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Kashmir

Coordinates: 34°30′N 76°30′E / 34.5°N 76.5°E / 34.5; 76.5

Kashmir (IPA: [kaʃmiːr]) is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompasses a larger area that includes the Indian-administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.[1][2][3]

Political map of the Kashmir region, showing the Pir Panjal range and the Kashmir Valley or Vale of Kashmir
Nanga Parbat in Kashmir, the ninth-highest mountain on Earth, is the western anchor of the Himalayas

In 1820 the Sikh Empire, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[4] In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage[5][6]) of the British Crown, lasted until the Partition of India in 1947, when the former princely state of the British Indian Empire became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and China.[1][7][8][2]

Etymology

The word Kashmir is thought to have been derived from Sanskrit and was referred to as káśmīra.[9] A popular local etymology of Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water.[10]

An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the Vedic sage Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, Kashmir would be derived from either kashyapa-mir (Kashyapa's Lake) or kashyapa-meru (Kashyapa's Mountain).[10]

The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the Hindu goddess Sharada and is mentioned to have resided in the land of kashmira, or which might have been a reference to the Sharada Peeth.

The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus of Miletus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[11] The earliest text which directly mentions the name Kashmir is in Ashtadhyayi written by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas.[12][13][14] Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in Mahabharata in Sabha Parva and in puranas like Matsya Purana, Vayu Purana, Padma Purana and Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana.[15]

Huientsang, the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir kia-shi-milo, while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ki-pin (or Chipin or Jipin) and ache-pin.[13]

Cashmeer is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries[which?] it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called Cachemire in French, Cachemira in Spanish, Caxemira in Portuguese, Caixmir in Catalan, Casmiria in Latin, Cașmir in Romanian, and Cashmir in Occitan.

In the Kashmiri language, Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer.[16]

Terminology

The Government of India and Indian sources, refer to the territory under Pakistan control "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK").[17][18] The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK);[19][20] The terms "Indian-administered Kashmir" and "Pakistani-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.[21]

History

In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism. During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties,[22] and Kashmir Shaivism arose.[23] In 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Shah Mir dynasty.[4] The region was part of the Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751,[24] and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan Durrani Empire.[4]

Sikh rule

 
Map of India in 1823, showing the territories of the Sikh empire (northernmost, in green) including the region of Kashmir

In 1819, the Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of the Punjab.[25] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[26] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive.[27] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.[26][28] High taxes forced many Kashmiri peasants to migrate to the plains of the Punjab.[29] Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.[30] During this time Kashmir shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.[30]

The state of Jammu, which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu.[31] Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, he conquered and subdued Rajouri (1821), Kishtwar (1821), Suru valley and Kargil (1835), Ladakh (1834–1840), and Baltistan (1840), thereby surrounding the Kashmir Valley. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.[32]

Princely state

 
1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.

In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India:

Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.[25]

Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:[33] to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Muslim—mostly Sunni, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the brahmin Kashmiri Pandits. To the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised Shia Islam. To the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency was an area of diverse, mostly Shia groups, and, to the west, Punch was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley.[33] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.

In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.[34] That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses."[35] Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages.[36] Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India.[37] For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.[34][38] Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,[34] the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.[38]

1947 and 1948

 
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire

Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein's History of India,

Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten[39] for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.[40]

In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[40] and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999.

Current status and political divisions

India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh are administered by India as union territories. They formed a single State until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its limited autonomy was revoked.[41]

According to Encyclopædia Britannica:

Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked.[42][1]

The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the communist revolution of 1949 that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.[42]

By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian War of October 1962.[42]

 
A white border painted on a suspended bridge delineates Azad Kashmir from Jammu and Kashmir

The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km2 (39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846 km2 (33,145 sq mi), and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).

Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilometres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 lakhs).

Ladakh is between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south.[43] Capital towns of the region are Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[43] Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.

Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.

Geography

 
Topographic map of Kashmir
 

The Kashmir region lies between latitudes 32° and 36° N, and longitudes 74° and 80° E. It has an area of 68,000 sq mi (180,000 km2).[44] It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by India (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).[45] The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the Western Himalayas. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at Nanga Parbat. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely Indus, Jehlum and Chenab. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of Baltistan and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The Chenab valley forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the Jammu region. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include Wular Lake, Dal Lake and Hokersar near Srinagar.[46]

 
Simplified UN map of Kashmir and its surrounding area and rivers

To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the Karakoram mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram.[47] The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km (39 mi) rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four eight-thousander mountain peaks with K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8,611 m (28,251 ft).[48][49]

 
The Indus River system

The Indus River system forms the drainage basin of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the Tibetan Plateau, and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system.[50] After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan.

The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty Great Himalayan ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the Chenab and Jehlum from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and Baltistan.[44][clarification needed]

Climate

Srinagar
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
48
 
 
7
−2
 
 
68
 
 
8
−1
 
 
121
 
 
14
3
 
 
85
 
 
21
8
 
 
68
 
 
25
11
 
 
39
 
 
30
15
 
 
62
 
 
30
18
 
 
76
 
 
30
18
 
 
28
 
 
27
12
 
 
33
 
 
22
6
 
 
28
 
 
15
1
 
 
54
 
 
8
−2
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: HKO [51]
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
1.9
 
 
45
28
 
 
2.7
 
 
47
31
 
 
4.8
 
 
57
38
 
 
3.3
 
 
69
46
 
 
2.7
 
 
76
51
 
 
1.5
 
 
85
59
 
 
2.4
 
 
86
65
 
 
3
 
 
85
64
 
 
1.1
 
 
81
54
 
 
1.3
 
 
72
42
 
 
1.1
 
 
59
34
 
 
2.1
 
 
47
29
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches

Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The Astore Valley and some parts of Gilgit-Baltistan features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate.[44][52]

The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book Rajatarangini. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet.[53] The 2014 Kashmir floods inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.[54]

Flora and fauna

 
Alpine flowers at Gangabal Lake below Mount Harmukh in the northwestern Himalayan range
 
The Zaniskari is a breed of horse in Ladakh, well adapted to the hypoxic Kashmiri environment
 
Shepherding in the Deosai Plains
 
A female snow leopard which was rescued in 2012 from a partly frozen river stream in the Wadkhun area of Sust in the Karakoram mountain range, now in the Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary

Kashmir has a recorded forest area of 20,230 square kilometres (7,810 sq mi) along with some national parks and reserves. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Jammu and Muzafarabad, to the temperate forests throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh.[55][56] The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as the Phulai (Acacia modesta) and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Garuga pinnata, Terminalia bellirica and T. tomentosa and Pinus roxburghii are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of Anemone, Geranium, Iris, Lloydia, Potentilla and Primula interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of Berberis, Cotoneaster, Juniperus and Rhododendron are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.[57][58]

Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas.[59] There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region.[57] The botanical garden and the tulip gardens of Srinagar built in the Zabarwans grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia.[60][61]

Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The Dachigam National Park in the Valley holds the last viable population of Kashmir stag (Hangul) and the largest population of black bear in Asia.[62] In Gilgit-Baltistan the Deosai National Park is designated to protect the largest population of Himalayan brown bears in the western Himalayas.[63] Snow leopards are found in high density In the Hemis National Park in Ladakh.[64] The region is home to musk deer, markhor, leopard cat, jungle cat, red fox, jackal, Himalayan wolf, serow, Himalayan yellow-throated marten, long-tailed marmot, Indian porcupine, Himalayan mouse-hare, langur and Himalayan weasel. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.[65][66]

Demographics

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).

The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population.[67] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[67] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.[67] Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[67]

In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).[68]

The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s,[69] underwent a complete exodus in the 1990s due to the Kashmir insurgency. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.[70][71][72] Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150,[73] to 190 thousand (1.5 to 190,000) of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000),[74] to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).[75]

People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley speaks Kashmiri and the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speaks Tibetan and Balti.[1]

The population of Indian-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302[76] and Pakistani-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366, and Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.[77][78]

Administered by Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % other
  India Kashmir Valley ~4 million (4 million) 95% 4%
Jammu ~3 million (3 million) 30% 66% 4%
Ladakh ~0.25 million (250,000) 46% 12% 40% 2%
  Pakistan Azad Kashmir ~4 million (4 million) 100%
Gilgit-Baltistan ~2 million (2 million) 99%
  China Aksai Chin
Trans-Karakoram
  • Statistics from the BBC In Depth report.

Economy

Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.

Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier-mâché, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistani-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the Indian-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir.

 
Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir

Transport

Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.[79] Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modern railway line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and Banihal. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed.[80]

In culture

 
Large Kashmir Durbar Carpet (detail), 2021 photo. "Durbar", in this context, means Royal or Chiefly.

Irish poet Thomas Moore's 1817 romantic poem Lalla Rookh is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt Cashmere in the poem) "a household term in Anglophone societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of paradise (an old idea going back to Hindu and Buddhist texts in Sanskrit).[81]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2016. Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."
  2. ^ a b "Kashmir territories profile". BBC. from the original on 16 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2016. Quote: "The Himalayan region of Kashmir has been a flashpoint between India and Pakistan for over six decades. Since India's partition and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the nuclear-armed neighbours have fought three wars over the Muslim-majority territory, which both claim in full but control in part. Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world. China administers parts of the territory."
  3. ^ "Kashmir profile—timeline". BBC News. from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
    1950s—China gradually occupies eastern Kashmir (Aksai Chin).
    1962—China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin.
    1963—Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract of Kashmir to China.
  4. ^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.
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External links

    kashmir, other, uses, disambiguation, kasmir, disambiguation, confused, with, kashmar, coordinates, kaʃmiːr, northernmost, geographical, region, indian, subcontinent, until, 19th, century, term, denoted, only, valley, between, great, himalayas, panjal, range, . For other uses see Kashmir disambiguation and Kasmir disambiguation Not to be confused with Kashmar Coordinates 34 30 N 76 30 E 34 5 N 76 5 E 34 5 76 5 Kashmir IPA kaʃmiːr is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent Until the mid 19th century the term Kashmir denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range Today the term encompasses a larger area that includes the Indian administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh the Pakistani administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan and the Chinese administered territories of Aksai Chin and the Trans Karakoram Tract 1 2 3 Political map of the Kashmir region showing the Pir Panjal range and the Kashmir Valley or Vale of Kashmir Pahalgam Valley Kashmir Nanga Parbat in Kashmir the ninth highest mountain on Earth is the western anchor of the Himalayas In 1820 the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh annexed Kashmir 4 In 1846 after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo Sikh War and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar the Raja of Jammu Gulab Singh became the new ruler of Kashmir The rule of his descendants under the paramountcy or tutelage 5 6 of the British Crown lasted until the Partition of India in 1947 when the former princely state of the British Indian Empire became a disputed territory now administered by three countries India Pakistan and China 1 7 8 2 Contents 1 Etymology 1 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 Sikh rule 2 2 Princely state 2 3 1947 and 1948 2 4 Current status and political divisions 3 Geography 3 1 Climate 4 Flora and fauna 5 Demographics 6 Economy 6 1 Transport 7 In culture 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 11 1 General history 11 2 Kashmir history 11 3 Historical sources 12 External linksEtymologyThe word Kashmir is thought to have been derived from Sanskrit and was referred to as kasmira 9 A popular local etymology of Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water 10 An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the Vedic sage Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people in this land Accordingly Kashmir would be derived from either kashyapa mir Kashyapa s Lake or kashyapa meru Kashyapa s Mountain 10 The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the Hindu goddess Sharada and is mentioned to have resided in the land of kashmira or which might have been a reference to the Sharada Peeth The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus of Miletus apud Stephanus of Byzantium and Kaspatyros of Herodotus 3 102 4 44 Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy s Kaspeiria 11 The earliest text which directly mentions the name Kashmir is in Ashtadhyayi written by the Sanskrit grammarian Paṇini during the 5th century BC Paṇini called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas 12 13 14 Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in Mahabharata in Sabha Parva and in puranas like Matsya Purana Vayu Purana Padma Purana and Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana 15 Huientsang the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller called Kashmir kia shi milo while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ki pin or Chipin or Jipin and ache pin 13 Cashmeer is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir and in some countries which it is still spelled this way Kashmir is called Cachemire in French Cachemira in Spanish Caxemira in Portuguese Caixmir in Catalan Casmiria in Latin Cașmir in Romanian and Cashmir in Occitan In the Kashmiri language Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer 16 Terminology The Government of India and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control Pakistan occupied Kashmir POK 17 18 The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as Indian occupied Kashmir IOK or Indian held Kashmir IHK 19 20 The terms Indian administered Kashmir and Pakistani administered Kashmir are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country 21 HistoryFor a history of the region including the pre 19th century period see History of Kashmir History of Gilgit Baltistan and History of Ladakh In the first half of the first millennium the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism During the 7th 14th centuries the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties 22 and Kashmir Shaivism arose 23 In 1339 Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir inaugurating the Salatin i Kashmir or Shah Mir dynasty 4 The region was part of the Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751 24 and thereafter until 1820 of the Afghan Durrani Empire 4 Sikh rule Map of India in 1823 showing the territories of the Sikh empire northernmost in green including the region of Kashmir In 1819 the Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of the Punjab 25 As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers 26 However the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive 27 Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs 26 28 High taxes forced many Kashmiri peasants to migrate to the plains of the Punjab 29 Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire 30 During this time Kashmir shawls became known worldwide attracting many buyers especially in the West 30 The state of Jammu which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770 Further in 1808 it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh Gulab Singh then a youngster in the House of Jammu enrolled in the Sikh troops and by distinguishing himself in campaigns gradually rose in power and influence In 1822 he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu 31 Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria he conquered and subdued Rajouri 1821 Kishtwar 1821 Suru valley and Kargil 1835 Ladakh 1834 1840 and Baltistan 1840 thereby surrounding the Kashmir Valley He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court 32 Princely state Main article Jammu and Kashmir princely state 1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu The names of regions important cities rivers and mountains are underlined in red In 1845 the First Anglo Sikh War broke out According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon 1846 when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence Two treaties were concluded By the first the State of Lahore i e West Punjab handed over to the British as equivalent for one crore indemnity the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i e the Vale of Kashmir 25 Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale and constituted between 1820 and 1858 the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu as it was first called combined disparate regions religions and ethnicities 33 to the east Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism to the south Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus Muslims and Sikhs In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley the population was overwhelmingly Muslim mostly Sunni however there was also a small but influential Hindu minority the brahmin Kashmiri Pandits To the northeast sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh but which practised Shia Islam To the north also sparsely populated Gilgit Agency was an area of diverse mostly Shia groups and to the west Punch was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley 33 After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 in which Kashmir sided with the British and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown In the British census of India of 1941 Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77 a Hindu population of 20 and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3 34 That same year Prem Nath Bazaz a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling Most are landless laborers working as serfs for absentee Hindu landlords Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses 35 Under Hindu rule Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system and were forced into labor without any wages 36 Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India 37 For almost a century until the census a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry 34 38 Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders having no education besides nor awareness of rights 34 the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s 38 1947 and 1948 Further information Kashmir conflict Timeline of the Kashmir conflict 1947 Poonch Rebellion Indo Pakistani War of 1947 1947 Jammu massacres and 1947 Mirpur massacre The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian EmpireRanbir Singh s grandson Hari Singh who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925 was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan According to Burton Stein s History of India Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad it had been created rather off handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan Hence it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14 15 August When he hesitated to do this Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten 39 for assistance and the governor general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars 40 In the last days of 1948 a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices However since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted relations between India and Pakistan soured 40 and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999 Current status and political divisions India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir which comprises Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh while Pakistan controls a third of the region divided into two provinces Azad Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh are administered by India as union territories They formed a single State until 5 August 2019 when the state was bifurcated and its limited autonomy was revoked 41 According to Encyclopaedia Britannica Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic cultural and geographic contiguity with the Muslim majority area of the Punjab in Pakistan could be convincingly demonstrated the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region Pakistan was left with territory that although basically Muslim in character was sparsely populated relatively inaccessible and economically underdeveloped The largest Muslim group situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region lay in Indian administered territory with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked 42 1 The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir China never accepted these agreements and China s official position has not changed following the communist revolution of 1949 that established the People s Republic of China By the mid 1950s the Chinese army had entered the north east portion of Ladakh 42 By 1956 57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet India s belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino Indian War of October 1962 42 A white border painted on a suspended bridge delineates Azad Kashmir from Jammu and Kashmir The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial dispute Pakistan controls the northwest portion Northern Areas and Kashmir India controls the central and southern portion Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh and the People s Republic of China controls the northeastern portion Aksai Chin and the Trans Karakoram Tract India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area including the Saltoro Ridge passes whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge India controls 101 338 km2 39 127 sq mi of the disputed territory Pakistan controls 85 846 km2 33 145 sq mi and the People s Republic of China controls the remaining 37 555 km2 14 500 sq mi Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the Pir Panjal range and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively These are populous regions Gilgit Baltistan formerly known as the Northern Areas is a group of territories in the extreme north bordered by the Karakoram the western Himalayas the Pamir and the Hindu Kush ranges With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit the Northern Areas cover an area of 72 971 square kilometres 28 174 sq mi and have an estimated population approaching 1 million 10 lakhs Ladakh is between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south 43 Capital towns of the region are Leh and Kargil It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019 It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo Aryan and Tibetan descent 43 Aksai Chin is a vast high altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5 000 metres 16 000 ft Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain The region is almost uninhabited and has no permanent settlements Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other India claims those areas including the area ceded to China by Pakistan in the Trans Karakoram Tract in 1963 are a part of its territory while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans Karakoram Tract The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory The Indo Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today with Pakistan holding roughly one third of Kashmir and India one half with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations The Indo Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN negotiated ceasefire Geography Topographic map of Kashmir K2 a peak in the Karakoram range is the second highest mountain in the world The Kashmir region lies between latitudes 32 and 36 N and longitudes 74 and 80 E It has an area of 68 000 sq mi 180 000 km2 44 It is bordered to the north and east by China Xinjiang and Tibet to the northwest by Afghanistan Wakhan Corridor to the west by Pakistan Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab and to the south by India Himachal Pradesh and Punjab 45 The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous It is traversed mainly by the Western Himalayas The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at Nanga Parbat Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely Indus Jehlum and Chenab These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges The Indus valley forms the north and north eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of Baltistan and Ladakh The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges The Chenab valley forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south It includes almost all of the Jammu region High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include Wular Lake Dal Lake and Hokersar near Srinagar 46 Simplified UN map of Kashmir and its surrounding area and rivers To the north and northeast beyond the Great Himalayas the region is traversed by the Karakoram mountains To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram 47 The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions The Siachen Glacier at 76 km 47 mi and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km 39 mi rank as the world s second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions Karakoram has four eight thousander mountain peaks with K2 the second highest peak in the world at 8 611 m 28 251 ft 48 49 The Indus River system The Indus River system forms the drainage basin of the Kashmir region The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the Tibetan Plateau and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit Baltistan Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system 50 After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet Mountains begin at 2000 feet then raising to 3000 4000 feet in the Outer Hills a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000 10 000 feet in height with ramifying valleys Adjacent to these hills are the lofty Great Himalayan ranges 14000 15000 feet which divide the drainage of the Chenab and Jehlum from that of the Indus Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000 22000 feet in Ladakh and Baltistan 44 clarification needed Climate SrinagarClimate chart explanation J F M A M J J A S O N D 48 7 2 68 8 1 121 14 3 85 21 8 68 25 11 39 30 15 62 30 18 76 30 18 28 27 12 33 22 6 28 15 1 54 8 2Average max and min temperatures in CPrecipitation totals in mmSource HKO 51 Imperial conversionJFMAMJJASOND 1 9 45 28 2 7 47 31 4 8 57 38 3 3 69 46 2 7 76 51 1 5 85 59 2 4 86 65 3 85 64 1 1 81 54 1 3 72 42 1 1 59 34 2 1 47 29Average max and min temperatures in FPrecipitation totals in inchesKashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains Jammu Division excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley features a humid subtropical climate The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate The Astore Valley and some parts of Gilgit Baltistan features a semi Tibetan climate While as the other parts of Gilgit Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate 44 52 The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th century book Rajatarangini A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet 53 The 2014 Kashmir floods inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages 54 Flora and fauna Alpine flowers at Gangabal Lake below Mount Harmukh in the northwestern Himalayan range The Zaniskari is a breed of horse in Ladakh well adapted to the hypoxic Kashmiri environment Shepherding in the Deosai Plains A female snow leopard which was rescued in 2012 from a partly frozen river stream in the Wadkhun area of Sust in the Karakoram mountain range now in the Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary Kashmir has a recorded forest area of 20 230 square kilometres 7 810 sq mi along with some national parks and reserves The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude Kashmir forests range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Jammu and Muzafarabad to the temperate forests throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows in Gilgit Baltistan and Ladakh 55 56 The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth due to the difference in elevation The tropical forests up to 1500 m are known as the Phulai Acacia modesta and Olive Olea cuspid ata Zone There occur semi deciduous species of Shorea robusta Acacia catechu Dalbergia sissoo Albizia lebbeck Garuga pinnata Terminalia bellirica and T tomentosa and Pinus roxburghii are found at higher elevations The temperate zone between 1 500 3 500 m is referred as the Chir Pine Finns longifolia This zone is dominated by oaks Quercus spp and Rhododendron spp The Blue Pine Finns excelsa Zone with Cedrus deodara Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana occur at elevations between 2 800 and 3 500 m The Birch Betula utilis Zone has Herbaceous genera of Anemone Geranium Iris Lloydia Potentilla and Primula interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of Berberis Cotoneaster Juniperus and Rhododendron are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3 500 m and above 57 58 Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas 59 There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region 57 The botanical garden and the tulip gardens of Srinagar built in the Zabarwans grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia 60 61 Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves The Dachigam National Park in the Valley holds the last viable population of Kashmir stag Hangul and the largest population of black bear in Asia 62 In Gilgit Baltistan the Deosai National Park is designated to protect the largest population of Himalayan brown bears in the western Himalayas 63 Snow leopards are found in high density In the Hemis National Park in Ladakh 64 The region is home to musk deer markhor leopard cat jungle cat red fox jackal Himalayan wolf serow Himalayan yellow throated marten long tailed marmot Indian porcupine Himalayan mouse hare langur and Himalayan weasel At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species 65 66 DemographicsIn the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2 905 578 Of these 2 154 695 74 16 were Muslims 689 073 23 72 Hindus 25 828 0 89 Sikhs and 35 047 1 21 Buddhists implying 935 0 032 others The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu where they constituted a little less than 60 of the population 67 In the Kashmir Valley the Hindus represented 524 in every 10 000 of the population i e 5 24 and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10 000 persons 0 94 67 In the same Census of 1901 in the Kashmir Valley the total population was recorded to be 1 157 394 of which the Muslim population was 1 083 766 or 93 6 and the Hindu population 60 641 67 Among the Hindus of Jammu province who numbered 626 177 or 90 87 of the Hindu population of the princely state the most important castes recorded in the census were Brahmans 186 000 the Rajputs 167 000 the Khattris 48 000 and the Thakkars 93 000 67 In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3 158 126 Of these 2 398 320 75 94 were Muslims 696 830 22 06 Hindus 31 658 1 Sikhs and 36 512 1 16 Buddhists In the last census of British India in 1941 the total population of Kashmir and Jammu which as a result of the Second World War was estimated from the 1931 census was 3 945 000 Of these the total Muslim population was 2 997 000 75 97 the Hindu population was 808 000 20 48 and the Sikh 55 000 1 39 68 The Kashmiri Pandits the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5 of the population of the valley during Dogra rule 1846 1947 and 20 of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s 69 underwent a complete exodus in the 1990s due to the Kashmir insurgency According to a number of authors approximately 100 000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140 000 left the valley during that decade 70 71 72 Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus ranging from the entire population of over 150 73 to 190 thousand 1 5 to 190 000 of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand 200 000 74 to a number as high as 300 thousand 300 000 75 People in Jammu speak Hindi Punjabi and Dogri the Kashmir Valley speaks Kashmiri and the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speaks Tibetan and Balti 1 The population of Indian administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12 541 302 76 and Pakistani administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4 045 366 and Gilgit Baltistan is 1 492 924 77 78 Administered by Area Population Muslim Hindu Buddhist other India Kashmir Valley 4 million 4 million 95 4 Jammu 3 million 3 million 30 66 4 Ladakh 0 25 million 250 000 46 12 40 2 Pakistan Azad Kashmir 4 million 4 million 100 Gilgit Baltistan 2 million 2 million 99 China Aksai Chin Trans Karakoram Statistics from the BBC In Depth report A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory 1867 chromolithograph William Simpson A group of Pandits or Brahmin priests in Kashmir photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s Brokpa women from Kargil northern Ladakh in local costumesEconomyFurther information Azad Kashmir Economy and Jammu and Kashmir state Economy Kashmir s economy is centred around agriculture Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice which formed the chief food of the people In addition Indian corn wheat barley and oats were also grown Given its temperate climate it is suited for crops like asparagus artichoke seakale broad beans scarletrunners beetroot cauliflower and cabbage Fruit trees are common in the valley and the cultivated orchards yield pears apples peaches and cherries The chief trees are deodar firs and pines chenar or plane maple birch and walnut apple cherry Historically Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls silk carpets rugs kurtas and pottery Saffron too is grown in Kashmir Srinagar is known for its silver work papier mache wood carving and the weaving of silk The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which as of 8 October 2005 resulted in over 70 000 deaths in the Pakistani administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1 500 deaths in the Indian administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar the largest city of Kashmir Transport Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region 79 Kashmir has a 135 km 84 mi long modern railway line that started in October 2009 and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla in the western part of Kashmir to Srinagar and Banihal It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed 80 In cultureSee also Kashmiri handicrafts Large Kashmir Durbar Carpet detail 2021 photo Durbar in this context means Royal or Chiefly Irish poet Thomas Moore s 1817 romantic poem Lalla Rookh is credited with having made Kashmir spelt Cashmere in the poem a household term in Anglophone societies conveying the idea that it was a kind of paradise an old idea going back to Hindu and Buddhist texts in Sanskrit 81 See also1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir Human rights abuses in Kashmir KashmirisNotesReferences a b c d Kashmir region Indian subcontinent Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 13 August 2019 Retrieved 16 July 2016 Quote Kashmir region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east both parts of China by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south by Pakistan to the west and by Afghanistan to the northwest The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas Azad Kashmir Gilgit and Baltistan The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir The Indian and Pakistani administered portions are divided by a line of control agreed to in 1972 although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary In addition China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh the easternmost portion of the region a b Kashmir territories profile BBC Archived from the original on 16 July 2015 Retrieved 16 July 2016 Quote The Himalayan region of Kashmir has been a flashpoint between India and Pakistan for over six decades Since India s partition and the creation of Pakistan in 1947 the nuclear armed neighbours have fought three wars over the Muslim majority territory which both claim in full but control in part Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world China administers parts of the territory Kashmir profile timeline BBC News Archived from the original on 22 July 2016 Retrieved 16 July 2016 1950s China gradually occupies eastern Kashmir Aksai Chin 1962 China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin 1963 Pakistan cedes the Trans Karakoram Tract of Kashmir to China a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India volume 15 1908 Oxford University Press Oxford and London pp 93 95 Sneddon Christopher 2021 Independent Kashmir An incomplete aspiration Manchester University Press pp 12 13 Paramountcy was the vague and undefined feudatory system whereby the British as the suzerain power dominated and controlled India s princely rulers These loyal collaborators of the Raj were afforded British protection in exchange for helpful behavior in a relationship of tutelage called paramountcy Ganguly Sumit Hagerty Devin T 2005 Fearful Symmetry India Pakistan Crises in the Shadow of Nuclear Weapons Seattle and New Delhi University of Washington Press and Oxford University Press p 22 ISBN 0 295 98525 9 the problem of the princely states These states had accepted the tutelage of the British Crown under the terms of the doctrine of paramountcy under which they acknowledged the Crown as the paramount authority in the subcontinent Kashmir Encyclopedia Americana Scholastic Library Publishing 2006 p 328 ISBN 978 0 7172 0139 6 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 18 December 2021 C E Bosworth University of Manchester Quote KASHMIR kash mer the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent administered partlv 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Checklists of the World avibase bsc eoc org Archived from the original on 22 October 2020 Retrieved 20 October 2020 Lawrence Walter R Walter Roper 1895 The valley of Kashmir University of California Libraries London H Frowde pp 106 160 a b c d Imperial Gazetteer of India volume 15 1908 Oxford University Press Oxford and London pp 99 102 Brush J E 1949 The Distribution of Religious Communities in India Annals of the Association of American Geographers 39 2 81 98 doi 10 1080 00045604909351998 Zutshi 2003 p 318Since a majority of the landlords were Hindu the land reforms of 1950 led to a mass exodus of Hindus from the state The unsettled nature of Kashmir s accession to India coupled with the threat of economic and social decline in the face of the land reforms led to increasing insecurity among the Hindus in Jammu and among Kashmiri Pandits 20 per cent of whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950 sfn error no target CITEREFZutshi2003 help Bose 1997 p 71 sfn error no target CITEREFBose1997 help Rai 2004 p 286 sfn error no target CITEREFRai2004 help Metcalf amp Metcalf 2006 p 274The Hindu Pandits a small but influential elite community who had secured a favourable position first under the maharajas and then under the successive Congress regimes and proponents of a distinctive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India felt under siege as the uprising gathered force Of a population of some 140 000 perhaps 100 000 Pandits fled the state after 1990 their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu right Malik 2005 p 318 sfn error no target CITEREFMalik2005 help Madan 2008 p 25 sfn error no target CITEREFMadan2008 help South Asia India The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 14 February 2022 Archived from the original on 18 March 2021 Retrieved 24 January 2021 India Jammu and Kashmir population statistics GeoHive Archived from the original on 19 April 2015 Retrieved 29 May 2015 Census 2017 AJK population rises to over 4m The Nation 26 August 2017 Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 26 November 2022 Gilgit Baltistan Districts amp Places Population Statistics Maps Charts Weather and Web Information www citypopulation de Archived from the original on 20 September 2022 Retrieved 26 November 2022 Local Transport in Kashmir Means of Transportation Kashmir Mode of Transportation Kashmir India Bharatonline com Archived from the original on 17 May 2020 Retrieved 3 August 2012 How to Reach Kashmir by Train Air Bus Baapar com Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 Retrieved 22 January 2016 Sharma Sunil 12 May 2017 At the threshold of paradise Kashmir in Mughal Persian poetry The Arts and South Asia Harvard South Asia Institute p 45 Archived from the original on 10 April 2022 Retrieved 30 January 2021 via Issuu BibliographyGeneral history Bose Sugata Jalal Ayesha 2003 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy London and New York Routledge 2nd edition Pp xiii 304 ISBN 978 0 415 30787 1 Brown Judith M 1994 Modern India The Origins of an Asian Democracy Oxford and New York Oxford University Press Pp xiii 474 ISBN 978 0 19 873113 9 Copland Ian 2002 The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire 1917 1947 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 89436 4 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Khan Yasmin 2007 The Great Partition The Making of India and Pakistan New Haven and London Yale University Press 250 pages ISBN 978 0 300 12078 3 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 2004 A History of India 4th edition Routledge Pp xii 448 ISBN 978 0 415 32920 0 Metcalf Barbara Metcalf Thomas R 2006 A Concise History of Modern India Cambridge Concise Histories Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press Pp xxxiii 372 ISBN 978 0 521 68225 1 Ramusack Barbara 2004 The Indian Princes and their States The New Cambridge History of India Cambridge and London Cambridge University Press Pp 324 ISBN 978 0 521 03989 5 Stein Burton 2001 A History of India New Delhi and Oxford Oxford University Press Pp xiv 432 ISBN 978 0 19 565446 2 Talbot Ian Singh Gurharpal 2009 The Partition of India Cambridge University Press Pp xviii 206 ISBN 978 0 521 76177 2 Wolpert Stanley 2006 Shameful Flight The Last Years of the British Empire in India Oxford and New York Oxford University Press Pp 272 ISBN 978 0 19 515198 5 Kashmir history Bose Sumantra 1997 The Challenge in Kashmir Democracy Self Determination and a Just Peace SAGE Publications ISBN 978 0 8039 9350 1 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Bose Sumantra 2003 Kashmir Roots of Conflict Paths to Peace Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01173 1 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Keenan Brigid 2013 Travels in Kashmir Hachette India ISBN 978 93 5009 729 8 Korbel Josef 1966 first published 1954 Danger in Kashmir second ed Princeton University Press ISBN 9781400875238 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 27 September 2016 Lamb Alastair 1991 first published 1991 by Roxford Books Kashmir A Disputed Legacy 1846 1990 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 577423 8 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Lamb Alastair 2002 first published 1997 by Roxford Books Incomplete Partition The Genesis of the Kashmir Dispute 1947 1948 Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195797671 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Malik Iffat 2005 Kashmir Ethnic Conflict International Dispute Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 579622 3 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Panikkar K M 1930 Gulab Singh London Martin Hopkinson Ltd Rai Mridu 2004 Hindu Rulers Muslim Subjects Islam Rights and the History of Kashmir C Hurst amp Co ISBN 978 1850656616 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 15 September 2020 Rao Aparna ed 2008 The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture Manohar Publishers amp Distributors ISBN 978 81 7304 751 0 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Evans Alexander 2008 Kashmiri Exceptionalism in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 713 741 Kaw Mushtaq A 2008 Land Rights in Rural Kashmir A Study in Continuity and Change from Late Sixteenth to Late Twentieth Centuries in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 207 234 Khan Mohammad Ishaq 2008 Islam State and Society in Medieval Kashmir A Revaluation of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani s Historical Role in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 97 198 Madan T N 2008 Kashmir Kashmiris Kashmiriyat An Introductory Essay in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 1 36 Reynolds Nathalene 2008 Revisiting Key Episodes in Modern Kashmir History in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 563 604 Witzel Michael 2008 The Kashmiri Pandits Their Early History in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 37 96 Zutshi Chitraleka 2008 Shrines Political Authority and Religious Identities in Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth century Kashmir in Rao Aparna ed The Valley of Kashmir The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture pp 235 258 Schaffer Howard B 2009 The Limits of Influence America s Role in Kashmir Brookings Institution Press ISBN 978 0 8157 0370 9 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 1 January 2017 Schofield Victoria 2003 First published in 2000 Kashmir in Conflict London and New York I B Taurus amp Co ISBN 978 1860648984 Singh Bawa Satinder 1971 Raja Gulab Singh s Role in the First Anglo Sikh War Modern Asian Studies 5 1 35 59 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00002845 JSTOR 311654 S2CID 145500298 Zutshi Chitralekha 2004 Languages of Belonging Islam Regional Identity and the Making of Kashmir C Hurst amp Co Publishers ISBN 978 1 85065 700 2 archived from the original on 17 January 2023 retrieved 15 September 2020 Historical sources Blank Jonah Kashmir Fundamentalism Takes Root Foreign Affairs 78 6 November December 1999 36 42 Drew Federic 1877 The Northern Barrier of India a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations 1st edition Edward Stanford London Reprint Light amp Life Publishers Jammu 1971 Evans Alexander Why Peace Won t Come to Kashmir Current History Vol 100 No 645 April 2001 p 170 175 Hussain Ijaz 1998 Kashmir Dispute An International Law Perspective National Institute of Pakistan Studies Irfani Suroosh ed Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu and Kashmir 24 25 August 1997 University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Muzaffarabad AJK 1997 Joshi Manoj Lost Rebellion Kashmir in the Nineties Penguin New Delhi 1999 Khan L Ali The Kashmir Dispute A Plan for Regional Cooperation Archived 17 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine 31 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 31 p 495 1994 Knight E F 1893 Where Three Empires Meet A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir Western Tibet Gilgit and the adjoining countries Longmans Green and Co London Reprint Ch eng Wen Publishing Company Taipei 1971 Knight William Henry 1863 Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet Richard Bentley London Reprint 1998 Asian Educational Services New Delhi Kochler Hans The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement Archived 2 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine Keynote speech delivered at the Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008 European Parliament Brussels 1 April 2008 Moorcroft William and Trebeck George 1841 Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab in Ladakh and Kashmir in Peshawar Kabul Kunduz and Bokhara from 1819 to 1825 Vol II Reprint New Delhi Sagar Publications 1971 Neve Arthur Date unknown The Tourist s Guide to Kashmir Ladakh Skardo amp c 18th Edition Civil and Military Gazette Ltd Lahore The date of this edition is unknown but the 16th edition was published in 1938 Stein M Aurel 1900 Kalhaṇa s Rajataraṅgiṇi A Chronicle of the Kings of Kasmir 2 vols London A Constable amp Co Ltd 1900 Reprint Delhi Motilal Banarsidass 1979 Younghusband Francis and Molyneux Edward 1917 Kashmir A amp C Black London Norelli Bachelet Patrizia Kashmir and the Convergence of Time Space and Destiny 2004 ISBN 0 945747 00 4 First published as a four part series March 2002 April 2003 in Prakash a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation Kashmir and the Convergence of Time Space and Destiny by Patrizia Norelli Bachelet Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Muhammad Ayub An Army Its Role amp Rule A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947 1999 Pittsburgh Rosedog Books 2005 ISBN 0 8059 9594 3 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Kashmir Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kashmir Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Kashmir United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Kashmir amp oldid 1134204056, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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