architecture. An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance, that was of Ancient Roman descent, that will also be used in later styles, is the cartouche, an oval or oblong design with a slightly convex surface, typically edged with ornamental scrollwork.

Worldwide

Baroque

Main article: Baroque architecture
See also: Louis XIV style and Baroque garden

The Baroque emerged from the Counter Reformation as an attempt by the Catholic Church in Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God. The Baroque and its late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts. Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800. Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout Italy, Spain and Portugal, Flanders, France, the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from Munich (Germany) to Vilnius (Lithuania). The Portuguese, Spanish and French empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as Lima, Mozambique, Goa and the Philippines.[142] Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions, multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location, different in some aspects, but similar overall. For example, French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison, preempting Neoclassicism and the architecture of the Age of Enlightenment.[133] Hybrid Native American/European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America (as opposed to Mexico) in the late 17th century, after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media, a very good example of this being the Jesuir Church in Arequipa (Peru).[143]

The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals, churches and monasteries, soon joined by civic buildings, mansions, and palaces. Being characterized by dynamism, for the first time walls, façades and interiors curved,[144] a good example being San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome. Baroque architects took the basic elements of Renaissance architecture, including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use of quadratura, or trompe-l'œil painting combined with sculpture: the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding. Solomonic columns were often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element.[145] Besides architecture, Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too. This is in contrast with how static and peaceful Renaissance art is.

Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed had a role too. Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, designed to tower over the city. A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale, Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike. It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities, and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them. The most notable early example was Domenico Fontana's restructuring of Rome's street plan of Pope Sixtus V. Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance, examples being Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) planning a centralized model city, with streets leading to a central piazza, or Filarete (Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino, c. 1400-c. 1469) designing a round city named Sforzinda (1451-1456) that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants. However, none of these idealistic cities has ever been built. In fact, few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas, with existing churches and palaces, could not be demolished. Only in the Americas, where architects often had a clean space to work with, were such cities possible, as in Lima (Peru) or Buenos Aires (Argentina). The earliest Baroque ideal city is Zamość, built north-east of Krakow (Poland) by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando (c. 1540-1600), being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets. Where entire cities could not be rebuilt, patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares, often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain, statue or obelisk. A good example of this is the Place des Vosges (formerly Place Royale), commissioned by Henry IV probably after plans by Baptiste du Cerceau (1545-1590). The most famous Baroque space in the world is Gianlorenzo Bernini's St. Peter's Square in Rome.[146] Similar with ideal urban planning, Baroque gardens are characterized by straight and readapting avenues, with geometric spaces.

Rococo

Main articles: Rococo and Rocaille
See also: Style Louis XV

The name Rococo derives from the French word rocaille, which describes shell-covered rock-work, and coquille, meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe.[150] Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests.

Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells, icicles and rock-work or grotto decoration. Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms, laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames. A favourite motif was the scallop shell, whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of the arabesques and whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration. While few Rococo exteriors were built in France, a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany.[151] Other widely-user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include: acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, elements associated with love (putti, quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts) trophies of arms, putti, medallions with faces, many many flowers, and Far Eastern elements (pagodes, dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers, bamboo, and Chinese people).[152] Pastel colours were widely used, like light blue, mint green or pink. Rococo designers also loved mirrors (the more the better), an example being the Hall of Mirrors of the Amalienburg (Munich, Germany), by Johann Baptist Zimmermann. Generally, mirrors are also featured above fireplaces.

Exoticism

Main article: Exoticism

The interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics. Because of being something rare and new to Westerners, some non-European styles were really appreciated during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces, or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this. Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics, Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time. A good example of this is chinoiserie, a Western decorative style, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques.

Chinese art wasn't the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented. Another was the Islamic one. Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace in Germany (the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque), the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, or the Moorish Revival buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, with horseshoe arches and brick patterns. When it come to the Orient, Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt. Compared to other cases of exoticism, the one with the land of pharaohs is the oldest one, since Ancient Greeks and Romans had this interest during Antiquity. The main periods when Egyptian Revival monuments were erected were the early 19th century, with Napoleon's military campaigns in Egypt, and the 1920s, when the Tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in 1922, which caused an Egyptomania that lead to Art Deco sometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt. During the late 18th and early 19th century, Neoclassicism sometimes mixed Greco-Roman elements with Egyptian ones. Because of its association with pharaohs, death and eternity, multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style. Besides mortuary structures, other buildings in this style include certain synagogues, like the Karlsruhe Synagogue or some Empire monuments built during the reign of Nepoleon, such as the Egyptian portico of the Hôtel Beauharnais or the Fontaine du Fellah. During the 1920s and 1930s, Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican architecture was of great interest for some American architects, particularly what the Mayans built. Several of Frank Lloyd Wright's California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style, while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones.[161]

Neoclassicism

Main article: Neoclassical architecture
See also: Palladian architecture, Louis XVI style, Adam style, and Empire style

Neoclassical architecture focused on Ancient Greek and Roman details, plain, white walls and grandeur of scale. Compared to the previous styles, Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist, featuring straight and angular lines, but being still ornamented. The style's clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings (such as the Panthéon in Paris) and for smaller structures alike (such as the Petit Trianon).

Excavations during the 18th century at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, inspired a return to order amd rationality.[171] In the mid-18th century, antiquity was upheld as a standard for architecture as never before. Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning. In the 1750s, an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started, which will continue in the 19th century. Marc-Antoine Laugier wrote in 1753 that 'Architecture owes all that is perfect to the Greeks'.[172]

 
 
 
 
The Petit Trianon (Versailles, France), 1764, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel[173]
 
 
The Cenotaph of Newton, c. 1784 (never built), by Étienne-Louis Boullée[168]

The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia. Federal-style architecture is the name for the classicizing architecture built in North America between c. 1780 and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with its era, the Federal Period. The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period. The style broadly corresponds to the middle-class classicism of Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Regency style in Britain and to the French Empire style. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to as Classicism (German: Klassizismus, Russian: Классицизм), while the newer Revival styles of the 19th century until today are called neoclassical.

Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) was a visionary architect of the period. His utopian projects, never built, included a monument to Isaac Newton (1784) in the form of an immense dome, with an oculus allowing the light to enter, giving the impression of a sky full of stars. His project for an enlargement of the Royal Library (1785) was even more dramatic, with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books. While none of his projects were ever built, the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms.[174]

Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods, during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too. Enlightenment writers of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time, the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses. Voltaire openly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works, improve the quality of life in towns, and stimulate the economy. 'It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities. There must be public markets, fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements. The narrow and infected streets must be widened, monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see', Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on 'The Embellishments of Paris' in 1749. In the same year, La Font de Saint-Yenne, criticized how Louis XIV's great east façade of the Louvre, was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses. Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome, it was necessary to demolish more than it was to built. 'Our towns are still what they were, a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system, planning or design', Marc-Antoine Laugier complained in 1753. Writing a decade later, Pierre Patte promoted an urban reform in quest of health, social order, and security, launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons. With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological, Patte asserted, calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets. Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air, and for the same reason houses on the city's bridges should be demolished. He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards.[175] Besides cities, new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England, making place for the English landscape garden (aka jardin à l'anglaise), characterized by an idealized view of nature, and the use of Greco-Roman or Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically planned Baroque garden (aka jardin à la française).

Revivalism and Eclecticism

Main article: Revivalism (architecture)
See also: Eclecticism in architecture, Victorian architecture, and Napoleon III style § Architecture

The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations. Revivalism in architecture is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous architectural era. Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized within New Classical architecture, and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture.

The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the French Revolution. As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: Egyptian for prisons, Gothic for churches, or Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the pharaohs with death and eternity, the Middle Ages with Christianity, or the Medici family with the rise of banking and modern commerce.

 
View of Devonpart, near Plymouth (the UK), by John Foulston, 1820s, including an 'Egyptian' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive Doric' town hall, and a street of houses with a Roman Corinthian order

Whether their choice was Classical, medieval, or Renaissance, all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state.[177]

The most well-known Revivalist style is the Gothic Revival one, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being the Strawberry Hill House. German Romantic writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided. Johann Gottfried Herder posed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'.[178]

In art and architecture history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France.

In India, during the British Raj, a new style, Indo-Saracenic, (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, or Hindoo style) was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. The Churches and convents of Goa are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880.[179] The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals".[180] They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.[181]

Beaux-Arts

Main article: Beaux-Arts architecture

The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects like Charles Girault, Thomas Hastings, Ion D. Berindey or Petre Antonescu. Today, from Bucharest to Buenos Aires and from San Francisco to Brussels, the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by the Paris Opéra House (1860-1875), designed by Charles Garnier, the masterpiece of the 19th century renovation of Paris, dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called a style actuel, which was influenced by the spirit of the time, aka Zeitgeist, and reflected the designer's personal taste.

Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. However, it wasn't just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism etc.[189][190][191]

Industry and new technologies

Because of the Industrial Revolution and the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings have appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building is the Crystal Palace from Hyde Park (London), built in 1851 to house the Great Exhibition, having an appearance similar with a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting.

The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled, Aristide Boucicaut opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first department store, Le Bon Marché in Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with French Renaissance Revival motifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled by Louis-Charles Boileau, in collaboration with the young engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel. In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.[196]

Art Nouveau

Main article: Art Nouveau § Architecture and ornamentation
See also: Art Nouveau religious buildings

Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the modern architecture of the 20th century. Between c. 1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression.

 
 
Les Chardons Building (Paris), 1903, by Charles Klein[207]

Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style wasn't completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularly Beaux-Arts architecture, the Arts and Crafts movement, aestheticism and Japanese art. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at Porte Dauphine by Hector Guimard (1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted in The Grammar of Ornament (1854), a pattern book by British architect Owen Jones (architect) (1809-1874).

Whiplash curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired by Celtic art, Gothic Revival, Rococo Revival, and Baroque Revival. In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of the Romanian Revival style, which draws inspiration from Brâncovenesc architecture and traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known as Modern Style, in the Netherlands as Nieuwe Kunst, in Germany and Austria as Jugendstil, in Italy as Liberty style, in Romania as Arta 1900, and in Japan as Shiro-Uma. It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.[208][209][210][211]

Modern

Main article: Modern architecture

Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century. Art Nouveau paved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the Bauhaus and the International Style, both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.[215]

Art Deco

Main articles: Art Deco and Streamline Moderne

Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming more streamlined and modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s.[220]

Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew on ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, African, Aztec and Japanese influences, but also on Futurism, Cubism and the Bauhaus. Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials include chrome plating, brass, polished steel and aluminium, inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

International Style

Main article: International Style (architecture)

The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, including De Stijl and Streamline Moderne, and had a close relationship to the Bauhaus. The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and chrome plating. Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architect Philip Johnson and historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1903-1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized by Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, or Le Corbusier and was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.[225]

Brutalist

Main article: Brutalist architecture

Based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired by Le Corbusier's 1947-1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseilles. It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect Hans Asplund (1921-1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the description béton brut, meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.[231]

Postmodern

Main article: Postmodern architecture

No one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architect Robert Venturi (1925-2018) had published his book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, which praised the originality and creativity of Mannerist and Baroque architecture of Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.[232]

Deconstructivist

Main article: Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, non-linear processes of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparent non-Euclidean geometry,[241] (i.e., non-rectilinear shapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 Parc de la Villette architectural design competition (especially the entry from the French philosopher Jacques Derrida and the American architect Peter Eisenman[242] and Bernard Tschumi's winning entry), the Museum of Modern Art's 1988 Deconstructivist Architecture exhibition in New York, organized by Philip Johnson and Mark Wigley, and the 1989 opening of the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelblau, and Bernard Tschumi. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13
  2. ^ Architecture. Def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009
  3. ^ Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy (2019). HOUSES - Extraordinary Living. Phaidon. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7148-7809-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Jones 2014, p. 18.
  5. ^ Jones 2014, p. 22.
  6. ^ a b c Jones 2014, pp. 148, 149.
  7. ^ "The Old Copper Complex: North America's First Miners & Metal Artisans". Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  8. ^ Song, Jeeun. "The History of Metallurgy and Mining in the Andean Region". World History at Korean Minjok Leadership Academy. Korean Minjok Leadership Academy. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  9. ^ Choi, Charles Q. (18 April 2007). "Pre-Incan Metallurgy Discovered". Live Science. Live Science. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  10. ^ Maldonado, Blanco D. (2003). "Tarascan Copper Metallurgy at the Site of Itziparátzico, Michoacán, México" (PDF). Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
  11. ^ van Lemmen, Hans (2013). 5000 Years of Tiles. The British Museum Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7141-5099-4.
  12. ^ Weston, Richard (2011). 100 Ideas That Changed Architecture. Laurence King. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-78627-567-7.
  13. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 6.
  14. ^ Risebero, Bill (2018). The Story of Western Architecture. Bloomsbury. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-3500-9212-9.
  15. ^ "Gods and Goddesses". Mesopotamia.co.uk. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  16. ^ Jones 2014, p. 28.
  17. ^ Jones 2014, p. 25.
  18. ^ Jones 2014, p. 27.
  19. ^ a b Hodge 2019, p. 12.
  20. ^ Jones 2014, p. 30.
  21. ^ 1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale (in Romanian). Editura Aquila. 2009. p. 247. ISBN 978-973-714-450-8.
  22. ^ Jones 2014, p. 24, 25, 26.
  23. ^ Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
  24. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 29.
  25. ^ McIntosh 2008, p. 187.
  26. ^ a b Hodge 2019, p. 14.
  27. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 32.
  28. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 57.
  29. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 35.
  30. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 40.
  31. ^ 1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale (in Romanian). Editura Aquila. 2009. p. 226. ISBN 978-973-714-450-8.
  32. ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 6.
  33. ^ Zukowsky, John (2019). A Chronology of Architecture. Thames & Hudson. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-500-34356-2.
  34. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny (2017). Gods in Color - polychromy in the ancient world. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.
  35. ^ a b Jones 2014, p. 48.
  36. ^ a b Hodge 2019, p. 16.
  37. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 60.
  38. ^ Jones 2014, p. 52.
  39. ^ Irving 2019, p. 36.
  40. ^ a b Kruft, Hanno-Walter. A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present (New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 1994).
  41. ^ Jones 2014, p. 46, 73, 76, 77.
  42. ^ Jones 2014, p. 67.
  43. ^ a b Hodge 2019, p. 13.
  44. ^ a b Jones 2014, p. 69.
  45. ^ Jones 2014, p. 112.
  46. ^ Jonathan, Glancey (2006). Architecture A Visual History. DK, Penguin Random House. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-2412-8843-6.
  47. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 15.
  48. ^ . Lankalibrary.com. 2008-12-21. Archived from the original on 2012-02-21. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
  49. ^ Pieris K (2006), Architecture and landscape in ancient and medieval Lanka
  50. ^ Reza, Mohammad Habib (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture of Bengal: Morphological study on the vihāras of c. 3rd to 8th centuries (PhD). Nottingham Trent University.
  51. ^ Reza, Mohammad Habib (2020). "Cultural continuity in the Sultanate Bengal: Adjacent ponds of the mosque as a traditional phenomenon". Esempi di Architettura. 8 (10): 225–235. doi:10.4399/978882553987510 (inactive 31 December 2022). Retrieved September 19, 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2022 (link)
  52. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 19.
  53. ^ Acharya 1927, p. xviii-xx.
  54. ^ Sinha 1998, pp. 27–41
  55. ^ Acharya 1927, p. xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts.
  56. ^ Shukla 1993.
  57. ^ Hall, William (2019). Stone. Phaidon. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7148-7925-3.
  58. ^ Mitchell (1977), 123; Hegewald
  59. ^ Harle, 239–240; Hegewald
  60. ^ Bernier, Ronald M. (1997). Himalayan Architecture. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-61147-121-2.
  61. ^ Bernier, Ronald M. (1997). Himalayan Architecture. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 161, 162, & 163. ISBN 978-1-61147-121-2.
  62. ^ N. Subramanian (21 September 2005). . The Hindu. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012.
  63. ^ N. Ramya (1 August 2010). . The Times of India. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012.
  64. ^ Philip, Boney. "Traditional Kerala Architecture".
  65. ^ "Architectural Wonders of Karnataka". Retrieved 2009-09-26.[permanent dead link]
  66. ^ . Archived from the original on 1 August 2020.
  67. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 21.
  68. ^ Jones 2014, pp. 54, 55, 56 & 57.
  69. ^ Hung, Dinh M. (1966). "VIETNAM AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: An address delivered at the Rotary Club of Bristol, Rhode Island on 6 April 1966" (PDF). Naval War College Review. 18 (9): 28–33. JSTOR 44635438. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  70. ^ Guo, Qinghua (2005). "TIMBER BUILDING STRUCTURES IN CHOSEN KOREA — A CASE STUDY ON GEUNJEONGJEON AND INJEONGJEON" (PDF). Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. 22 (1): 51–68. JSTOR 
January 07, 2023
history, architecture, architectural, history, redirects, here, journal, architectural, history, journal, book, history, architecture, this, article, describes, history, building, types, styles, what, things, were, built, history, construction, history, constr. Architectural history redirects here For the journal see Architectural History journal For the book see A History of Architecture This article describes the history of building types and styles what things were built See History of construction for the history of construction tools and techniques how things were built History of architectureThe Architect s Dream by Thomas Cole 1840 oil on canvas in the Toledo Museum of Art Toledo Ohio USA The history of architecture traces the changes in architecture through various traditions regions overarching stylistic trends and dates The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelter and protection 1 The term architecture generally refers to buildings but in its essence is much broader including fields we now consider specialized forms of practice such as urbanism civil engineering naval military 2 and landscape architecture Trends in architecture were influenced among other factors by technological innovations particularly in the 19th 20th and 21st centuries The improvement and or use of steel cast iron tile reinforced concrete and glass helped for example Art Nouveau appear and made Beaux Arts more grandiose 3 Contents 1 Neolithic 2 Antiquity 2 1 Mesopotamian 2 2 Ancient Egyptian 2 3 Harappan 2 4 Greek 2 5 Roman 3 Americas Pre Columbian 4 South Asia 4 1 Ancient Buddhist 4 2 Ancient Hindu 4 3 Maru Gurjara 4 4 Himalayan 4 5 Dravidian 4 6 Kalinga 5 East and Southeast Asia 5 1 Sinosphere 5 2 Khmer 6 Sub Saharan Africa 6 1 West African and Bantu styles 6 2 Sahelian 6 3 Ethiopian 7 Oceania 8 Islamic 9 European 9 1 Medieval 9 1 1 Byzantine 9 1 2 Romanesque 9 1 3 Gothic 9 2 Renaissance 10 Worldwide 10 1 Baroque 10 2 Rococo 10 3 Exoticism 10 4 Neoclassicism 10 5 Revivalism and Eclecticism 10 6 Beaux Arts 10 7 Industry and new technologies 10 8 Art Nouveau 10 9 Modern 10 9 1 Art Deco 10 9 2 International Style 10 9 3 Brutalist 10 10 Postmodern 10 10 1 Deconstructivist 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External linksNeolithic EditMain article Neolithic architecture Gobekli Tepe Turkey c 9500 8000 BC Reconstructed wooden house Hemudu China 5000 4500 BC 4 Skara Brae Scotland 3200 2200 BC 5 Decorated stone Newgrange Ireland 3200 3100 BCArchitectural advances are an important part of the Neolithic period 10 000 2000 BC during which some of the major innovations of human history occurred The domestication of plants and animals for example led to both new economics and a new relationship between people and the world an increase in community size and permanence a massive development of material culture and new social and ritual solutions to enable people to live together in these communities New styles of individual structures and their combination into settlements provided the buildings required for the new lifestyle and economy and were also an essential element of change 6 Although many dwellings belonging to all prehistoric periods and also some clay models of dwellings have been uncovered enabling the creation of faithful reconstructions they seldom included elements that may relate them to art Some exceptions are provided by wall decorations and by finds that equally apply to Neolithic and Chalcolithic rites and art In South and Southwest Asia Neolithic cultures appear soon after 10 000 BC initially in the Levant Pre Pottery Neolithic A and Pre Pottery Neolithic B and from there spread eastwards and westwards There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC and food producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC and Central Europe by c 5500 BC of which the earliest cultural complexes include the Starcevo Koros Cris Linearbandkeramic and Vinca 7 8 9 10 Neolithic settlements and cities include Gobekli Tepe in Turkey ca 9 000 BC Jericho in the Levant Neolithic from around 8 350 BC arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture Nevali Cori in Turkey ca 8 000 BC Catalhoyuk in Turkey 7 500 BC Mehrgarh in Pakistan 7 000 BC Knap of Howar and Skara Brae the Orkney Islands Scotland from 3 500 BC over 3 000 settlements of the Cucuteni Trypillian culture some with populations up to 15 000 residents flourished in present day Romania Moldova and Ukraine from 5 400 to 2 800 BC Antiquity EditMesopotamian Edit Main article Architecture of Mesopotamia See also Ziggurat Columns with clay mosaic cones from the Eanna precinct in Uruk in southern Mesopotamia Pergamon Museum Berlin Germany 3600 3200 BC 11 The Ziggurat of Ur 21st century BC Tell el Muqayyar Dhi Qar Province Iraq 12 Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate Babylonian c 605 539 BC glazed bricks Pergamon Museum Berlin Germany 13 Mesopotamia is most noted for its construction of mud brick buildings and the construction of ziggurats occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound often rising in huge steps surmounted by a temple The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley The great city of Uruk had a number of religious precincts containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known 14 The word ziggurat is an anglicized form of the Akkadian word ziqqurratum the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick It derives from the verb zaqaru to be high The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven The Ziggurat of Ur excavated by Leonard Woolley is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories It was built under Ur Nammu circa 2100 B C and rebuilt under Nabonidus 555 539 B C when it was increased in height to probably seven stories 15 Ancient Egyptian Edit Main articles Ancient Egyptian architecture and Egyptian temple The Pyramid of Djoser Saqqara Egypt 2667 2648 BC by Imhotep 16 Great Pyramid of Giza Giza Egypt c 2589 2566 BC by Hemiunu 17 Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple Complex Luxor Egypt c 1294 1213 BC 18 Great Temple of Abu Simbel Egypt c 1264 BC 19 Temple of Philae 380 BC 117 AD 20 Trajan s Kiosk Philae Egypt early 2nd century 21 Illustrations from 1874 of ornaments and patterns used by ancient EgyptiansModern imaginings of ancient Egypt are heavily influenced by the surviving traces of monumental architecture Many formal styles and motifs were established at the dawn of the pharaonic state around 3100 BC The most iconic Ancient Egyptian buildings are the pyramids built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms c 2600 1800 BC as tombs for the pharaoh However there are also impressive temples like the Karnak Temple Complex The Ancient Egyptians believed in the afterlife They also believed that in order for their soul known as ka to live eternally in their afterlife their bodies would have to remain intact for eternity So they had to create a way to protect the deceased from damage and grave robbers This way the mastaba was born These were adobe structures with flat roofs which had underground rooms for the coffin about 30 m down Imhotep an ancient Egyptian priest and architect had to design a tomb for the Pharaoh Djoser For this he placed five mastabas one above the next this way creating the first Egyptian pyramid the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara c 2667 2648 BC which is a step pyramid The first smooth sided one was built by Pharaoh Sneferu who ruled between c 2613 and 2589 BC The most imposing one is the Great Pyramid of Giza made for Sneferu s son Khufu c 2589 2566 BC being the last surviving wonder of the ancient world and the largest pyramid in Egypt The stone blocks used for pyramids were held together by mortar and the entire structure was covered with highly polished white limestone with their tops topped in gold What we see today is actually the core structure of the pyramid Inside narrow passages led to the royal burial chambers Despite being highly associated with the Ancient Egypt pyramids have been built by other civilisations too like the Mayans Due to the lack of resources and a shift in power towards priesthood ancient Egyptians stepped away from pyramids and temples became the focal point of cult construction Just like the pyramids Ancient Egyptian temples were also spectacular and monumental They evolved from small shrines made of perishable materials to large complexes and by the New Kingdom circa 1550 1070 BC they have become massive stone structures consisting of halls and courtyards The temple represented a sort of cosmos in stone a copy of the original mound of creation on which the god could rejuvenate himself and the world The entrance consisted of a twin gateway pylon symbolizing the hills of the horizon Inside there were columned halls symbolizing a primeval papyrus thicket It was followed by a series of hallways of decreasing size until the sanctuary was reached where a god s cult statue was placed Back in ancient times temples were painted in bright colours mainly red blue yellow green orange and white Because of the desert climate of Egypt some parts of these painted surfaces were preserved well especially in interiors An architectural element specific to ancient Egyptian architecture is the cavetto cornice a concave moulding introduced by the end of the Old Kingdom It was widely used to accentuate the top of almost every formal pharaonic building Because of how often it was used it will later decorate many Egyptian Revival buildings and objects 22 19 Harappan Edit Main article Harappan architecture The ruins of Harappa Punjab present day Pakistan circa 2550 BC The ruins of Mohenjo daro Sindh circa 1700 BCThe first Urban Civilization in the Indian subcontinent is traceable originally to the Indus Valley civilisation mainly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa now in modern day Pakistan as well western states of the Republic of India The earliest settlements are seen during the Neolithic period in Merhgarh Balochistan The civilization s cities were noted for their urban planning with baked brick buildings elaborate drainage and water systems and handicraft carnelian products seal carving This civilisation transitioned from the Neolithic period into the Chalcolithic period and beyond with their expertise in metallurgy copper bronze lead and tin 23 Their urban centres possibly grew to contain between 30 000 and 60 000 individuals 24 and the civilisation itself may have contained between one and five million individuals 25 Greek Edit Main article Ancient Greek architecture Temple of Hephaestus on the Agoraios Kolonos Hill Athens Greece c 449 BC unknown architect 26 Erechtheion Athens with its Ionic columns and caryatid porch 421 405 BC 27 unknown architect Parthenon Athens Greece 447 432 BC by Ictinus Callicrates and Phidias 28 Tholos of the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia Delphi Greece 380 360 BC by Theodoros of Phocaea 29 Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus Epidaurus Greece 3rd century BC 30 unknown architect Tower of the Winds Athens 1st century BC 31 unknown architect Illustration of Doric left three Ionic middle three and Corinthian right two columns and entablatures Illustrations from 1874 of ornaments and patterns used by ancient Greeks and Romans Illustration from 1883 that shows the colour scheme of the Doric orderWithout a doubt ancient Greek architecture together with Roman is one of the most influential styles of all time citation needed Since the advent of the Classical Age in Athens in the 5th century BC the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and indeed of civilization itself 32 From circa circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD ancient Greek culture flourished on the Greek mainland on the Peloponnese and on the Aegean islands Five of the Wonders of the World were Greek the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus the Statue of Zeus at Olympia the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus the Colossus of Rhodes and the Lighthouse of Alexandria However Ancient Greek architecture is best known for its temples many of which are found throughout the region and the Parthenon is a prime example of this Later they will serve as inspiration for Neoclassical architects during the late 18th and the 19th century The most well known temples are the Parthenon and the Erechtheion both on the Acropolis of Athens Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with continuous stairs of a few steps at each edges known as crepidoma a cella or naos with a cult statue in it columns an entablature and two pediments one on the front side and another in the back By the 4th century BC Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as the orders the Doric the Ionic and the Corinthian They are most easily recognised by their columns especially by the capitals The Doric column is stout and basic the Ionic one is slimmer and has four scrolls called volutes at the corners of the capital and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one but the capital is completely different being decorated with acanthus leafs and four scrolls 26 Besides columns the frieze was different based on order While the Doric one has metopes and triglyphs with guttae Ionic and Corinthian friezes consist of one big continuous band with reliefs Besides the columns the temples were highly decorated with sculptures in the pediments on the friezes metopes and triglyphs Ornaments used by Ancient Greek architects and artists include palmettes vegetal or wave like scrolls lion mascarons mostly on lateral cornices dentils acanthus leafs bucrania festoons egg and dart rais de cœur beads meanders and acroteria at the corners of the pediments Pretty often ancient Greek ornaments are used continuously as bands They will later be used in Etruscan Roman and in the post medieval styles that tried to revive Greco Roman art and architecture like Renaissance Baroque Neoclassical etc Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient and medieval buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic However architecture was polychromed in much of the Ancient and Medieval world One of the most iconic Ancient buildings the Parthenon c 447 432 BC in Athens had details painted with vibrant reds blues and greens Besides ancient temples Medieval cathedrals were never completely white Most had colored highlights on capitals and columns 33 This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance This is because Leonardo da Vinci and other Renaissance artists including Michelangelo promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco Roman ruins which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages became white despite being initially colorful The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering Without necessary care the colors exposed to rain snow dirt and other factors vanished over time and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white like they are today and were during the Renaissance 34 Roman Edit Main article Ancient Roman architecture Colosseum Rome 70 80 BC 35 Pont du Gard Vers Pont du Gard Gard France a Roman aqueduct 40 60 AD 36 Maison Carree Nimes France 2nd century 37 Pantheon Rome c 114 123 38 Library of Celsus Ephesus Turkey c 112 120 35 Arch of Constantine Rome 316 39 The architecture of ancient Rome has been one of the most influential in the world Its legacy is evident throughout the medieval and early modern periods and Roman buildings continue to be reused in the modern era in both New Classical and Postmodern architecture It was particularly influenced by Greek and Etruscan styles A range of temple types was developed during the republican years 509 27 BC modified from Greek and Etruscan prototypes Wherever the Roman army conquered they established towns and cities spreading their empire and advancing their architectural and engineering achievements While the most important works are to be found in Italy Roman builders also found creative outlets in the western and eastern provinces of which the best examples preserved are in modern day North Africa Turkey Syria and Jordan Extravagant projects appeared like the Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna present day Libya built in 216 AD with broken pediments on all sides or the Arch of Caracalla in Thebeste present day Algeria built in c 214 AD with paired columns on all sides projecting entablatures and medallions with divine busts Due to the fact that the empire was formed from multiple nations and cultures some buildings were the product of combining the Roman style with the local tradition An example is the Palmyra Arch present day Syria built in c 212 220 some of its arches being embellished with a repeated band design consisting of four ovals within a circle around a rosette which are of Eastern origin Surpassing most civilisations of their time citation needed the Romans developed new engineering skills architectural techniques and materials citation needed Among the many Roman architectural achievements were domes which were created for temples baths villas palaces and tombs The most well known example is the one of the Pantheon in Rome being the largest surviving Roman dome and having a large oculus at its centre Another important innovation is the rounded stone arch used in arcades aqueducts and other structures Besides the Greek orders Doric Ionic and Corinthian the Romans invented two more The Tuscan order was influenced by the Doric but with un fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae while the Composite was a mixed order combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order Between 30 and 15 BC the architect and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio published a major treatise De architectura which influenced architects around the world for centuries As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture 40 Just like the Greeks the Romans built amphiteatres too The largest amphitheatre ever built the Colosseum in Rome could hold around 50 000 spectators Another iconic Roman structure that demonstrates their precision and technological advancement is the Pont du Gard in southern France the highest surviving Roman aqueduct 41 36 Americas Pre Columbian EditMain articles Mesoamerican architecture Aztec architecture Maya architecture and Inca architecture Avenue of the Dead Teotihuacan Mexico 1 600 AD 42 The Palace of Palenque Chiapas Mexico 7th 8th centuries 43 Temple of the Great Jaguar Tikal Guatemala c 732 44 Nunnery Quadrangle Uxmal Yucatan Mexico 800 1000 44 Temple of the Warriors Chichen Itza Yucatan Mexico c 900 1200 45 From over 3 000 years before the Europeans discovered America complex societies had already been established across North Central and South America The most complex ones were in Mesoamerica notably the Mayans the Olmecs and the Aztecs but also Incas in South America Although knowledge of astronomy and engineering was limited structures and buildings were often aligned with astronomical features or with the cardinal directions Much of the architecture developed through cultural exchange for example the Aztecs learnt much from earlier Mayan architecture Many cultures built entire cities with monolithic temples and pyramids decoratively carved with animals gods and kings Most of these cities had a central plaza with governmental buildings and temples plus public ball courts or tlachtli on raised platforms Just like in ancient Egypt here were built pyramids too being generally stepped They were probably not used as burial chambers but had important religious sites at the top 43 They had few rooms as interiors mattered less that the ritual presence of these imposing structures and the public ceremonies they hosted so platforms altars processional stairs statuary and carving were all important 46 South Asia EditAfter the fall of the Indus Valley South Asian architecture entered the Dharmic period which saw the development of Ancient Indian architectural styles which further developed into various unique forms in the Middle Ages along with the combination of Islamic styles and later other global traditions Ancient Buddhist Edit Main article Buddhist architecture The Great Stupa of Sanchi Madhya Pradesh India 3rd century c 100 BC Somapura Mahavihara Bangladesh circa 8th century AD Cave 19 of the Ajanta Caves Maharashtra a chaitya hall and also an example of Indian rock cut architecture 5th century Ruwanwelisaya Anuradhapura Sri Lanka circa 140 BC renovated early 20th century Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 2nd century BC and spread first to China and then further across Asia Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism monasteries viharas places to venerate relics stupas and shrines or prayer halls chaityas also called chaitya grihas which later came to be called temples in some places The most iconic Buddhist type of building is the stupa which consists of a domed structure containing relics used as a place of meditation to commemorate Buddha The dome symbolised the infinite space of the sky 47 Buddhism had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture after its introduction 48 and ancient Sri Lankan architecture was mainly religious with over 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries 49 Monasteries were designed using the Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra which outlines the layout of the structure After the fall of the Gupta empire Buddhism mainly survived in Bengal under the Palas 50 and has had a significant impact on pre Islamic Bengali architecture of that period 51 Ancient Hindu Edit Main article Hindu temple architecture Dashavatara Temple Deogarh Uttar Pradesh circa 6th century AD Mundeshwari Temple Kaimur district Bihar circa 7th century AD Ellora Caves Aurangabad district Maharashtra circa 6th century ADAcross the Indian subcontinent Hindu architecture evolved from simple rock cut cave shrines to monumental temples From the 4th to 5th centuries AD Hindu temples were adapted to the worship of different deities and regional beliefs and by the 6th or 7th centuries larger examples had evolved into towering brick or stone built structures that symbolise the sacred five peaked Mount Meru Influenced by early Buddhist stupas the architecture was not designed for collective worship but had areas for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals 52 Many Indian architectural styles for structures such as temples statues homes markets gardens and planning are as described in Hindu texts 53 54 The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages These include the Vastu shastras Shilpa Shastras the Brihat Samhita architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas and regional texts such as the Manasara among others 55 56 Since this architectural style emerged in the classical period it has had a considerable influence on various medieval architectural styles like that of the Gurjaras Dravidians Deccan Odias Bengalis and the Assamese Maru Gurjara Edit Main articles Maru Gurjara architecture Architecture of Gujarat and Architecture of Rajasthan Hawa Mahal Jaipur Rajasthan 1799 Navlakha Temple Ghumli Gujarat 12th century Interior of the Jain Vimal Vasahi Temple Mount Abu 1031 57 This style of North Indian architecture has been observed in Hindu as well as Jain places of worship and congregation It emerged in the 11th to 13th centuries under the Chaulukya Solanki period 58 It eventually became more popular among the Jain communities who spread it in the greater region and across the world 59 These structures have the unique features like a large number of projections on external walls with sharply carved statues and several urushringa spirelets on the main shikhara Himalayan Edit Main articles Architecture of Nepal and Architecture of Tibet Nyatapola Temple Bhaktapur Nepal 1702 Paro Taktsang Paro Bhutan 1692 Potala Palace Lhasa Tibet 1649 Jamia Masjid Srinagar Kashmir 1394The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including the Paharis Sino Tibetans Kashmiris and many more groups Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds the architecture has also had multiple influences Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings These styles exist in different forms from Tibet and Kashmir to Assam and Nagaland 60 A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples mosques and civic buildings 61 Dravidian Edit Main article Dravidian architecture Stone vel on a brick platform at the entrance to the Murugan Temple Saluvankuppam 300 BC 62 63 Padmanabhaswamy Temple Thiruvananthapuram Kerala local Dravidian worship site possibly as early as the 4th century AD Vaishnavite worship site by the 8th century AD with its gopuram built by the 16th century AD Meenakshi Temple Madurai Tamil Nadu circa 12th century Vitthala Temple Hampi Karnataka circa 16th centurySee also Architecture of Tamil Nadu Architecture of Kerala Architecture of Karnataka Pallava art and architecture Pandyan art and architecture Chola art and architecture Kadamba architecture Badami Chalukya architecture Hoysala architecture Vijayanagara architecture and Western Chalukya architecture This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka These include Hindu temples with a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana where the north has taller towers usually bending inwards as they rise called shikharas These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region In the Tamil country this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs 64 Further north the Karnata Dravida style varies based on the diversity of influences often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties 65 Kalinga Edit Main article Kalinga architecture The Jagannath Temple Puri Odisha India one of the four holiest places Dhamas of Hinduism 66 12th century The Konark Sun Temple Puri circa 1250 Simplified schema of a Kalinga templeThe ancient Kalinga region corresponds to the present day eastern Indian areas of Odisha West Bengal and northern Andhra Pradesh Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of the Somavamsi dynasty of Odisha Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers called deul or deula and prayer halls called jagmohan 67 East and Southeast Asia EditSinosphere Edit Main article Chinese architecture The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in southern Xi an Shaanxi province China 652 during the Tang dynasty The main hall of the Nanchan Monastery Wutai Xinzhou Shanxi China renovated in 782 The Guanyian Pavilion of the Dule Monastery Jixian China 984 Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests the main building of the Temple of Heaven Beijing 1703 1790 Temple of Literature Hanoi Vietnam 1070 Gyeongbokgung Palace Seoul South Korea 1395 The Mausoleum of Emperor Nintoku Sakai Osaka Prefecture Japan 4th century Pagoda at Hōryu ji a Buddhist temple in Ikaruga Nara Prefecture 607 The garden of the Ninna ji temple in Kyoto Kyoto Prefecture an example of a Japanese garden 888 Kinkaku ji Kitayama Kyoto a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto 1398See also Chinese garden Korean architecture and Japanese architecture What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in the Neolithic period 10 000 2000 BC covering the cultural sites of Yangshao Longshan and Liangzhu in central China Sections of present day north east China also contain sites of the Neolithic Hongshan culture that manifested aspects of proto Chinese culture Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic animistic and hero worship In general open air platforms tan or altar were used for worshipping naturalistic deities such as the gods of wind and earth whereas formal buildings miao or temple were for heroes and deceased ancestors Most early buildings in China were timber structures Columns with sets of brackets on the face of the buildings mostly in even numbers made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth The transmission of Buddhism into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices and so to new building types Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China based on Indian rock cut ones Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form of stupa ta or pagoda In India stupas were erected to commemorate well known people or teachers consequently the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher the Buddha In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China More than 4 600 official and 40 000 unofficial monasteries were built They varies in size by the number of cloisters they conatined ranging from 6 to 120 Each cloister consisted of a main stand alone building a hall pagoda of pavilion and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building 68 Chinese and Confucian culture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in the Sinosphere mainly Vietnam Korea Japan 69 Korean architecture especially post Choson period showcases Ming Qing influences 70 Traditionally Japanese architecture was made of wood and fusuma sliding doors in place of walls allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes The introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century via the neighbouring Korean kingdom of Paekche initiated large scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures By the end of this century Japan was constructing Continental style monasteries notably the temple known as Horyu ji in Ikaruga 71 In contrast with Western architecture Japanese structures rarely use stone except for specific elements such as foundations Walls are light thin never load bearing and often movable 40 Khmer Edit Main article Khmer architecture Bakong Hariharalaya Roluos Cambodia 9th century AD Prasat Prang Ku Sisaket Thailand 12th century AD 72 Angkor Wat Angkor Cambodia early 12th century AD Champa Temples Mỹ Sơn Vietnam circa 4th century ADFrom the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia Angkor in present day Cambodia was its capital city and most of its surviving buildings are east facing stone temples many of them constructed in pyramidal tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers or prasats that represent the sacred five peaked Mount Meru of Hindu Jain and Buddhist doctrine As the residences of gods temples were made of durable materials such as sandstone brick or laterite a clay like substance that dries hard 73 Cham architecture in Vietnam also follows a similar style 72 Sub Saharan Africa EditMain article Architecture of Africa Traditional Sub Saharan African architecture is diverse varying significantly across regions Included among traditional house types are huts sometimes consisting of one or two rooms as well as various larger and more complex structures West African and Bantu styles Edit King s palace in Nyanza Rwanda unknown date Illustration from 1854 of Lunda street and houses Yoruba architecture depicted in a book by Anna Hinderer in the mid 1800s 74 Traditional Bamileke architecture main hall of the Bandjoun palace in Cameroon with decoratively carved wooden columns and doorway unknown dateIn much of West Africa rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards are also traditionally found sometimes decorated with adobe reliefs as among the Ashanti of Ghana 75 76 or carved pillars as among the Yoruba people of Nigeria especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy 77 Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof widespread in West Africa and Madagascar there also other types of houses beehive houses made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof and the round one with a cone shaped roof The first type which also existed in America is characteristic especially for Southern Africa These were used by Bantu speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa which was made with mud poles thatch and cow dung rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa The round hut with a cone shaped roof is widespread especially in Sudan and Eastern Africa but is also present in Colombia and New Caledonia as well as in the Western Sudan and Sahel regions of west Africa where they are sometimes arranged into compounds 78 A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon such as the Bamileke In several West African societies including the kingdom of Benin and of other Edo peoples and the kingdoms of the Yoruba Hausa at sites like Jenne Jeno a pre Islamic city in Mali 79 80 and elsewhere towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe 81 and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks such as Sungbo s Eredo in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu and the Walls of Benin of the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin 82 83 In medieval southern Africa a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such as Great Zimbabwe and Khami The famed Benin City of southwest Nigeria capital of the Kingdom of Benin destroyed by the Punitive Expedition was a large complex of homes in coursed clay with hipped roofs of shingles or palm leaves The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms and was decorated with brass plaques It was surrounded by a monumental complex of earthworks and walls whose construction is thought to have begun by the early Middle Ages 82 83 84 85 Beehive shaped houses of the Musgum ethnic group in Pouss Cameroon unknown date A traditional house of the Tammari people in the Atakora Department of the northern Republic of Benin not to be confused with the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin unknown date Palace of Ashanti Kwaku Dua of Kumasi Ghana 1896 A Dogon village in Mali with walls made in the wattle and daub method unknown date The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in Great Zimbabwe a medieval city built by a prosperous culture ca 11th 14th centurySahelian Edit Main article Sudano Sahelian architecture The Great Mosque of Djenne Djenne Mali an icon for the Sudano Sahelian architecture originally built in the 13th 14th centuries rebuilt in 1907 adobe The Larabanga Mosque Larabanga northern Ghana possibly built in the 15th century Hausa gate the Gidan Rumfa in Kano northern Nigeria 15th centuryIn the Western Sahel region Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of the Kingdom of Ghana At Kumbi Saleh locals lived in domed shaped dwellings in the king s section of the city surrounded by a great enclosure Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques as described by al bakri with one centered on Friday prayer 86 The king is said to have owned several mansions one of which was sixty six feet long forty two feet wide contained seven rooms was two stories high and had a staircase with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting 87 Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenne and Timbuktu The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu constructed from mud on timber was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenne The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions utilizing wood mud brick and adobe Though later acquiring Islamic influences the style also had roots in local pre Islamic building styles such as those found in ancient settlements like Jenne Jeno Dia Mali and Dhar Tichitt 88 some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick 79 Ethiopian Edit Large monolithic churches such as the Church of Saint George Lalibela were hewn out of the ground in Ethiopia late 12th or early 13th centuryEthiopian architecture including modern day Eritrea expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries Throughout the medieval period Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted with its influence strongest in the early medieval Late Aksumite and Zagwe periods when the rock cut monolithic churches of Lalibela were carved Throughout the medieval period and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia especially during the northernmost region of Tigray which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire The most famous example of Ethiopian rock hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town 89 During the early modern period in Ethiopia the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque Arab Turkish and Gujarati style began with the arrival of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries Oceania EditMain article Oceanic art and architecture Ruins of Nan Madol Pohnpei island Federated States of Micronesia circa 8th 13th centuries Men s club house 1907 from Palau now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin Detail of a ceremonial supply house from Papua New Guinea now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin Traditional house in Micronesia unknown dateMost Oceanic buildings consist of huts made of wood and other vegetal materials Art and architecture have often been closely connected for example storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings and so they are presented together in this discussion The architecture of the Pacific Islands was varied and sometimes large in scale Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them with considerable symbolic detail Technically most buildings in Oceania were no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known Fakhua shen Taboa shen and Kuhua shen the shen triplets designed the first oceanian architecture An important Oceanic archaeological site is Nan Madol from the Federated States of Micronesia Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty which united Pohnpei s estimated 25 000 people until about 1628 90 Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD By the 8th or 9th century islet construction had started with construction of the distinctive megalithic architecture beginning 1180 1200 AD 91 Islamic EditMain article Islamic architecture Dome of the Rock Jerusalem 691 92 Great Mosque of Samarra Samarra Iraq c 851 92 Tomb of Shah Rukn e Alam Multan Pakistan 1320 1324 93 Court of the Lions Alhambra Granada Spain 1362 1391 94 Taj Mahal Agra India c 1649 by Ustad Ahmad Lahori 95 Due to the extent of the Islamic conquests Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of architectural styles from the foundation of Islam 7th century to the present day Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman Byzantine Persian Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries 96 97 Further east it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles including but not limited to Umayyad Abbasid Persian Moorish Fatimid Mamluk Ottoman Indo Islamic particularly Mughal Medieval Bengali Sino Islamic and Sahelian architecture Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture are mosques madrasas tombs palaces baths and forts Notable types of Islamic religious architecture include hypostyle mosques domed mosques and mausoleums structures with vaulted iwans and madrasas built around central courtyards In secular architecture major examples of preserved historic palaces include the Alhambra and the Topkapi Palace Islam does not encourage the worship of idols therefore the architecture tends to be decorated with Arabic calligraphy including Qur anic verses or other poetry and with more abstract motifs such as geometric patterns muqarnas and arabesques as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories 98 99 100 101 European EditMedieval Edit Main article Medieval architecture See also Norse architecture and Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non religious examples of medieval architecture New types of civic military as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period Byzantine Edit Main article Byzantine architecture Basilica of Saint Sabina Aventine Hill Rome 422 432 102 Hagia Irene Istanbul Turkey 6th century 102 Basilica of San Vitale Ravenna Italy 527 548 103 Basilica of Sant Apollinare in Classe Ravenna 549 104 Kapnikarea Athens 1050 105 Byzantine architects built city walls palaces hippodromes bridges aqueducts and churches They built many types of churches including the basilica the most widespread type and the one that reached the greatest development After the early period the most common layout was the cross in square with five domes also found in Moscow Novgorod or Kiev as well as in Romania Bulgaria Serbia North Macedonia and Albania Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in all Eastern Orthodox countries 106 For example in Romania the Brancovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture but also has individual Romanian characteristics The Hagia Sophia Istanbul Turkey 537 by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus 107 Just as the Parthenon is the most famous building of Ancient Greek architecture Hagia Sophia remains the iconic church of Orthodox Christianity In Greek and Roman temples the exterior was the most important part of the temple where sacrifices were made the interior where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept often had limited access by the general public But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches Byzantine exteriors usually having little if any ornamentation 108 Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration including the extensive use of mosaics with golden backgrounds 109 The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks They used mostly stone and brick and also thin alabaster sheets for windows 110 Mosaics were used to cover brick walls and any other surface where fresco wouldn t resist Good examples of mosaics from the proto Byzantine era are in Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki Greece the Basilica of Sant Apollinare Nuovo and the Basilica of San Vitale both in Ravenna Italy and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul Romanesque Edit Main article Romanesque architecture St Michael s Church Hildesheim Germany 1010 1031 111 Portico of the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos Santo Domingo de Silos Spain begun in 1085 112 Abbey Church of Sainte Foy Conques France 1087 1107 113 Interior of the Durham Cathedral Durham UK 1093 1133 114 Maria Laach Abbey Germany 1093 1230 115 Munsterkerk Roermond The Netherlands 1220The term Romanesque is rooted in the 19th century when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century before the rise of steeply pointed arches flying buttresses and other Gothic elements For 19th century critics the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carved capitals of the ancient Romans but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate lacking the sophistication of their classical models Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a failure to reproduce the achievements of the past and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms as a series of creative new inventions At the time however research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term On the surface it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of rounded arches and thick stone masonry and appear in between the Carolingian revival of classical antiquity in the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century One problem however is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations some with closer links to Rome than others It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories Nevertheless Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner 6 Romanesque cathedrals can be differentiated pretty easy from Gothic and Byzantine ones since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns round arches and severity Here the possibilities of the round arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns In comparison to Byzantine churches Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior An example of this is the Perigueux Cathedral Perigueux France built in the early 12th century and designed on the model of St Mark s Basilica in Venice but lacking mosaics leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic 116 Gothic Edit Main article Gothic architecture Notre Dame Cathedral Paris begun in 1163 by various architects 117 Canterbury Cathedral Canterbury Kent the UK c 1174 1184 by William of Sens 117 Chartres Cathedral Chartres France 1194 1250 118 Sainte Chapelle Paris 1243 1248 by Pierre de Montreuil 119 Town Hall Bruges Belgium 1376 1420 120 Hotel de Sens Paris 1475 1519 121 Town Hall 1459 Gouda The Netherlands Konigsberg Cathedral Kaliningrad Russia c 1330 1380 Ridderzaal 1288 The Hague The Netherlands Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever growing number of pilgrims visiting sites that housed precious relics Pilgrims in the high Middle Ages circa 1000 to 1250 AD increasingly travelled to well known pilgrimage sites but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles The churches and monasteries housing important relics therefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them These shrines were not merely gem encrusted reliquaries but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas of stained glass The use of stained glass however is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are the pointed arch the ribbed vault the rose window or the flying buttress as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture Consequently it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged however it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with the Basilica of St Denis circa 1135 1344 and its patrons Abbot Suger who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church As he wrote in his De Administratione the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis and the solution for this twofold a west facade with three large portals and the innovative new choir which combined an ambulatory with radiating chapels that were unique as they were not separated by walls Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space while also experiencing the large stained glass windows within the chapels As confirmed by Suger the desire for more stained glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light rather like mosaics or precious stones which would make the wall vanish The demand for ever more stained glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture as is evident in the writings of Suger who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting 6 Renaissance Edit Main article Renaissance architecture See also Henry II style and Henry IV style Early Renaissance Florence Cathedral Florence Italy 1294 1436 by Arnolfo di Cambio Filippo Brunelleschi and Emilio De Fabris 122 Early Renaissance Basilica of Sant Andrea Mantua Italy begun 1470 by Leon Battista Alberti 123 High Renaissance The Tempietto San Pietro in Montorio Rome 1502 by Donato Bramante 124 High Renaissance Villa Madama outside Rome 1518 1525 begun by Raphael 125 Northern Renaissance Chateau d Azay le Rideau Loire France 1518 1527 126 Northern Renaissance Chateau de Chambord Loire France 1519 1547 by Domenico da Cortona 127 High Renaissance Palazzo Farnese Rome 1534 1546 by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger 128 Mannerism Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Rome begun 1535 by Baldassare Peruzzi 129 Northern Renaissance East facade of the Cour Carree Louvre Paris 1549 1555 by Pierre Lescot 130 Mannerism El Escorial outside Madrid Spain 1559 1584 by Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera 131 Northern Renaissance City Hall Delft Delft The Netherlands 1618 1620 by Hendrick de KeyserDuring the Renaissance Italy consisted of many states and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments The Medici Family an Italian banking family and political dynasty is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture The period began in around 1452 when the architect and humanist Leon Battista Alberti 1404 1472 completed his treatise De Re Aedificatoria On the Art of Building after studying the ancient ruins of Rome and Vitruvius s De Architectura His writings covered numerous subjects including history town planning engineering sacred geometry humanism and philosophies of beauty and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions In the last decades of the 15th century artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins especially the Colosseum and the Pantheon They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century dating back at least to Petrarch in the 14th century antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains Although some artists and architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi 1377 1446 Donatello circa 1386 1466 and Leon Battista Alberti are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins almost no direct evidence of this work survives By the 1480s prominent architects such as Francesco di Giorgio 1439 1502 and Giuliano da Sabgallo circa 1445 1516 were making numerous studies of ancient monuments undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun In many cases drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of the Campidoglio noting largely imagined by me since very little can be understood from the ruins 132 Soon grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style like the Pazzi Chapel 1441 1478 or the Palazzo Pitti 1458 1464 The Renaissance begun in Italy but slowly spread to other parts of Europe with varying interpretations 124 Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome s culture it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman However because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had were Roman Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome The most iconic one is the margent a vertical arrangement of flowers leaves or hanging vines used at pilasters Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the round medallion containing a profile of a person similar with Ancient cameos Renaissance Baroque Rococo and other post medieval styles use putti chubby baby angels much more often compared to Greco Roman art and architecture An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance that was of Ancient Roman descent that will also be used in later styles is the cartouche an oval or oblong design with a slightly convex surface typically edged with ornamental scrollwork Worldwide EditBaroque Edit Main article Baroque architecture See also Louis XIV style and Baroque garden Temple du Marais Paris c 1632 by Francois Mansart 133 San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane Rome 1638 1677 by Francesco Borromini 134 Royal Palace of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands 1648 1665 by Jacob van Campen St Peter s Square Rome 1656 1667 by Gian Lorenzo Bernini 135 Gardens at Vaux le Vicomte France 1657 1661 by Andre Le Notre 136 Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles Versailles France one of the most iconic Baroque buildings c 1660 1715 by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin Mansart 137 Dome des Invalides Paris 1677 1706 by Jules Hardouin Mansart 138 Garden facade of the Palace of Versailles 1678 1688 by Jules Hardouin Mansart Plague Column Vienna 1682 and 1694 by Matthias Rauchmiller and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach 139 Chapel of the Palace of Versailles Versailles 1696 1710 140 Karlskirche Vienna Austria 1715 1737 by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach 141 The Baroque emerged from the Counter Reformation as an attempt by the Catholic Church in Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God The Baroque and its late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800 Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the 1580s and 1590s and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century the Baroque spread swiftly throughout Italy Spain and Portugal Flanders France the Netherlands England Scandinavia and Russia as well as to central and eastern European centres from Munich Germany to Vilnius Lithuania The Portuguese Spanish and French empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia to places such as Lima Mozambique Goa and the Philippines 142 Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location different in some aspects but similar overall For example French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison preempting Neoclassicism and the architecture of the Age of Enlightenment 133 Hybrid Native American European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America as opposed to Mexico in the late 17th century after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media a very good example of this being the Jesuir Church in Arequipa Peru 143 The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals churches and monasteries soon joined by civic buildings mansions and palaces Being characterized by dynamism for the first time walls facades and interiors curved 144 a good example being San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome Baroque architects took the basic elements of Renaissance architecture including domes and colonnades and made them higher grander more decorated and more dramatic The interior effects were often achieved with the use of quadratura or trompe l œil painting combined with sculpture the eye is drawn upward giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling Light was also used for dramatic effect it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding Solomonic columns were often used to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space In Baroque palaces grand stairways became a central element 145 Besides architecture Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too This is in contrast with how static and peaceful Renaissance art is Besides the building itself the space where it was placed had a role too Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers attention and to dominate their surroundings whether on a small scale such as the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome or on a massive one like the new facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral designed to tower over the city A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them The most notable early example was Domenico Fontana s restructuring of Rome s street plan of Pope Sixtus V Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance examples being Leon Battista Alberti 1404 1472 planning a centralized model city with streets leading to a central piazza or Filarete Antonio di Pietro Aver u lino c 1400 c 1469 designing a round city named Sforzinda 1451 1456 that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants However none of these idealistic cities has ever been built In fact few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas with existing churches and palaces could not be demolished Only in the Americas where architects often had a clean space to work with were such cities possible as in Lima Peru or Buenos Aires Argentina The earliest Baroque ideal city is Zamosc built north east of Krakow Poland by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando c 1540 1600 being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets Where entire cities could not be rebuilt patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain statue or obelisk A good example of this is the Place des Vosges formerly Place Royale commissioned by Henry IV probably after plans by Baptiste du Cerceau 1545 1590 The most famous Baroque space in the world is Gianlorenzo Bernini s St Peter s Square in Rome 146 Similar with ideal urban planning Baroque gardens are characterized by straight and readapting avenues with geometric spaces Rococo Edit Main articles Rococo and Rocaille See also Style Louis XV Zwinger Dresden Germany 1719 by Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann 147 Chateau St Gerlach Valkenburg aan de Geul The Netherlands 1735 by Laurenz Mefferdatis Door of the Hotel de Chenizot Paris 1719 by Pierre Vigne de Vigny The ceiling of the oval Salon of the Princesse in Hotel de Soubise Paris 1740 by Germain Boffrand 148 Palace of Queluz Lisbon Portugal 1752 by Mateus Vicente de Oliveira 149 Pilgrimage Church of Wies Steingaden Germany 1754 by Dominikus and Johann Baptist Zimmermann 149 The name Rococo derives from the French word rocaille which describes shell covered rock work and coquille meaning seashell Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid accentuating asymmetry with an abundant use of curves scrolls gilding and ornaments The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration and spread across Europe 150 Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque s high moral tone its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy in fact its abstract forms and carefree pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale as social events involved smaller numbers of guests Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells icicles and rock work or grotto decoration Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames A favourite motif was the scallop shell whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of the arabesques and whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration While few Rococo exteriors were built in France a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany 151 Other widely user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include acanthus and other leaves birds bouquets of flowers fruits elements associated with love putti quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts trophies of arms putti medallions with faces many many flowers and Far Eastern elements pagodes dragons monkeys bizarre flowers bamboo and Chinese people 152 Pastel colours were widely used like light blue mint green or pink Rococo designers also loved mirrors the more the better an example being the Hall of Mirrors of the Amalienburg Munich Germany by Johann Baptist Zimmermann Generally mirrors are also featured above fireplaces Exoticism Edit Main article Exoticism Chinese inspiration Chinoiserie Chinese House Sanssouci Park Potsdam Germany 1755 1764 by Johann Gottfried Buring 153 Chinese inspiration Chinoiserie Chinese Pavilion Ekero Municipality Sweden 1763 1769 by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz 154 Islamic inspiration Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace Germany 1779 1795 by Nicolas de Pigage 155 Islamic inspiration Turkish Tent Hagaparken Stockholm Sweden 1787 by Louis Jean Desprez 156 Islamic inspiration Royal Pavilion Brighton the UK 1787 1823 by John Nash 157 Egyptian inspiration Egyptian Revival portico of the Hotel Beauharnais Paris c 1804 L E N Bataille 158 Egyptian inspiration Egyptian Revival Egyptian Building part of the Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond Virginia USA 1845 by Thomas Stewart 159 Pre Columbian inspiration Mayan Revival facade detail of the Mayan Theater Los Angeles USA 1927 by Stiles O Clements Egyptian inspiration mix of Egyptian Revival and Art Deco Le Louxor Cinema Paris 1919 1921 by Henri Zipcy 160 Pre Columbian inspiration mix of Mayan Revival and Art Deco interior detail of 450 Sutter Street San Francisco California 1929 by Timothy L PfluegerThe interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics Because of being something rare and new to Westerners some non European styles were really appreciated during the 17th 18th and 19th centuries Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time A good example of this is chinoiserie a Western decorative style popular during the 18th century that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts but also by Rococo at the same time Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles Where Asian objects were hard to obtain European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures motifs and techniques Chinese art wasn t the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented Another was the Islamic one Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace in Germany the only surviving example of an 18th century European garden mosque the Royal Pavilion in Brighton or the Moorish Revival buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries with horseshoe arches and brick patterns When it come to the Orient Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt Compared to other cases of exoticism the one with the land of pharaohs is the oldest one since Ancient Greeks and Romans had this interest during Antiquity The main periods when Egyptian Revival monuments were erected were the early 19th century with Napoleon s military campaigns in Egypt and the 1920s when the Tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in 1922 which caused an Egyptomania that lead to Art Deco sometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt During the late 18th and early 19th century Neoclassicism sometimes mixed Greco Roman elements with Egyptian ones Because of its association with pharaohs death and eternity multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style Besides mortuary structures other buildings in this style include certain synagogues like the Karlsruhe Synagogue or some Empire monuments built during the reign of Nepoleon such as the Egyptian portico of the Hotel Beauharnais or the Fontaine du Fellah During the 1920s and 1930s Pre Columbian Mesoamerican architecture was of great interest for some American architects particularly what the Mayans built Several of Frank Lloyd Wright s California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones 161 Neoclassicism Edit Main article Neoclassical architecture See also Palladian architecture Louis XVI style Adam style and Empire style English landscape garden at Stourhead the UK the 1740s by Henry Hoare 162 Pantheon Paris 1758 1790 by Jacques Germain Soufflot 1713 1780 and Jean Baptiste Rondelet 1743 1829 163 Hotel de la Marine Paris 1761 1770 by Ange Jacques Gabriel 164 The Hall Osterley Park London 1767 by Robert Adam 165 Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux Bordeaux France 1777 1780 by Victor Louis 166 The Cabinet Dore of Marie Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles Versailles France 1783 by the Rousseau brothers 167 Villa Welgelegen 1789 Haarlem The Netherlands Empress Josephine s Bedroom in Chateau de Malmaison Rueil Malmaison France 1800 1802 by Charles Percier and Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine 168 Napoleon s bath of the Chateau de Rambouillet Rambouillet France 1806 painted by Godard and Jean Vasserot Neue Wache Berlin 1816 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Salomo Sachs 169 Burns Monument Edinburgh the UK 1820 1831 by Thomas Hamilton 170 Neoclassical architecture focused on Ancient Greek and Roman details plain white walls and grandeur of scale Compared to the previous styles Baroque and Rococo Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist featuring straight and angular lines but being still ornamented The style s clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings such as the Pantheon in Paris and for smaller structures alike such as the Petit Trianon Excavations during the 18th century at Pompeii and Herculaneum which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius inspired a return to order amd rationality 171 In the mid 18th century antiquity was upheld as a standard for architecture as never before Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning In the 1750s an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started which will continue in the 19th century Marc Antoine Laugier wrote in 1753 that Architecture owes all that is perfect to the Greeks 172 The Petit Trianon Versailles France 1764 by Ange Jacques Gabriel 173 The Cenotaph of Newton c 1784 never built by Etienne Louis Boullee 168 The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia Federal style architecture is the name for the classicizing architecture built in North America between c 1780 and 1830 and particularly from 1785 to 1815 This style shares its name with its era the Federal Period The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period The style broadly corresponds to the middle class classicism of Biedermeier style in the German speaking lands Regency style in Britain and to the French Empire style In Central and Eastern Europe the style is usually referred to as Classicism German Klassizismus Russian Klassicizm while the newer Revival styles of the 19th century until today are called neoclassical Etienne Louis Boullee 1728 1799 was a visionary architect of the period His utopian projects never built included a monument to Isaac Newton 1784 in the form of an immense dome with an oculus allowing the light to enter giving the impression of a sky full of stars His project for an enlargement of the Royal Library 1785 was even more dramatic with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books While none of his projects were ever built the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms 174 Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too Enlightenment writers of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses Voltaire openly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works improve the quality of life in towns and stimulate the economy It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities There must be public markets fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements The narrow and infected streets must be widened monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on The Embellishments of Paris in 1749 In the same year La Font de Saint Yenne criticized how Louis XIV s great east facade of the Louvre was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome it was necessary to demolish more than it was to built Our towns are still what they were a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system planning or design Marc Antoine Laugier complained in 1753 Writing a decade later Pierre Patte promoted an urban reform in quest of health social order and security launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological Patte asserted calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air and for the same reason houses on the city s bridges should be demolished He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards 175 Besides cities new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England making place for the English landscape garden aka jardin a l anglaise characterized by an idealized view of nature and the use of Greco Roman or Gothic ruins bridges and other picturesque architecture designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically planned Baroque garden aka jardin a la francaise Revivalism and Eclecticism Edit Main article Revivalism architecture See also Eclecticism in architecture Victorian architecture and Napoleon III style Architecture Gothic Revival Interior of the All Saints London 1850 1859 by William Butterfield Eclectic The Eglise Saint Augustin de Paris 1860 1868 by Victor Baltard Indo Saracenic The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus previously Victoria Terminus Mumbai India 1878 88 a mixture of Romanesque Gothic and Indian elements Byzantine Revival Alexander Nevsky Cathedral Sofia Bulgaria 1882 1912 by Alexander Pomerantsev Renaissance Revival Peace Palace The Hague The Netherlands 1907 by Louis Marie Cordonnier Russian Revival Cathedral of Christ the Saviour Moscow Russia Neo Baroque Belfast City Hall Belfast UK 1898 1906 by Brumwell Thomas Tudor Revival architecture The Beaney House of Art and Knowledge Canterbury England 1899 by A H Campbell Rococo Revival Apartment building no 8 on Rue de Miromesnil Paris 1900 by P Lobrot Louis XVI Revival Apartment building no 2 on Rue de Miromesnil Paris c 1900 unknown architect Romanian Revival The C N Campeanu House on Bulevardul Dacia Bucharest Romania c 1923 by Constantin Nănescu 176 First national movement Ziraat Bank Museum Ankara Turkey 1929 by Giulio MongeriThe 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals variations and interpretations Revivalism in architecture is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous architectural era Modern day Revival styles can be summarized within New Classical architecture and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the French Revolution As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations In addition to the credo of universal Classicism two new and often contradictory attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture Associations between styles and building types appeared for example Egyptian for prisons Gothic for churches or Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges These choices were the result of other associations the pharaohs with death and eternity the Middle Ages with Christianity or the Medici family with the rise of banking and modern commerce View of Devonpart near Plymouth the UK by John Foulston 1820s including an Egyptian library a Hindoo nonconformist chapel a primitive Doric town hall and a street of houses with a Roman Corinthian order Whether their choice was Classical medieval or Renaissance all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions institutions or values Issues of style became matters of state 177 The most well known Revivalist style is the Gothic Revival one that appeared in the mid 18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England a notable example being the Strawberry Hill House German Romantic writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided Johann Gottfried Herder posed the question Why should we always imitate foreigners as if we were Greeks or Romans 178 In art and architecture history the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects produced from their travels in Western Asia during the 19th century In that time artists and scholars were described as Orientalists especially in France In India during the British Raj a new style Indo Saracenic also known as Indo Gothic Mughal Gothic Neo Mughal or Hindoo style was getting developed which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style The Churches and convents of Goa are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles Most Indo Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947 with the peaking at 1880 179 The style has been described as part of a 19th century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals 180 They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations government offices and law courts It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like Mumbai Chennai and Kolkata 181 Beaux Arts Edit Main article Beaux Arts architecture Exterior of the Palais Garnier Paris by Charles Garnier 1860 1875 182 Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier by Charles Garnier 1860 1875 182 The CEC Palace on Victory Avenue Bucharest Romania by Paul Gottereau 1897 1900 183 Cantacuzino Palace Bucharest by Ion D Berindey 1898 1906 184 Petit Palais Paris by Charles Giraud 1900 185 Anker Building Bucharest by Leonida Negrescu c 1900 186 Grand Central Terminal New York City by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore 1903 187 Hotel Roxoroid de Belfort Paris 1911 by Andre Arfvidson Villa Antwerp Belgium by Michel de Braey 1913 188 The Beaux Arts style takes its name from the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied Due to the fact that international students studied here there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world designed by architects like Charles Girault Thomas Hastings Ion D Berindey or Petre Antonescu Today from Bucharest to Buenos Aires and from San Francisco to Brussels the Beaux Arts style survives in opera houses civic structures university campuses commemorative monuments luxury hotels and townhouses The style was heavily influenced by the Paris Opera House 1860 1875 designed by Charles Garnier the masterpiece of the 19th century renovation of Paris dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls The Opera was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture Here Garnier showed what he called a style actuel which was influenced by the spirit of the time aka Zeitgeist and reflected the designer s personal taste Beaux Arts facades were usually imbricated or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture Often facades consisted of a high rusticated basement level after it a few floors high level usually decorated with pilasters or columns and at the top an attic level and or the roof Beaux Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self confidence of the town or city The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV s Versailles However it wasn t just a revival of the Baroque being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles like Renaissance Baroque Rococo Neoclassicism etc 189 190 191 Industry and new technologies Edit Palm house London 1848 by Richard Turner and Decimus Burton 192 Les Halles Paris 1852 1855 by Victor Baltard 193 Plan and elevation for the Crystal Palace London 1854 by Joseph Paxton 192 Le Bon Marche Paris 1872 by Louis Charles Boileau in collaboration with the engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel 194 Antwerpen Centraal railway station 1895 1905 by Louis Delacenserie 195 Paleis voor Volksvlijt 1859 1964 by Cornelis OutshoornBecause of the Industrial Revolution and the new technologies it brought new types of buildings have appeared By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale from mass produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds A well known 19th century glass and iron building is the Crystal Palace from Hyde Park London built in 1851 to house the Great Exhibition having an appearance similar with a greenhouse Its scale was daunting The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled Aristide Boucicaut opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first department store Le Bon Marche in Paris As the store expanded its exterior took on the form of a public monument being highly decorated with French Renaissance Revival motifs The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers Between 1872 and 1874 the interior was remodelled by Louis Charles Boileau in collaboration with the young engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior the new building focused around three skylight atria 196 Art Nouveau Edit Main article Art Nouveau Architecture and ornamentation See also Art Nouveau religious buildings Hotel Tassel Brussels Belgium 1894 by Victor Horta 197 Entrance of the Castel Beranger Paris 1895 1898 by Hector Guimard 198 Secession Building Vienna Austria 1897 by Joseph Maria Olbrich 199 La Fermette Marbeuf Paris 1898 by Emile Hurtre 200 Leonardo da Vinci Highschool Paris 1899 by Jules Lavirotte 201 Bijouterie Fouquet Musee Carnavalet Paris c 1900 by Alphonse Mucha 202 The Porte Dauphine Metro Station Paris by Hector Guimard 1900 203 Maison Huot Nancy France 1903 by Emile Andre 204 Casa Batllo Barcelona Spain 1904 1906 by Antoni Gaudi 205 Mița the Cyclist House Bucharest Romania 1910 by Nicolae C Mihăescu 206 Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914 Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy Despite being a short lived fashion it paved the way for the modern architecture of the 20th century Between c 1870 and 1900 a crisis of historicism occurred during which the historicist culture was critiqued one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874 who diagnosed a malignant historical fervour as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression Les Chardons Building Paris 1903 by Charles Klein 207 Focusing on natural forms asymmetry sinuous lines and whiplash curves architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications popular during the 19th century However the style wasn t completely new since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences particularly Beaux Arts architecture the Arts and Crafts movement aestheticism and Japanese art Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity such as cast iron and glass A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at Porte Dauphine by Hector Guimard 1900 Its cast iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture In Paris Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Metro by some The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century when it was promoted in The Grammar of Ornament 1854 a pattern book by British architect Owen Jones architect 1809 1874 Whiplash curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks however the style can not be summarized only to them since its forms are much more varied and complex The movement displayed many national interpretations Depending on where it manifested it was inspired by Celtic art Gothic Revival Rococo Revival and Baroque Revival In Hungary Romania and Poland for example Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements This is true especially in Romania because it facilitated the appearance of the Romanian Revival style which draws inspiration from Brancovenesc architecture and traditional peasant houses and objects The style also had different names depending on countries In Britain it was known as Modern Style in the Netherlands as Nieuwe Kunst in Germany and Austria as Jugendstil in Italy as Liberty style in Romania as Arta 1900 and in Japan as Shiro Uma It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations 208 209 210 211 Modern Edit Main article Modern architecture Steiner House Vienna Austria 1910 by Adolf Loos 212 Fagus Factory Alfeld Germany 1911 by Walter Gropius 213 Villa Tugendhat Brno the Czech Republic 1930 by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich 214 Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century Art Nouveau paved the way for it promoting the idea of non historicist styles It developed initially in Europe focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the Bauhaus and the International Style both characterised by asymmetry flat roofs large ribbon windows metal glass white rendering and open plan interiors 215 Art Deco Edit Main articles Art Deco and Streamline Moderne The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin now in the Museum of Decorative Arts Paris before 1925 by Armand Albert Rateau Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts Paris 1925 by Jean Hiriart Georges Tribout and Georges Beau 216 La Samaritaine Paris 1926 1928 by Henri Sauvage 217 Chrysler Building New York City 1930 by William Van Allen 218 Musee de la Mer Biarritz France 1933 by Joseph Hiriart 219 Radio Kootwijk in Kootwijk The Netherlands 1927 by Julius LuthmannArt Deco named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925 originated in France as a luxurious highly decorated style It then spread quickly throughout the world most dramatically in the United States becoming more streamlined and modernistic through the 1930s The style was pervasive and popular finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas luxury streamliners and hotels Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the roaring 20s and provided an escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s 220 Although it ended with the start of World War II its appeal has endured Despite that it is an example of modern architecture elements of the style drew on ancient Egyptian Greek Roman African Aztec and Japanese influences but also on Futurism Cubism and the Bauhaus Bold colours were often applied on low reliefs Predominant materials include chrome plating brass polished steel and aluminium inlaid wood stone and stained glass International Style Edit Main article International Style architecture Barcelona Pavilion Barcelona Spain by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1929 221 Villa Savoye Poissy France by Le Corbusier 1929 1930 222 Lever House New York City by Skidmore Owings amp Merrill 1952 223 Seagram Building New York City by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1958 224 The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I influenced by recent movements including De Stijl and Streamline Moderne and had a close relationship to the Bauhaus The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel glass reinforced concrete and chrome plating Rectilinear flat roofed asymmetrical and white it became a symbol of modernity across the world It seemed to offer a crisp clean rational future after the horrors of war Named by the architect Philip Johnson and historian Henry Russell Hitchcock 1903 1987 in 1932 the movement was epitomized by Charles Edouard Jeanneret or Le Corbusier and was clearly expressed in his statement that a house is a machine for living in 225 Brutalist Edit Main article Brutalist architecture Rudolph Hall New Haven Connecticut USA 1963 by Paul Rudolph 226 Habitat 67 Montreal Canada 1966 1967 by Moshe Safdie 227 Geisel Library San Diego California USA 1970 by William Pereira 228 Robarts Library Toronto Canada 1973 by Mathers amp Halden Architects 229 Freeway Park Fountain Seattle Washington USA 1976 by Lawrence Halprin 230 Based on social equality Brutalism was inspired by Le Corbusier s 1947 1952 Unite d habitation in Marseilles It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect Hans Asplund 1921 1994 but Le Corbusier s use of the description beton brut meaning raw concrete for his choice of material for the Unite d habitation was particularly influential The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid 1970s mainly using concrete which although new in itself was unconventional when exposed on facades Before Brutalism concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials 231 Postmodern Edit Main article Postmodern architecture Piazza d Italia New Orleans USA 1978 by Charles Moore 232 Neue Staatsgalerie Stuttgart Germany 1984 by James Stirling 233 AT amp T Headquarters New York City 1984 by Philip Johnson and John Burgee 234 Team Disney Building Los Angeles USA 1990 by Michael Graves 235 Multicolour interior of the Cambridge Judge Business School Cambridge the UK 1995 by John Outram Bundeskanzleramt Berlin Germany 1997 2001 by Axel Schultes and Charlotte FrankNo one definable style Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative As with many movements a complete antithesis to Modernism developed In 1966 the architect Robert Venturi 1925 2018 had published his book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture which praised the originality and creativity of Mannerist and Baroque architecture of Rome and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist Less is more Venturi stated Less is a bore His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism 232 Deconstructivist Edit Main article Deconstructivism Wexner Center for the Arts Ohio State University Columbus Ohio US 1989 by Peter Eisenman 236 Vitra Fire Station Weil am Rhein Germany 1989 1993 by Zaha Hadid 237 Jewish Museum Berlin Germany 1992 1999 by Daniel Libeskind 238 Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Spain opened in 1997 by Frank Gehry 239 Phaeno Science Center Wolfsburg Germany 2005 by Zaha Hadid 240 Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation non linear processes of design an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure s surface or skin and apparent non Euclidean geometry 241 i e non rectilinear shapes which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture such as structure and envelope The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist styles is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 Parc de la Villette architectural design competition especially the entry from the French philosopher Jacques Derrida and the American architect Peter Eisenman 242 and Bernard Tschumi s winning entry the Museum of Modern Art s 1988 Deconstructivist Architecture exhibition in New York organized by Philip Johnson and Mark Wigley and the 1989 opening of the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus designed by Peter Eisenman The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry Daniel Libeskind Rem Koolhaas Peter Eisenman Zaha Hadid Coop Himmelblau and Bernard Tschumi Since the exhibition many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term Nonetheless the term has stuck and has now in fact come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture See also Edit Architecture portalHistory of art Outline of architecture Timeline of architecture Timeline of architectural styles History of architectural engineeringNotes Edit Ching Francis D K and Eckler James F Introduction to Architecture 2013 John Wiley amp Sons p13 Architecture Def 1 Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD ROM v 4 0 Oxford University Press 2009 Virginia McLeod Belle Place Sarah Kramer Milena Harrison Gray and Cristopher Lacy 2019 HOUSES Extraordinary Living Phaidon p 9 ISBN 978 0 7148 7809 6 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Jones 2014 p 18 Jones 2014 p 22 a b c Jones 2014 pp 148 149 The Old Copper Complex North America s First Miners amp Metal Artisans Retrieved 10 August 2015 Song Jeeun The History of Metallurgy and Mining in the Andean Region World History at Korean Minjok Leadership Academy Korean Minjok Leadership Academy Retrieved 10 August 2015 Choi Charles Q 18 April 2007 Pre Incan Metallurgy Discovered Live Science Live Science Retrieved 10 August 2015 Maldonado Blanco D 2003 Tarascan Copper Metallurgy at the Site of Itziparatzico Michoacan Mexico PDF Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies Retrieved 22 January 2016 van Lemmen Hans 2013 5000 Years of Tiles The British Museum Press p 16 ISBN 978 0 7141 5099 4 Weston Richard 2011 100 Ideas That Changed Architecture Laurence King p 21 ISBN 978 1 78627 567 7 Fortenberry 2017 p 6 Risebero Bill 2018 The Story of Western Architecture Bloomsbury p 13 ISBN 978 1 3500 9212 9 Gods and Goddesses Mesopotamia co uk Retrieved 9 November 2015 Jones 2014 p 28 Jones 2014 p 25 Jones 2014 p 27 a b Hodge 2019 p 12 Jones 2014 p 30 1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale in Romanian Editura Aquila 2009 p 247 ISBN 978 973 714 450 8 Jones 2014 p 24 25 26 Wright 2009 pp 115 125 Dyson 2018 p 29 McIntosh 2008 p 187 a b Hodge 2019 p 14 Rogers Gumuchdjian amp Jones 2014 p 32 Hodge 2019 p 57 Rogers Gumuchdjian amp Jones 2014 p 35 Rogers Gumuchdjian amp Jones 2014 p 40 1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale in Romanian Editura Aquila 2009 p 226 ISBN 978 973 714 450 8 Hopkins 2014 p 6 Zukowsky John 2019 A Chronology of Architecture Thames amp Hudson p 23 ISBN 978 0 500 34356 2 Vinzenz Brinkmann Renee Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch Brinkmanny 2017 Gods in Color polychromy in the ancient world p 13 ISBN 978 3 7913 5707 2 a b Jones 2014 p 48 a b Hodge 2019 p 16 Hodge 2019 p 60 Jones 2014 p 52 Irving 2019 p 36 a b Kruft Hanno Walter A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present New York Princeton Architectural Press 1994 Jones 2014 p 46 73 76 77 Jones 2014 p 67 a b Hodge 2019 p 13 a b Jones 2014 p 69 Jones 2014 p 112 Jonathan Glancey 2006 Architecture A Visual History DK Penguin Random House p 35 ISBN 978 0 2412 8843 6 Hodge 2019 p 15 Home and family in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka Lankalibrary com 2008 12 21 Archived from the original on 2012 02 21 Retrieved 2010 09 20 Pieris K 2006 Architecture and landscape in ancient and medieval Lanka Reza Mohammad Habib 2012 Early Buddhist Architecture of Bengal Morphological study on the viharas of c 3rd to 8th centuries PhD Nottingham Trent University Reza Mohammad Habib 2020 Cultural continuity in the Sultanate Bengal Adjacent ponds of the mosque as a traditional phenomenon Esempi di Architettura 8 10 225 235 doi 10 4399 978882553987510 inactive 31 December 2022 Retrieved September 19 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link Hodge 2019 p 19 Acharya 1927 p xviii xx Sinha 1998 pp 27 41 Acharya 1927 p xviii xx Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts Shukla 1993 Hall William 2019 Stone Phaidon p 46 ISBN 978 0 7148 7925 3 Mitchell 1977 123 Hegewald Harle 239 240 Hegewald Bernier Ronald M 1997 Himalayan Architecture Fairleigh Dickinson University Press p 8 ISBN 978 1 61147 121 2 Bernier Ronald M 1997 Himalayan Architecture Fairleigh Dickinson University Press pp 161 162 amp 163 ISBN 978 1 61147 121 2 N Subramanian 21 September 2005 Remains of ancient temple found The Hindu Archived from the original on 10 November 2012 N Ramya 1 August 2010 New finds of old temples enthuse archaeologists The Times of India Archived from the original on 15 September 2012 Philip Boney Traditional Kerala Architecture Architectural Wonders of Karnataka Retrieved 2009 09 26 permanent dead link Welcome to Odissi com Orissa Sri Jagannath Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Hodge 2019 p 21 Jones 2014 pp 54 55 56 amp 57 Hung Dinh M 1966 VIETNAM AND SOUTHEAST ASIA An address delivered at the Rotary Club of Bristol Rhode Island on 6 April 1966 PDF Naval War College Review 18 9 28 33 JSTOR 44635438 Retrieved 3 September 2021 Guo Qinghua 2005 TIMBER BUILDING STRUCTURES IN CHOSEN KOREA A CASE STUDY ON GEUNJEONGJEON AND INJEONGJEON PDF Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 22 1 51 68 JSTOR a cla, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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