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Champa

Champa (Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; Khmer: ចាម្ប៉ា; Vietnamese: Chiêm Thành or Chăm Pa) was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century AD until 1832, when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its expansionist Nam tiến policy.[2] The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्पः), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham, and Châmpa (ចាម្ប៉ា) in the Khmer inscriptions, Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese and Zhànchéng (Mandarin: 占城) in Chinese records.[3][4]

Kingdom of Champa
Campapura, Campanagara, Nagaracampa, Nagarcam
192–1832
The main Champa kingdom before 1306 (yellow) lay along the coast of present-day southern Vietnam. To the north (blue) lay Đại Việt; to the west (red), the Khmer Empire .
Territory of Champa after 1306 (light blue), neighboring with Đại Việt (dark pink) and Khmer Empire (orange) after marriage of princess Huyền Trân and Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III.
CapitalSimhapura
(605–757)
Virapura
(757–875)
Indrapura
(875–982)

Vijaya
(982–1471)

Kauthara polity (757–1653)
Panduranga polity
(1471–1832)
Common languagesOld Cham (c. 400–1450)
Middle and Modern Cham (1450–1832)
Chamic languages
Sanskrit (c. 400–1253)
other languages of Southeast Asia
Religion
Cham Folk religion, Hinduism and Buddhism, later Islam
GovernmentMonarchy
History 
• Established
192
• Pandurangga annexed by Vietnam under Nguyễn dynasty
1832
Population
• peak
2,500,000[1]
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Today part ofVietnam
Laos
Cambodia

The Kingdoms of Champa and the Chams contribute profound and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their present day. Early Champa, evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd century AD shows testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a vast system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first and oldest native Southeast Asian language literature being written down around c. 350 AD, predating first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries.[5][6]

The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham, Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia; the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic-speaking peoples in Central Vietnam.[7][8][9]

Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi (林邑, Middle Chinese (ZS): *liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚), that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.

Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however, the Bacam (Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese of Indonesia.[2]

Etymology

The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/), which refers to Magnolia champaca, a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers.[10] Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri, an ancient sacred city in Buddhism, for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam.

Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived by Louis Finot, a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient. In his 2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation of peśvara, Campādeśa, Campānagara). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as the Rade, Jarai, Chru, Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?," Vickery doubts.[11]

Historiography

Sources

The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources:[12]

  • Physical remains, including ruins as well as stone sculptures;
  • Inscriptions in Cham and Sanskrit on steles and other stone surfaces;
  • Chinese and Vietnamese annals, diplomatic reports, and other literature such as those provided by Jia Dan;[13]
  • Historiography of modern Cham people.

The Cham have their written records in form of paper book, known as the Sakkarai dak rai patao, was a 5227-pages collection of Cham veritable records, documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th–13th century, to the deposition of Po Thak The, the last king of Panduranga in 1832, reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga from Adam, the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 AD, to Po Thak The. The annals were written in Akhar Thrah (traditional) Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers. However, it had been dismissed for a long time by scholars until Po Dharma.[14] Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3,000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries. The Southeast Asia Digital Library (SEADL) at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts, totaling more than 57,800 pages of multigenre content.

Overarching theories

 
This Cham head of Shiva was made of electrum around 800. It decorated a kosa, or metal sleeve fitted to a liṅgam. One can recognise Shiva by the tall chignon hairstyle and by the third eye in the middle of his forehead.
 
Crown of Champa in 7th and 8th century. (Museum of Vietnamese History)

Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in the historiography of Champa. Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language, culture, and heritage. It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period. For example, in the 10th century AD, the record is richest for Indrapura; in the 12th century AD, it is richest for Vijaya; following the 15th century AD, it is richest for Panduranga. Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another. According to such scholars, if the 10th-century record is richest for Indrapura, it is so because at that time Indrapura was the capital of Champa. Other scholars have disputed this contention, holding that Champa was never a united country, and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period.[15][note 1][note 2]

History

Sources of foreign cultural influence

Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia, China, Java and India amongst others.[note 3][note 4][note 5] Lâm Ấp, a predecessor state in the region, began its existence in AD 192 as a breakaway Chinese colony. An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in central Vietnam, and Lâm Ấp was founded in AD 192.[16] In the 4th century AD, wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society. Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language, and Hinduism, especially Shaivism, became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century AD, the Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade, which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China, and later in the Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe.

Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer, the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with the Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago, its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma-i. Butuan, and Sulu in the Philippines.

Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe the Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium AD. Some argue that Acehnese originated from Chamic dispersal after a Vietnamese invasion in 982 AD.[17][18] However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary.[19] Tsat, a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate.[18] Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham (in contact with Vietnamese).[20] Eastern Cham has developed a quasi-registral, incipiently tonal system.[21] After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming Haroi, which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences.[22]

Founding legend

According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar–the divide mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the moon and arrived in Central Vietnam and found the kingdom, but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century. Her portrayal image in the temple is said dating from 965 AD, is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne.[23] She is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period.[24]

Formation and growth

 
Depiction of a couple of highland man and Cham lady in the Boxer Codex from 1590

The people of Champa descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BC and 200 AD, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom.[25] The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra.[26]

The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day Central Vietnam coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and has commercial links across the South China sea to the other side in the Philippines archipelago and even with Taiwan (through Maritime Jade Road, Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and no longer hesitant in linking with the ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic-speaking peoples.[27]

While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a sinicized culture and carry the patrilineal Han Chinese O-M7 haplogroup, Cham people carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA, and this fits with the matrilocal structure of Cham families.[28] Analysis of Vietnamese Kinh people's genetics show that within the last 800 years there was mixture between a Malay-like southern Asian and a Chinese ancestral component that happens to fit the time period in which Kinh expanded south from their Red River Delta homeland in the nam tiến (lit. 'southward advance') process, which also matches the event 700 years ago when the Cham population suffered massive losses.[29] With the exception of Cham who are Austronesian speaking and Mang who are Austroasiatic speaking, the southern Han Chinese and all other ethnic groups in Vietnam share ancestry.[30]

To the Han Chinese, the country of Champa was known as 林邑 Linyi[31] in Mandarin and Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑). It was founded in 192 AD.[32][33][note 6]

 
Epigraph of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman II (r. 1220–1254), the liberator of Champa from Khmer rule.

Around the 4th century AD, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences, probably through its neighbor, Funan. Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples. The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman,[34][35][36] who reigned from 380 to 413 AD.[37] At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara,[38] whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva.[39] The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed.[40][41][42]

Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century AD, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River, Northeast India. His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles.[43][44] George Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along the early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were the key factors of the process.[45] On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peacefully acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite were likely relating to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal, coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice animism, most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To the early Southeast Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism peacefully in Champa with little sort of resistance.[46]

Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 AD. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap in 605, overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu.[47] He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma, who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma, who died in 645.[48]

Champa at its height

 
Remain of My Son E1 temples which was constructed by King Prakāśadharma (r. 653–687). The complex barely survived the Vietnam War.

Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son, Tra Kieu, Hue, Khanh Hoa dated 653–687 report a Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thoroughly knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down foundations of Champa art and architectural styles.[49] He also sent many embassies regularly to the Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by Japan."[50]

 
Southeast Asia c. 800 CE. Champa situating between major medieval trade routes in Southeast Asia through the South China Sea.

Between the 7th to 10th centuries AD, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled the trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea, between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India. They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding.[51] However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese (Javaka, probably refers to Srivijaya ruler of Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates,[52][53][54] Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787.[55][56][57] In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang.[58][59][60] The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in 799.[61]

 
Đồng Dương (Indrapura) Buddha statue, 9th century AD. Museum of Vietnamese History

In 875, a new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura, near My Son and ancient Simhapura.[62] Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion.[63] Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture).[64] Unfortunately, a Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet, and following Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983,[65] had brought mass destruction in Northern Champa.[66] Indrapura was still one amongst major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century.[67]

Relations and warfare with the Khmer and the Viet, c. 1000–1471

The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through a two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with.

Afterwards, during the 1000s, Rajah Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine kingdom of the Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting for diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the Chinese Empire, which was later denied by the Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism over the Champa civilization.[68] However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a gold tablet, some white dragon (Bailong 白龍) camphor, Moluccan cloves, and a South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice.[69]

Cham merchants then immigrated to what is the now the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug, which is also in the Philippines. The Cham migrants were called Orang Dampuan. The Champa civilization and the port-kingdom of Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries. The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan.[70] The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored.[71] The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa.[72]

 
Bas reliefs from the Bayon Temple depicting battle scene between Cham (wearing helmets) and Khmer troops

The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, with Khmer invasions were frequent. The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1148–1167).[73] Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route.[74][75] Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunified under Jaya Harivarman by 1161.[76][77] After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor, capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying the Khmer king, leading to Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years.[78][79] Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and made it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years.[80][81][82][83]

 
Zenith of Champa territorial expansion during the reign of Che Bong Nga (r. 1360–1390)

Champa was subjected for Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, Qubilai Khan ordered the establishment of a mobile secretariat (xingsheng) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia.[84] The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V (r. 1258–1287) and Prince Harijit to wage a guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with Dai Viet, eventually repelled the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king Trần Nhân Tông spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged marriage between his daughter, Princess Huyền Trân, with Prince Harijit–now reigning Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) in 1306 for exchanging of peace and territory.[85][86] From 1307 to 1401, not even a single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost of its 14th-century history have to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources.[87] Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No more granduer temple and construction project was built after 1300.[88] These marked the beginning of Champa's decline.[89]

From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, Che Bong Nga, who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa.[90] He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during the deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390), sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, having nearly undermined the Dai Viet to its inevitable collapse.[91][92] Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war.[93][94][87]

After Che Bong Nga, Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under a new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400).[86] His successor Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441) reigned in the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the Mekong Delta amidst decline of the Angkorian Empire. One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman, became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471, decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa.[95][96] For early historians like Georges Maspero, "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom."[97] Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa only become "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization.[98]

Decline

 
1801 map of Southeast Asia by John Cary showing Panduranga Champa (Tsiompa)
 
Former Cham territories after the Vietnamese annexation of Panduranga in 1832.

In the Cham–Vietnamese War (1471), Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa Tra Toan, who died along his way to the north in captivity.[99][100] Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to the Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with addition notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered.[95] The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia.[101][102]

Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by the Vietnamese in 1653.[88] From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế.

The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet's faction, and accused the Cham leaders for supporting Duyet.[103] Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and the vice-king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces.[104][105][106]

To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was put integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strict mandatory for the Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly systematic destroyed.[107] Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected for heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions.[108] Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa–a Cham Bani cleric–which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state in short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces.[109][110]

The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their fate and remnant of Champa. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese,[111][112] while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by the Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were raze the ground. Temples were set on fire.[113] Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions.[114]

After finalizing these heavily-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared the Cham of Panduranga a Tân Dân (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese.[115] Minh Mang's son and successor Thiệu Trị however reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minority. Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc, the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition.[116]

Only a small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga were remaining in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam. The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, put an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of the Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan.[117]

Government

King

 
11th-century sculpture depicting the court of Champa with king, court officials, and servants. Museum of Cham Sculpture.

The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa. Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles: raja-di-raja (राजाधिराजः "raja of rajas" or king of kings: written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script)[118] or pu po tana raya ("lord of all territories").[119] They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai (his Majesty). Officially, the king was the patron of art and construction. Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicating in honor of the king of kings, his ancestors, and their beloved gods (usually Śiva). Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation (abhiseka) which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king's authority.[120]

The regnal name of the Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition, often consisting of titles and aliases. Titles (prefix) like: Jaya (जय "victory"), Maha (महा "great"), Sri (श्री "glory"). Aliases (stem) like: Bhadravarman, Vikrantavarman, Rudravarman, Simhavarman, Indravarman, Paramesvaravarman, Harivarman... Among them, the suffix -varman[121] belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of the Champa Alliance.

The 13th century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi (c. 1225) describes the Cham king 'wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels' and either rides on an elephant or being lifted on a 'cloth hammock by four men' when he goes outside the palace. When the king attends the court audience, he is encircled by 'thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts'. Court officials would make reports to the king, then make one prostration before leaving.

The last king of Champa[who?] was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832.[109]

Administration

During the reign of the king Prakasadharma (r. 653–686 AD), when Champa was briefly ruled by a strong monarch, the territories of the kingdom stretch from present-day Quảng Bình to Khánh Hòa. An internal division called viṣaya (district) was first introduced. There were at least two viṣaya: Caum and Midit. Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhāgāras –known as 'source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, northern Champa was consisted by several known districts (viṣaya, zhou 洲): Amaravati (Quảng Ngãi), Ulik (Thừa Thiên–Huế), Vvyar (Quảng Trị), Jriy (southern Quảng Bình), and Traik (northern Quảng Bình). Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous.[122]

Federation or absolutism?

 

The classical narrative of 'the Champa Kingdom' brought by earlier generations of scholarship, Georges Maspero and George Coedes, created the illusion of a unified Champa. Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s, for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng, refuted the concept of single Champa. Chinese historical texts, Cham inscriptions, and especially the Cham annals, the Sakkarai dak rai patao, both confirm the existence of multi-Campa scenarios. Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely a confederation of kingdom(s) and individual city-states for most of its history. For several periods from the 700s to 1471, there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya, who wielded more power, influence, and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes,[123] and perhaps those minor local kings and princes (Yuvarāja – not necessary mean crown prince) or regional military commander/warlords (senāpati) were from local that had no connection with the dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala.[124] Mandala is the term coined by O. W. Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia.[125]

Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga. When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings.[126][note 7][note 8]

According to the Huanghua Sidaji (皇華四達記, c. 800 AD?), which then was complied into the Old Book of Tang, a Tang prime minister named Jia Dan detailing his itineraries to Champa, begin with his arrival in a northern Cham state called Huánwáng (環王國), probably is located in modern-day Quảng Trị that had invaded the Tang southernmost province of Annan in 803. The center of Champa by the late 8th and early 9th centuries was in the south, in Gǔdá Guó 古笪國 (Kauthara), Bēntuólàng 奔陀浪洲 (Pāṇḍuraṅga).[127] Chinese texts from 758 to 809 referred whole Champa as Huánwáng, but it must be a convenient way for the Chinese to assume the name of a state that had deployed diplomacy and war with them to be the toponym for all territories of the Cham confederation. The Cham assaulted the Tang and seized Nghệ An in 803. The Chinese barely defeated the Cham and recovered lost regions in 809.[64] Harivarman I (r. 803–?) left a document in Po Nagar Temple (Nha Trang) dating from 817, explaining his campaign in northern Champa to expel the Chinese ("Cinas" in the inscription, today lauv in modern Cham language) when they menaced to the northern Cham states.[128]

Military

The Champa kingdom had a relatively small and poorly-organized military compared to its powerful neighbors, the Khmer and Dai Viet empires. They did not have a well-defined military hierarchy with ranks like modern armies. However, distinctions were likely made between ordinary soldiers, officers, and high-ranking leaders. Their ranks consists of a commander-in-chief (Tien tong), generals (Tong binh), colonels (Tien si), and captains (Si binh). The officers in the Champa military were likely appointed by the king or other high-ranking officials. Their responsibilities may have included training and leading troops, as well as managing logistics and supplies. The high-ranking leaders in the Champa military such as generals were likely members of the royal family or other nobility and the low-ranking leaders were likely commoners. The generals were responsible for leading armies, while the colonels lead regiments and battalions and captains led companies. They have had overall command of the army and were responsible for making strategic decisions and negotiating alliances with other powers. The Champa Navy was a formidable force that allowed the Chams to dominate trade and commerce in Southeast Asia. Their navy was used for warfare and exploration, marketing, and transportation of goods. The Chams were known for their seafaring skills, and they had established trade routes across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, which allowed them to trade with other kingdoms and empires in the region.[129][130][131][132][133][134]

Geography of historical Champa

 
Champa (ca. 11th century) at its greatest extent

Between the 2nd and the 15th centuries AD, Champa's territorial extent at times included the modern provinces of Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, Thừa Thiên Huế, Da Nang, Quảng Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Bình Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hòa, Ninh Thuận, and Bình Thuận,[135] and most of the Central Highlands might have been lightly governed or influenced by coastal Cham.[136][note 9][137][note 10][138] Through Cham territory included the mountainous zones west of the coastal plain and (at times) extended into present-day Laos, for the most part, the Cham remained a seafaring people dedicated to trading and maintained few settlements of any size away from the coast. Scholarships also hold consensus that Champa, like Dai Viet, was always polyethnic and ethnic flexible, not just the Cham people alone, but also encompassed several different ethnic groups such as Jarai, Rhadé, and Bahnar/Bahnaric-speaking and Katuic-speaking peoples. It is clear that the Katuic-speaking and Bahnaric-speaking peoples of the Central Highlands in Vietnam and Central Laos had been engaged a long direct and complex contact with Chamic-speaking peoples, resulting in Chamic mutual lexical similarities of the two Austroasiatic ethnolinguistic groups,[139][140][141] although it highly likely that most of these borrowings came to Katuics and Bahnarics via the Highland Chamics.[142] Others argue that Cham rule once might have stretched as far west as the Mekong River in the present-day Lao province of Campassak.[143] However, boundaries between premodern Southeast Asian states in most of the cases were remote hinterlands, extreme mountains and limestones covered by thick jungles with few inland trade routes, and can not be accurately determined.

Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:

  • Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành)[144] was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn,[145] where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.
  • Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.[146]
 
Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960–972).
  • Vijaya was located in present-day Bình Định Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.[147] The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural center of Champa around the 1150s.[148][149] It remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south.[150] In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.
  • Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa Province (Yanpunagara).[151] Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar, several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in a 784 AD inscription at Po Nagar.[152]
  • Panduranga was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of Champa.[97] Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.[152]

Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.[153]

Religion

Champa was a religiously tolerant kingdom, with many different faiths coexisted peacefully or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally, the Chams were grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called Cham Ahiér) that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism, and Bani Chams that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam. These two groups mostly live in separate villages. Intermarriage was prohibited in former times, and remains rare even nowadays. Both groups are matrilineal and conform to matrilocal residence practice.[154] Both Cham groups' common ancestor worship is known as kut, characterized in the form of worshiping cemetery steles of dead ancestors. The Cham view the living world matters as just as transient one for a short-term existence, and eternity is the other world where ancestors, dead relatives and deities live.[155]

Another northern group inhabiting around Bình Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice Chamic animism. Under the previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct ethnic group.[156] Since 1979, they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam government as a subgroup of the Cham.[157]

Hinduism and Buddhism

 
Apsara with Saraswati (right)
 
Dancing Siva, c. 10th century AD
Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.

The term "Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite. Balamon Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism that thrived since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in the 5th century AD.[154] While today the Bacam (Bacham) are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some of the most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in neighbouring Cambodia, to Java and Bali in Indonesia.[2] The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta often refer the Balamon as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels).[158]

 
10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva
 
Cham Bodhisattva on a relief cube, c. 12th century

Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thanh Tong in 1471, the dominant religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh) was Hinduism, and the culture was heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence, but they embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion today. The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the segmented liṅgam, and the kośa.[159]

  • A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham kings frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in royal temples. The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite of the king's own name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.[160]
  • A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a human being or a human face.
  • A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's chignon hairstyle.
  • A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three aspects of the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape, represents Brahma; the middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top section, circular in shape, represents Shiva.
  • A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a kośa to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism. Cham kings gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the liṅgas themselves.[161]
 
9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama (who is sitting on a mule).

The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and 10th centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam Province, Vietnam) adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith.[162][163] King Indravarman II (r. 854–893) built a giant Buddhist monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks (Sangha), and celebrated the veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in 875.[164] Mahayana in Champa was blended with observable elements of Tantric Buddhism, manifesting in many traces.[165] For example, Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–904) according to his verbatim in 902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into the "path of the Vajra." The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its originality.

Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling with Dvāravatī (Mon) art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus) flanked by on either side by a depiction of a stūpa.[166] Other shared features are makara lintel, fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating,[167] Gaja-Lakṣmī, pendant-legged Buddhas.[168] The sources of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes between the Muang Fa Daed site on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the Chinese (probably the site of Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham),[169] Southern Laos, via Savannakhet, then to Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.[170][171]

Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of Champa. Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture from this period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.

From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of syncretic Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector) and Buddha (seen as the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal power of the ruling Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their capital Vijaya in 1471, all Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling space for the rising Islamic faith.

Islam

Bani Chams or Bani Awal are Cham Muslims in Central Vietnam that converted to a version of localized Shi'a Islam mixed with Hindu-Chamic customs, as the faith started making headway among the population after the 10th century AD.[172] The term "Bani" derived from Arabic term "bani" (بني) which means "people". The popular account mainly from oversea Cham communities assures that the Cham had been converted by either ʿAlī and his son Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafīyya. Al-Dimashqi claimed a story that the Alīds after being expelled, a small group of them took refugee in Champa; these Muslim immigrants therefore spread Shi'a among the Cham, which perhaps eventually led to the synthesis of the Bani Awal religion.[173] In their devotions, the Cham Bani refer to Adam and Eve, the archangel Gabriel, Abraham, the prophet Muhammad, ʿAlī, Fāṭima, Ḥasan and Ḥusayn. They have religious organization dominated by a class of dignitaries who always wear white tunics, the pious color of Islam, Quranic books with Cham commentaries, and simple mosques. However their Imams bear Cham-Sanskrit titles gru and acar. By the 17th century, the royal families of Champa had converted to Bani Islam. The Ahiér is particularly more than strange as they adhere to a hypersyncretic Islam-Balamon-Cham religion. Ahier, meaning later, implies that the Cham Ahier were people who converted to Islam in the sixteenth-seventh centuries, after the Bani Awal.[174] Ahier and Bani Awal communities have blended Shi'a Islam, Balamon, with their own customs to the point that sectarian distinction is no longer makes sense. For example, Allah is usually written as Po Uvalvah, and prophet Muhammad, which the Cham Bani refer as Po Rasulak was morphed into one of many important Cham deities. Most Cham are now evenly split between being followers of Islam and Hinduism, with the majority of Central Vietnam Cham being Ahier and Bani, while the majority of Cambodian Chams and Mekong Delta Chams are Sunni Muslim (also called Cham Baruw, meaning "new Cham"),[175] though significant minorities of Mahayana Buddhists continue to exist.

Historical documents regarded that 18th-century Cham and Malay Sunni settlements in the Mekong Delta established by the Nguyen lords earlier than Vietnamese settlements in order to establish Viet-controlled settlements for frontier defense. The embodiment of more fundamentalist Sunni faiths in the Mekong Delta and Cambodia gave the Cham communities here socio-cultural inclinations toward the wider Malay/Islamic world compared with the fair-isolated Cham Bani in Central Vietnam.[176] Islam also instigated certain ethno-religious values to the Mekong Delta Cham, which help them preserving and retaining their distinct ethnic identity in a dynamic transnational environment.[177][178]

Indonesian 15th century records indicate the influence of Princess Daravati, of Cham origin, converted to Islam,[179] and influenced her husband, Kertawijaya, Majapahit's seventh ruler to convert the Majapahit royal family to Islam. The Islamic tomb of Putri Champa (Princess of Champa) can be found in Trowulan, East Java, the site of the Majapahit imperial capital.[180] In the 15th to 17th century, Islamic Champa had maintained a cordial relationship with the Aceh Sultanate through dynastic marriage. This sultanate was located on the northern tip of Sumatra and was an active promoter of the Islamic faith in the Indonesian archipelago.

The lunisolar Cham Sawaki calendar is amalgamation of Islamic calendar and traditional Cham calendar, which was based on the Indian Śaka era. A normal year in Sawaki consists of 354 days with 12 months; the average length of each month is either 29 or 30 days.[181] The calendar has a 12-year cycle of zodiac called Nâthak.[182] It sets three leap years for every eight years, compared to 11 leap years for every 30 years of the orthodox Islamic calendar.[183]

Economy

 
Phu Loc tower, a Cham kalan archetype,[184] Binh Dinh, constructed in the late 13th century. A remain of Vijaya.

Unlike many contemporaneous mainland Southeast Asian kingdoms, Champa's economy was not a heavily agrarian one. Fourteenth-century Franciscan traveler Odoric of Pordenone who had visited the nation in 1324-25 describes the diet of medieval Champa commoners mainly composed of rice and fish/seafood products. As a seafaring people, the Cham were highly itinerant and established a network of trade including not only the major ports at Hội An, Thị Nại but also extending into the mountainous hinterland.[185] Maritime trade was facilitated by a network of wells that provided fresh water to Cham and foreign ships along the coast of Champa and the islands of Cù Lao Chàm and Lý Sơn.[186] While Kenneth R. Hall suggests that Champa was not able to rely on taxes on trade for stable revenue, but instead financed their rule by raiding neighboring countries and seabustering merchant ships,[187] Hardy argues that the country's prosperity was above all based on commerce.[188]

The vast majority of Champa's export products, mostly medieval commodities, came from the mountainous hinterland, sourced from as far as Attapeu in southern Laos.[189] They included gold and silver, slaves, animal and animal products, and precious woods.[190] Cham pottery, characterized by distinct olive-green and brown glazes, were primary produced by the kilns of Gò Sành, just in the suburbs of Vijaya.[191] Cham ceramic production peaked around the 14th to 16th century, and have been reported to be discovered in present-day Egypt, the UAE, Malaysia, and the Philippines.[192]

By far the most important export product was eaglewood.[193] It was the only product mentioned in Marco Polo's brief account and similarly impressed the Arab trader Sulayman several centuries earlier.[194] Most of it was probably taken from the Aquilaria crassna tree, just as most of the eaglewood in Vietnam today.[194] The largest amount of eaglewood products extracted from the highland of Champa occurred in 1155, when Cham envoy reportedly shipped 55,020 catties (around 33 tons) of incense of Wuli to the Song court as trade tribute.[195]

Cham port-cities

 
Two Cham women playing Polo. c. 600–900 AD.[196]
 
Cham man playing flute. c. 600–750 AD.

During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early Champa period. Champa concentrated its wealth in highly urbanized port-cities, some of them located in self-governing regions.[197] The earliest of those was Simhapura, emerged as a riverine port-city and Cham political center around 400 AD.[198] Prominent examples include Amarendrapura (the modern city of Huế); Visnupura (Nhan Bieu, Quảng Trị) and Vrddha Ratnapura (Ðại Hữu, Quảng Bình) in the north; Indrapura and Amavarati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Qui Nhon) in the central region; and Nha Trang, Virapura (near Phan Rang), and Panduranga in the south.[199] These cosmopolitan cities were loaded with surplus amount of trading goods and exotic products, overcrowded by merchants not just from other Cham states, but also Chinese, Khmer, Malay, Viet, Arab, and Indian traders and travelers.[186]

The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the port cities of Champa, 'on the arrival of a trading ship in this country, officials are sent on board with a book made of folded slips of black leather.' After an inventory has been taken, the cargo may be landed. 20% of the goods carried on is claimed as tax, and the rest may be traded privately. If they discovered that 'any items were hidden away during the customs check, the whole cargo will be confiscated.'

 
Bas relief of animals and beasties from Tra Kieu, c. 900–1100. Museum of Cham Sculpture.

When French scholars arrived in the mid-19th century, they were impressed with Cham ruins, Cham urbanism, and medieval networks throughout the former kingdom. The middle-age densely populated areas of Tra Kieu and My Son were well connected by paved stone roads, bridges, urban ruins that were 16 feet high, rampart and stone citadel in a rectangle shape of 984 feet by 1640 feet, which hosted temples, fortified palaces, and resident structures, and were supplied by canals, irrigation projects, underground aqueducts and wells.[200]

From the 4th to 15th century, these cities were relatively wealthy. Foreign traders and travelers from across medieval Eurasia were well-aware of Champa's richness and eyewitnessed the crowded, prosperous Cham port-cities. Abu'l-Faradj described the city of Indrapura "this temple is ancient that all the Buddhas found there enter into conversation with the faithful and reply to all the requests made to them."[201] Columbus during his fourth voyage in 1502 along the coast of Central America, in accordance with contemporary knowledge that confused Central America with eastern Asia, thought that he had reached the kingdom of "Ciampa" visited by Marco Polo in 1290.[202] Peter Martyr d'Anghiera recorded in De Orbe Novo Decades that on his fourth voyage in 1502, Columbus: "found a vast territory called Quiriquetana [ Quiriguá[203]] in the language of the inhabitants, but he called it Ciamba (Champa)".[204] Portuguese travelers in the early 16th century, such as Fernão Mendes Pinto, reported vestiges of these cities "a town of above ten thousand households" which "encircled by a strong wall of brick, towers, and bulwarks."[205] Because of this, Champa was the target of multiple warring powers surrounding: the Chinese in 4th century-605 AD; the Javanese in 774 and 787, the Vietnamese in 982, 1044, 1069, 1073, 1446, and 1471; the Khmer in 945–950, 1074, 1126–1128, 1139–1150, 1190–1220; and the Mongol Yuan in 1283–85, many cities were ransacked by invaders and rebuilt or repaired overtime. They also had to face constant threats from hazards per annum such as flood, tropical cyclones, fire. Some Cham port-cities later ended up captured by Vietnamese in the mid-15th century, which later resulted in the rise of Nguyễn domain depending on these port-cities, whom benefited international trades, and was well-balanced enough to fend off several northern Trịnh invasions in the 17th century.

Role of women

 
Statue of Lady Po Nagar

Women enjoy far greater freedom and important role in Cham history and society compared to neighboring and Islamic cultures generally. Prior 1975, Cham communities in Central Vietnam, Bani Muslim and Ahier, still upheld the practice of matrilineality in family relationship. Bani priests symbolize women while Ahier priests represent for male.[206] Yoshimoto suggests the Bani Awal-Ahier binary indicates the notion of symbolic dualism between male and female, husband and wife.[154] Women take major roles in every aspects of Cham society. Neither a gender hierarchy and restriction exists. Religious attendance at thang magik (Bani mosque) during the Ramawan month are mostly accomplished by women from every household.[207]

The 4th century Vo Canh inscription denotes the existence of matrilineage of early Cham rulers.[208] Another prominent example of Cham matrilinealism in royal succession was King Rudravarman I of the Gangaraja dynasty. Rudravarman was the son of Manorathavarman's niece.

Female gods constitute the majority of divinities in Cham historical legends. The most sacred Goddess of the Cham people is Lady Po Nagar, a mythical princess who was said to be the founder of Champa.[23] Po Dava, the Cham God of Virginity, is the symbol of learning and literature. She is worshipped at the Po Nagar Hamu Tanran temple in Panduranga.[209]

According to the legend of Po Klong Garai, Princess Po Sah Inö was the mother of Po Klong Garai. She was born of sea foam scrubbings. When she grew up, she drank water from a spring, and magically got pregnant. In one day, her scabby son encountered a dragon who then healed him and predicted that he should become king. The boy, Po Klong Garai, then acquired supernatural powers. The chief of royal astronomy ought to ask Po Klong Garai to marry his daughter. Po Klong Garai then became king, destroying the Cambodian invaders, bringing peace and prosperity to the Kingdom of Champa. To commemorate the legendary hero, in 1242 the future King Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) offered the construction of the Po Klong Garai Temple at Phan Rang.[209]

Archaeological remains

 
Mỹ Sơn is the site of the largest collection of Cham ruins.
 
24 meters (79 ft) tall brick towers of Dương Long in Bình Định province.

Religious

Fortresses and cities

  • Khu Túc (known in Chinese sources as Qusu) located along the Kiến Giang River of Quảng Bình province, was built in the 4th century AD and includes a revetted wall and moat as do the other centers. Khu Túc was sacked by the Chinese in 446 AD, "all inhabitants over the age of 15 were put to the sword" and as much as 48,000 of gold taken.[216]
  • Trà Bàn (Caban) was the capital of Vijaya. Ruins included Canh Tien towers, located north of Quy Nhon and contains a possible royal palace.[217]
  • Châu Sa or Amaravati in Quảng Ngãi province.[218]
  • Trà Kiệu or Simhapura, dating from two to three centuries BC until the 6th or 7th centuries AD.[218]
  • Thành Hồ (Ayaru) is located on the northern bank of the Đà Rằng River, Phú Yên.[219]
  • Song Luy (Bal Cattinon) is located on the coast south of Cape Dinh, Bình Thuận province.[220]
  • Samṛddhipurī (nowadays An Khe) is located in Gia Lai Province, Central Highlands.

Some of the network of wells that was used to provide fresh water to Cham and foreign ships still remains. Cham wells are recognisable by their square shape. They are still in use and provide fresh water even during times of drought.[186]

Museums

 
Champa ladies dance at Poklong Garai stupa in Phan Rang.

The largest collection of Cham sculpture may be found in the Da Nang Museum of Cham Sculpture (formerly known as "Musée Henri Parmentier") in the coastal city of Da Nang. The museum was established in 1915 by French scholars, and is regarded as one of the most beautiful in Southeast Asia. Other museums with collections of Cham art include the following:

Cham influences on Vietnamese culture

 
A Vietnamese Shiva figure made by sandstone in Vong La temple, Hanoi, dated 12th century

Cham culture was absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by it.[36] In 1044, after raiding Champa, Vietnamese king Lý Thái Tông took some 5,000 prisoners, and brought back to Dai Viet a number of court dancers familiar with Indian-style dances, settling to them in a palace specifically built for them.[221][222] Both Lý Thái Tông and his son Lý Thánh Tông had a great appreciation for Cham music,[223] and in 1060 Lý Thái Tông ordered his court musicians to study the Cham drum rhythms along with Cham songs he himself had translated into Vietnamese.[224][225][223] According to some Vietnamese scholars, the Vietnamese cult of Princess Liễu Hạnh might have been influenced by Cham deity Yang Pu Inu Nagara (Lady Po Nagar).[226]

Even the Vietnamese Quan họ music and Lục bát (six-eight) poetry could have been influenced by Cham poetry and folk music.[227]

Cham art also spread far across the Red River Delta, where many Vietnamese Buddhist temples hosted Cham-style statues of dragons, lions, nāgá, makara, kinnari, Brahma and Hamsa dated back to the 11th–13th century (however, since these creatures also existed in China, it was more likely Chinese influence and not Champa).[228] Thousand of bricks inscribed with Cham script indicate that a multitude of Vietnamese temples and holy sites were built by Cham engineers.[24] A Buddhist stone stupa of Dạm tempe in Bắc Ninh Province, built by Vietnamese king Lý Nhân Tông in 1086, is a representation of a lingam and its yoni (a Hindu-Cham symbol of fertility and the power of creation).[229]

In 1693, after lord Nguyen Phuc Chu's take over of Panduranga, the Cham were forced to wear regulated Vietnamese attire, at least the members of the ruling Mâh Taha dynasty, Cham king Po Saktiraydapatih, and Cham court officials.[230]

Legacy

It is important to understand that without the Chams and the former kingdom of Champa, Vietnam would probably never have existed. The country not only built itself by incorporating Champa territories and populations, but has also been receptive to a variety of its cultural and religious influences. Indeed, over the centuries, Chams have woven dense networks not just within Vietnam, but all over Southeast Asia. Without the Chams and Champa, this part of the world would look very different.

Nicolas Weber, "The Cham Diaspora in Southeast Asia", p. 158

According to French researcher and ethnologist Denys Lombard, "Champa is not only the name of a former kingdom but it is also of a vast network that extended all over the main Southeast Asian centers". For nearly 1,500 years, the Cham and their diaspora communities had developed and maintained a vast and complex overland and maritime system of networks, not just around modern-day Vietnam, but also extended throughout Mainland and Maritime Southeast Asia. These networks, served not only for trade, but also for connecting peoples, transporting culture, ideas, and religious identities across the region, enduring endless historical possibilities and mutual relationships, significantly helping most of Southeast Asia to transform into their present-day.

Cham culture influenced nearby communities and tamed most of present-day Vietnam and surrounding areas. Despite being formed from one of the least coherent places on Earth, Champa was a formidable seafaring kingdom that outlasted most empires. The Cham today, one of the few microcosms in Southeast Asia that still maintain strong links with neighboring countries in the region while still retaining their distinct ethnic identity.

Modern Vietnamese perceptions of Champa and its legacy are varying.[231][note 11] Today, the Cham are seen as one minority group within the unnoticeable multi-ethnic Vietnam, and their legacy is incorporated into the Vietnamese national heritage.[231]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Early colonial era scholars and later DRV and SRV authors treated Champa as a single, unified political body. New academic works on Cham studies begun in late 1980s revised this notion. The majority of scholarship now at least agree that Champa was a series of dynamic coexisting, overlapping polyethnic kingdoms and small principalities.(Lockhart 2011, pp. 22–24)
  2. ^ Previous histories of Champa such as Étienne Aymonier's 1889 Tschampa and Georges Maspero's 1910 The Kingdom of Champa had provided the ground academic understanding of Champa for almost a century. Maspero represented Champa as a single, unified kingdom, with the Cham explicitly made up nearly entire of its demographics. He also presented a list of 14 presumably Cham dynasties dating back to the 2nd century.(Lockhart 2011, pp. 9–10)
  3. ^ The majority of colonial era scholarship had popularized a generic orientalist assumption that Southeast Asian history has always been profoundly driven by "external forces" from the civilizations of India and China. By this narrative, Champa was glimpsed as a merely shadow, "cultural zone" of Indian civilization.(Lockhart 2011, pp. 4–5)
  4. ^ Some of the colonial era scholars and Indologists often favored the "Champa kingdom" when it maintained strong affirmation with Indian influence such as Hinduism, and showed less interest when "exotic oriental" Indianized features in Champa began declining by the 11th century as the Cham appeared having tendencies toward localization and Islam.(Lockhart 2011, pp. 6–7) The shrink of Indian traces in Champa (or the downfall of Cham civilization) was assumed through the eyes of some colonial-era French researchers (such as Jeanne Leuba) as the corruption of pure Hinduism and Buddhism due to syncreticizing with local traditions. Leuba also took blame on Islam for the decline of Champa.(Lockhart 2011, pp. 7–8)
  5. ^ Along with a global renewal of Cham studies in the late 1980s, a group of French academics favored a reevaluation/redefinition the importance of Cham and indigenous history in the making of Southeast Asia. This trend rejected earlier colonial-era scholarship's Eurocentric framework "externalist thesis" for denying and downplaying indigenous Southeast Asian civilizations, slamming them as deliberate attempts to justify colonialism.
  6. ^ Historians like Vickery criticize the use of Chinese and Vietnamese sources uncritically in reconstructing the history of Champa.
  7. ^ Vickery conjectures that by the 1100s, North (Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya) and South Champa (Kauthara, Panduranga) had become quite separate.
  8. ^ However, there were two exceptional periods in Cham history when multiple Cham and foreign sources firmly indicated that there was only single king exercising strong authority over the whole Cham realms during given period. They were Jaya Harivarman I of the mid-12th century and the Virabhadravarmadevas (Indravarman VI and Virabhadravarman) of the early 15th century.
  9. ^ Although evidence of an ancient Cham presence has been found as far north as Quảng Bình province, the group's present numbers in Vietnam are confined to small areas along the south-central coast (Bình Thuận and Ninh Thuận) and the Cambodian border.
  10. ^ The proximity of various highland peoples to the coastal areas, the linguistic and cultural ties some of them (notably the Rhadé, Jarai, Roglai, and Chru) shared with the Cham, and the scattered archaeological evidence of a historical Cham presence in the Central Highlands were all clearly recognized. In general, however, the French perceived these upland groups as at best peripheral to Champa proper, and they only appear in the narrative as hostile "barbarians" mentioned in certain Cham inscriptions.
  11. ^ Pre-1975 South Vietnamese/RVN intellectuals were quite aware and but satisfying with Vietnamese colonization and destruction of Champa. Most Viet nationalist writers entangled Champa with the ethnocentric Nam tien narrative, at the same time racism was constructed to rationalize and justify the dark subjugation, colonization, and genocide over the indigenous peoples, and the (South) Vietnamese identity. Vastly contrasting to North Vietnam/DRV, where Marxist authors in the 1950s criticized all Viet ruler after 1471 for their oppressive rule over the Cham while sympathetic for a multiethnic Vietnamese nation, but their views drastically changed in the 1960s and 70s during the height and end of the Vietnam War. Later DRV and SVN (Socialist Republic of Vietnam) authors, while pushing for a monolithic Vietnamese nation-state narrative, deliberately altered or misinterpreted historical events in favor of the VCP's stultifying narrative, and so state historians have actively decontextualized and downplayed Cham heritages and the Vietnamese conquest of Champa. After DRV's 1971 publication, Cham and indigenous history were virtually disenfranchised from official Vietnamese historiography, and the Cham and indigenous peoples are perceived by Hanoi authors as merely insignificant outsiders that offer no matter in official Vietnamese history but considered as peripherical, supplemental parts of the deeply-internalized ethnocentric Kinh history, neither being told from the Cham and indigenous peoples' own perspectives. The Doi moi period (post-1986) sees significant resurgences of nationalist and ethnocentric sentiments in Vietnamese scholarship. Overtime, most authors and the general Vietnamese historiography got extremely low thresholds, great unconscious biases and intolerance for enduring any discomfort associated with discussions on the historic Vietnamese conquest and repressions of Vietnam's indigenous peoples. The French revisionist academics in the late 1980s also attempted to "rescue" the neglected Champa and indigenous history from the Vietnamese nationalist nation-state narrative.(Lockhart 2011)(Lockhart 2011, p. 28)

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    • Murphy, Stephen A. (2019), "Cultural Connections and Shared Origins between Campā and Dvāravatī: A Comparison of Common Artistic and Architectural Motifs, ca. 7th–10th Centuries ce", in Griffiths, Arlo; Hardy, Andrew; Wade, Geoff (eds.), Champa: Territories and Networks of a Southeast Asian Kingdom, École française d’Extrême-Orient, pp. 303–321
  • Hardy, Andrew David; Cucarzi, Mauro; Zolese, Patrizia (2009). Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam). NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-451-7.
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  • Noseworthy, William (2017), Cham Bani also known as "Localized Shi'a Cham Muslims in Vietnam", "Bani Islam", Database of Religious History. University of British Columbia
  • Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul, eds. (2005). Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages. Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-85883-561-0.
    • Grant, Anthony (2005), "Effects of intimate multidirectional linguistic contact in Chamic", in Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul (eds.), Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages, Pacific Linguistics, vol. 2, Australian National University, pp. 37–106
    • Sidwell, Paul (2005). "Acehnese and the Aceh-Chamic Language Family". In Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul (eds.). Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages. Pl-569. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. 569. Australian National University. pp. 211–231. doi:10.15144/PL-569. hdl:1885/84414. ISBN 978-0-85883-561-0.
  • Nakamura, Rie (2020). A Journey of Ethnicity: In Search of the Cham of Vietnam. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. ISBN 978-1-52755-034-6.
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    • Jenny, Mathias (2021), "MSEA epigraphy", in Paul, Sidwell; Mathias, Jenny (eds.), The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A Comprehensive Guide, De Gruyter, pp. 855–877
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    • Yoshimoto, Yasuko (2011), "A Study of the Almanac of the Cham in South-Central Vietnam", in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.), The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 323–336
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    • Vickery, Michael (2011), "Champa Revised", in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.), The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 363–420
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    • Dhar, P. P. (2018), "The lives of temples in Champa", in Tran, Ky Phuong; Vo, Van Thang; Sharrock, Peter D. (eds.), Vibrancy in Stone: Masterpieces of the Đà Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture, River Books, pp. 57–64
    • Schweyer, A. V. (2018), "Buddhism in Champa", in Tran, Ky Phuong; Vo, Van Thang; Sharrock, Peter D. (eds.), Vibrancy in Stone: Masterpieces of the Đà Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture, River Books, pp. 71–78
    • Tu, Grace Chao-Hui (2018), "Sinitic transfers into Cham art", in Tran, Ky Phuong; Vo, Van Thang; Sharrock, Peter D. (eds.), Vibrancy in Stone: Masterpieces of the Đà Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture, River Books, pp. 79–88
    • Guy, John (2018), "Śaiva ritual: liṅgakośa and mukhakośa in Champa", in Tran, Ky Phuong; Vo, Van Thang; Sharrock, Peter D. (eds.), Vibrancy in Stone: Masterpieces of the Đà Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture, River Books, pp. 89–96
    • Sharrock, Peter D. (2018), "Cham-Khmer interactions 1113-1220 CE", in Tran, Ky Phuong; Vo, Van Thang; Sharrock, Peter D. (eds.), Vibrancy in Stone: Masterpieces of the Đà Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture, River Books, pp. 111–119
  • Vu, Hong Lien (2017), Cham Features in Buddhist Arts under the Lý Dynasty of Vietnam
  • Weber, Nicolas (2012). "The destruction and assimilation of Campā (1832–35) as seen from Cam sources". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 43 (1): 158–180. doi:10.1017/S0022463411000701. S2CID 154818297.
  • Wong, Danny Tze Ken, ed. (2008). Memory and Knowledge of the Sea in Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. ISBN 978-9-83957-636-8.

External links

  • "Research on Champa and its Evolution" (PDF).
  • , including the working paper "Champa Revised" by Michael Vickery, and the draft translation "Champa in the Song hui-yao" by Geoff Wade
  • Ken, Danny Wong Tze (11 March 2004). "Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries". Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia.
  • Cham Muslims: A look at Cambodia's Muslim minority
  • exhibited in Vietnamese museums
  •  – Hoa Sứ, Hoa đại, Hoa Champa
  • Photographs of Champa Temples

champa, confused, with, chamba, state, other, uses, disambiguation, cham, khmer, vietnamese, chiêm, thành, chăm, collection, independent, cham, polities, that, extended, across, coast, what, contemporary, present, central, southern, vietnam, from, approximatel. Not to be confused with Chamba State For other uses see Champa disambiguation Champa Cham ꨌ ꨛ Khmer ច ម ប Vietnamese Chiem Thanh or Chăm Pa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary present day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century AD until 1832 when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its expansionist Nam tiến policy 2 The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa Sanskrit नगरचम प Champa ꨌ ꨛ in modern Cham and Champa ច ម ប in the Khmer inscriptions Chiem Thanh in Vietnamese and Zhancheng Mandarin 占城 in Chinese records 3 4 Kingdom of ChampaCampapura Campanagara Nagaracampa Nagarcam192 1832The main Champa kingdom before 1306 yellow lay along the coast of present day southern Vietnam To the north blue lay Đại Việt to the west red the Khmer Empire Territory of Champa after 1306 light blue neighboring with Đại Việt dark pink and Khmer Empire orange after marriage of princess Huyền Tran and Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III CapitalSimhapura 605 757 Virapura 757 875 Indrapura 875 982 Vijaya 982 1471 Kauthara polity 757 1653 Panduranga polity 1471 1832 Common languagesOld Cham c 400 1450 Middle and Modern Cham 1450 1832 Chamic languages Sanskrit c 400 1253 other languages of Southeast AsiaReligionCham Folk religion Hinduism and Buddhism later IslamGovernmentMonarchyHistory Established192 Pandurangga annexed by Vietnam under Nguyễn dynasty1832Population peak2 500 000 1 Preceded by Succeeded byHan dynasty Nguyễn monarchyToday part ofVietnamLaosCambodiaThe Kingdoms of Champa and the Chams contribute profound and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam Southeast Asia as well as their present day Early Champa evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern day Vietnam The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd century AD shows testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a vast system of lucrative trade networks across the region connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia until the 17th century In Champa historians also witness the first and oldest native Southeast Asian language literature being written down around c 350 AD predating first Khmer Mon Malay texts by centuries 5 6 The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom They speak Chamic languages a subfamily of Malayo Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali Sasak languages that is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa the kingdom had a multiethnic population which consisted of Austronesian Chamic speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics The people who used to inhabit the region are the present day Chamic speaking Cham Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra Indonesia along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic speaking peoples in Central Vietnam 7 8 9 Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lam Ấp Vietnamese or Linyi 林邑 Middle Chinese ZS liɪm ʔˠiɪp that was in existence since 192 AD although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries AD Thereafter it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi In 1832 the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories Hinduism adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century AD shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries as testified by the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands Mỹ Sơn a former religious center and Hội An one of Champa s main port cities are now World Heritage Sites Today many Cham people adhere to Islam a conversion which began in the 10th century with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century they are called the Bani Ni tục from Arabic Bani There are however the Bacam Bacham Chiem tục who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith rituals and festivals The Bacam is one of only two surviving non Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world with a culture dating back thousands of years The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese of Indonesia 2 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historiography 2 1 Sources 2 2 Overarching theories 3 History 3 1 Sources of foreign cultural influence 3 2 Founding legend 3 3 Formation and growth 3 4 Champa at its height 3 5 Relations and warfare with the Khmer and the Viet c 1000 1471 3 6 Decline 4 Government 4 1 King 4 2 Administration 4 3 Federation or absolutism 4 4 Military 5 Geography of historical Champa 6 Religion 6 1 Hinduism and Buddhism 6 2 Islam 7 Economy 7 1 Cham port cities 8 Role of women 9 Archaeological remains 9 1 Religious 9 2 Fortresses and cities 9 3 Museums 10 Cham influences on Vietnamese culture 11 Legacy 12 See also 13 Notes 14 Citations 15 References 16 External linksEtymology EditThe name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka pronounced tʃampaka which refers to Magnolia champaca a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers 10 Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri an ancient sacred city in Buddhism for trade then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation which was conceived by Louis Finot a colonial era board director of the Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient In his 2005 Champa revised Michael Vickery challenges Finot s idea He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Caṃ rather than Champa pa abbreviation of pesvara Campadesa Campanagara Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as the Rade Jarai Chru Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Caṃ Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiem Most importantly the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhancheng meaning the city of the Cham why not city of the Champa Vickery doubts 11 Historiography EditSources Edit The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources 12 Physical remains including ruins as well as stone sculptures Inscriptions in Cham and Sanskrit on steles and other stone surfaces Chinese and Vietnamese annals diplomatic reports and other literature such as those provided by Jia Dan 13 Historiography of modern Cham people The Cham have their written records in form of paper book known as the Sakkarai dak rai patao was a 5227 pages collection of Cham veritable records documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th 13th century to the deposition of Po Thak The the last king of Panduranga in 1832 reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga from Adam the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 AD to Po Thak The The annals were written in Akhar Thrah traditional Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers However it had been dismissed for a long time by scholars until Po Dharma 14 Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3 000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries The Southeast Asia Digital Library SEADL at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts totaling more than 57 800 pages of multigenre content Overarching theories Edit This Cham head of Shiva was made of electrum around 800 It decorated a kosa or metal sleeve fitted to a liṅgam One can recognise Shiva by the tall chignon hairstyle and by the third eye in the middle of his forehead Crown of Champa in 7th and 8th century Museum of Vietnamese History Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in the historiography of Champa Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language culture and heritage It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period For example in the 10th century AD the record is richest for Indrapura in the 12th century AD it is richest for Vijaya following the 15th century AD it is richest for Panduranga Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another According to such scholars if the 10th century record is richest for Indrapura it is so because at that time Indrapura was the capital of Champa Other scholars have disputed this contention holding that Champa was never a united country and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period 15 note 1 note 2 History EditMain articles History of Champa and Timeline of Champa Sources of foreign cultural influence Edit Through the centuries Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia China Java and India amongst others note 3 note 4 note 5 Lam Ấp a predecessor state in the region began its existence in AD 192 as a breakaway Chinese colony An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in central Vietnam and Lam Ấp was founded in AD 192 16 In the 4th century AD wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language and Hinduism especially Shaivism became the state religion Starting from the 10th century AD the Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China and later in the Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with the Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma i Butuan and Sulu in the Philippines Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh Linguists believe the Acehnese language a descendant of the Proto Chamic language separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium AD Some argue that Acehnese originated from Chamic dispersal after a Vietnamese invasion in 982 AD 17 18 However scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh Chamic relations vary 19 Tsat a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably but precise details remain inadequate 18 Under Chinese language influence over Hainan Tsat has become fully monosyllabic while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham in contact with Vietnamese 20 Eastern Cham has developed a quasi registral incipiently tonal system 21 After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471 another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west forming Haroi which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences 22 Founding legend Edit According to Cham folk legends Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar the divide mother goddess of the kingdom She came from the moon and arrived in Central Vietnam and found the kingdom but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China where she married a Chinese prince and returned to Champa The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century and rebuilt in the 11th century Her portrayal image in the temple is said dating from 965 AD is of a commanding personage seated cross legged upon a throne 23 She is also worshiped by the Vietnamese a tradition dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period 24 Formation and growth Edit Depiction of a couple of highland man and Cham lady in the Boxer Codex from 1590 The people of Champa descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BC and 200 AD the predecessor of the Cham kingdom 25 The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family According to one study Cham is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra 26 The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present day Central Vietnam coastal region During its heyday the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and has commercial links across the South China sea to the other side in the Philippines archipelago and even with Taiwan through Maritime Jade Road Sa Huynh Kalanay Interaction Sphere which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and no longer hesitant in linking with the ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic speaking peoples 27 While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population have a sinicized culture and carry the patrilineal Han Chinese O M7 haplogroup Cham people carry the patrilineal R M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA and this fits with the matrilocal structure of Cham families 28 Analysis of Vietnamese Kinh people s genetics show that within the last 800 years there was mixture between a Malay like southern Asian and a Chinese ancestral component that happens to fit the time period in which Kinh expanded south from their Red River Delta homeland in the nam tiến lit southward advance process which also matches the event 700 years ago when the Cham population suffered massive losses 29 With the exception of Cham who are Austronesian speaking and Mang who are Austroasiatic speaking the southern Han Chinese and all other ethnic groups in Vietnam share ancestry 30 To the Han Chinese the country of Champa was known as 林邑 Linyi 31 in Mandarin and Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese Lam Ấp which is the Sino Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑 It was founded in 192 AD 32 33 note 6 Epigraph of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman II r 1220 1254 the liberator of Champa from Khmer rule Around the 4th century AD Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences probably through its neighbor Funan Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman 34 35 36 who reigned from 380 to 413 AD 37 At Mỹ Sơn King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara 38 whose name was a combination of the king s own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva 39 The worship of the original god king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed 40 41 42 Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators as early as the 5th century AD the Cham might have reached India by themselves King Gangaraja r 413 of Champa was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River Northeast India His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles 43 44 George Coedes notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century an influx of Indian traders priests and scholars travelled along the early East Asia South Asian subcontinent maritime route could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism But that was not sustained and decisive as active Indianized native societies he argues or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been Indianized like Funan were the key factors of the process 45 On the other hand Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peacefully acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite were likely relating to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam Monsoon societies tended to practice animism most importantly the creed of earth spirit To the early Southeast Asian peoples Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs This resulted in conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism peacefully in Champa with little sort of resistance 46 Rudravarman I of Champa r 529 572 a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line became king of Champa in 529 AD During his reign the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535 536 He was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman r 572 629 He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu bhadreshvara In 605 the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap in 605 overrunning Sambhuvarman s resistance and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu 47 He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son Kandarpadharma who died in 630 31 Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son Prabhasadharma who died in 645 48 Champa at its height Edit Remain of My Son E1 temples which was constructed by King Prakasadharma r 653 687 The complex barely survived the Vietnam War Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son Tra Kieu Hue Khanh Hoa dated 653 687 report a Cham king named Jaya Prakasadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I r 653 686 Prakasadharma had thoroughly knowledge of Sanskrit learning Sanskrit literature and Indian cosmology He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom laying down foundations of Champa art and architectural styles 49 He also sent many embassies regularly to the Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East though the latter was rivaled by Japan 50 Southeast Asia c 800 CE Champa situating between major medieval trade routes in Southeast Asia through the South China Sea Between the 7th to 10th centuries AD the Cham polities rose to become a naval power as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders Cham fleets also controlled the trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea between China the Indonesian archipelago and India They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe but also by engaging in piracy and raiding 51 However the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival the Javanese Javaka probably refers to Srivijaya ruler of Malay Peninsula Sumatra and Java In 767 the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet Daba and Kunlun pirates 52 53 54 Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787 55 56 57 In 774 an assault was launched on Po Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura near Phan Rang 58 59 60 The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I r 787 801 in 799 61 Đồng Dương Indrapura Buddha statue 9th century AD Museum of Vietnamese History In 875 a new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II r 893 moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura near My Son and ancient Simhapura 62 Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism becoming the state religion 63 Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture distinguish with modern Cham culture 64 Unfortunately a Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet and following Lưu Kế Tong r 986 989 a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983 65 had brought mass destruction in Northern Champa 66 Indrapura was still one amongst major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century 67 Relations and warfare with the Khmer and the Viet c 1000 1471 Edit The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through a two day journey lay the country of Ma i at Mindoro Philippines which Champa had trade relations with Afterwards during the 1000s Rajah Kiling the Hindu king of the Philippine kingdom of the Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting for diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate from the Chinese Empire which was later denied by the Chinese Imperial court mainly because of favoritism over the Champa civilization 68 However the future Rajah of Butuan Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a gold tablet some white dragon Bailong 白龍 camphor Moluccan cloves and a South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice 69 Cham merchants then immigrated to what is the now the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug which is also in the Philippines The Cham migrants were called Orang Dampuan The Champa civilization and the port kingdom of Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th 13th centuries The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan 70 The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored 71 The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa 72 Bas reliefs from the Bayon Temple depicting battle scene between Cham wearing helmets and Khmer troops The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare with Khmer invasions were frequent The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145 but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I r 1148 1167 73 Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also was quickly stalled and Suryavarman died en route 74 75 Champa then plummeted into an eleven year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions which resulted in Champa reunified under Jaya Harivarman by 1161 76 77 After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV r 1167 1192 launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor capital of Cambodia plundering it slaying the Khmer king leading to Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years 78 79 Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s 1190 1192 1194 1195 1198 1203 conquering Champa and made it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years 80 81 82 83 Zenith of Champa territorial expansion during the reign of Che Bong Nga r 1360 1390 Champa was subjected for Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283 1285 Before the invasion Qubilai Khan ordered the establishment of a mobile secretariat xingsheng in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia 84 The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V r 1258 1287 and Prince Harijit to wage a guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years together with Dai Viet eventually repelled the Mongols back to China by June 1285 After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288 Dai Viet king Trần Nhan Tong spent his retirement years in Northern Champa and arranged marriage between his daughter Princess Huyền Tran with Prince Harijit now reigning Jaya Simhavarman III r 1288 1307 in 1306 for exchanging of peace and territory 85 86 From 1307 to 1401 not even a single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa and almost of its 14th century history have to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources 87 Engraving Sanskrit inscription the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa stopped in 1253 No more granduer temple and construction project was built after 1300 88 These marked the beginning of Champa s decline 89 From 1367 to 1390 according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources Che Bong Nga who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390 had restored Champa 90 He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during the deadly Champa Đại Việt War 1367 1390 sacking its capital in 1371 1377 1378 and 1383 having nearly undermined the Dai Viet to its inevitable collapse 91 92 Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time and miraculously killed the king of Champa ending the devastating war 93 94 87 After Che Bong Nga Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under a new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI r 1390 1400 86 His successor Indravarman VI r 1400 1441 reigned in the next 41 years expanding Champa s territory to the Mekong Delta amidst decline of the Angkorian Empire One of Indravarman s nephews Prince Srindra Viṣṇukirti Virabhadravarman became king of Champa in 1441 By the mid 15th century Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline No inscription survived after 1456 The Vietnamese under strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa 95 96 For early historians like Georges Maspero the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom 97 Maspero like other early orientalist scholars by his logics arbitrated the history of Champa only become worthy subject for their study when it adapted and maintained superior Indian civilization 98 Decline Edit See also History of the Cham Vietnamese wars and Nam tiến 1801 map of Southeast Asia by John Cary showing Panduranga Champa Tsiompa Former Cham territories after the Vietnamese annexation of Panduranga in 1832 In the Cham Vietnamese War 1471 Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese in which 120 000 people were either captured or killed 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20 30 000 were taken prisoners and deported including the king of Champa Tra Toan who died along his way to the north in captivity 99 100 Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to the Chinese court Annam destroyed our country with addition notes of massive burning and looting in which 40 to 60 000 people were slaughtered 95 The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia 101 102 Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century Kauthara was annexed by the Vietnamese in 1653 88 From 1799 to 1832 Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế The last remaining principality of Champa Panduranga survived until August 1832 when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet s faction and accused the Cham leaders for supporting Duyet 103 Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and the vice king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces 104 105 106 To enforce his finger grip Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws Administratively Panduranga was put integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu replacing thổ aboriginal chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strict mandatory for the Cham subjects Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly systematic destroyed 107 Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions pushing the Cham to far inland arid highlands and the Cham were subjected for heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions 108 Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang s oppression arose in 1833 1835 the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa a Cham Bani cleric which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state in short period of time before being crushed by Minh Mang s forces 109 110 The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their fate and remnant of Champa A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese 111 112 while many Cham including indigenous highland peoples were indiscriminately killed by the Vietnamese in massacres particularly from 1832 to 1836 during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings Bani mosques were raze the ground Temples were set on fire 113 Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated By that time the Cham totally lost their ancestors seafaring and shipbuilding traditions 114 After finalizing these heavily handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies emperor Minh Mang declared the Cham of Panduranga a Tan Dan new people denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese 115 Minh Mang s son and successor Thiệu Trị however reverted most of his father s strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minority Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition 116 Only a small fraction or about 40 000 Cham people in the old Panduranga were remaining in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples put an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of the Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan 117 Government EditKing Edit 11th century sculpture depicting the court of Champa with king court officials and servants Museum of Cham Sculpture The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles raja di raja र ज ध र ज raja of rajas or king of kings written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script 118 or pu po tana raya lord of all territories 119 They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai his Majesty Officially the king was the patron of art and construction Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicating in honor of the king of kings his ancestors and their beloved gods usually Siva Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation abhiseka which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king s authority 120 The regnal name of the Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition often consisting of titles and aliases Titles prefix like Jaya जय victory Maha मह great Sri श र glory Aliases stem like Bhadravarman Vikrantavarman Rudravarman Simhavarman Indravarman Paramesvaravarman Harivarman Among them the suffix varman 121 belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of the Champa Alliance The 13th century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi c 1225 describes the Cham king wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels and either rides on an elephant or being lifted on a cloth hammock by four men when he goes outside the palace When the king attends the court audience he is encircled by thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts Court officials would make reports to the king then make one prostration before leaving The last king of Champa who was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832 109 Administration Edit During the reign of the king Prakasadharma r 653 686 AD when Champa was briefly ruled by a strong monarch the territories of the kingdom stretch from present day Quảng Binh to Khanh Hoa An internal division called viṣaya district was first introduced There were at least two viṣaya Caum and Midit Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhagaras known as source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries northern Champa was consisted by several known districts viṣaya zhou 洲 Amaravati Quảng Ngai Ulik Thừa Thien Huế Vvyar Quảng Trị Jriy southern Quảng Binh and Traik northern Quảng Binh Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous 122 Federation or absolutism Edit The Po Klong Garai Temple Phan Rang Thap Cham constructed in 1252 The classical narrative of the Champa Kingdom brought by earlier generations of scholarship Georges Maspero and George Coedes created the illusion of a unified Champa Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng refuted the concept of single Champa Chinese historical texts Cham inscriptions and especially the Cham annals the Sakkarai dak rai patao both confirm the existence of multi Campa scenarios Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely a confederation of kingdom s and individual city states for most of its history For several periods from the 700s to 1471 there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya who wielded more power influence and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes 123 and perhaps those minor local kings and princes Yuvaraja not necessary mean crown prince or regional military commander warlords senapati were from local that had no connection with the dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala 124 Mandala is the term coined by O W Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia 125 Two notable examples of this multi centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Paṇḍuraṅga When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the Vietnamese in 1471 Kauthara and Paṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653 while Panduranga was annexed in 1832 Paṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832 which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified So Paṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings 126 note 7 note 8 According to the Huanghua Sidaji 皇華四達記 c 800 AD which then was complied into the Old Book of Tang a Tang prime minister named Jia Dan detailing his itineraries to Champa begin with his arrival in a northern Cham state called Huanwang 環王國 probably is located in modern day Quảng Trị that had invaded the Tang southernmost province of Annan in 803 The center of Champa by the late 8th and early 9th centuries was in the south in Gǔda Guo 古笪國 Kauthara Bentuolang 奔陀浪洲 Paṇḍuraṅga 127 Chinese texts from 758 to 809 referred whole Champa as Huanwang but it must be a convenient way for the Chinese to assume the name of a state that had deployed diplomacy and war with them to be the toponym for all territories of the Cham confederation The Cham assaulted the Tang and seized Nghệ An in 803 The Chinese barely defeated the Cham and recovered lost regions in 809 64 Harivarman I r 803 left a document in Po Nagar Temple Nha Trang dating from 817 explaining his campaign in northern Champa to expel the Chinese Cinas in the inscription today lauv in modern Cham language when they menaced to the northern Cham states 128 Military Edit The Champa kingdom had a relatively small and poorly organized military compared to its powerful neighbors the Khmer and Dai Viet empires They did not have a well defined military hierarchy with ranks like modern armies However distinctions were likely made between ordinary soldiers officers and high ranking leaders Their ranks consists of a commander in chief Tien tong generals Tong binh colonels Tien si and captains Si binh The officers in the Champa military were likely appointed by the king or other high ranking officials Their responsibilities may have included training and leading troops as well as managing logistics and supplies The high ranking leaders in the Champa military such as generals were likely members of the royal family or other nobility and the low ranking leaders were likely commoners The generals were responsible for leading armies while the colonels lead regiments and battalions and captains led companies They have had overall command of the army and were responsible for making strategic decisions and negotiating alliances with other powers The Champa Navy was a formidable force that allowed the Chams to dominate trade and commerce in Southeast Asia Their navy was used for warfare and exploration marketing and transportation of goods The Chams were known for their seafaring skills and they had established trade routes across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea which allowed them to trade with other kingdoms and empires in the region 129 130 131 132 133 134 Sculpture of Cham mounted archers on chariots c 11th 13th century Depiction of a Cham Khmer naval battle stone relief at the Bayon 12th century Champa marines wore various armor Cham soldier in helmet fighting Khmer soldier Bas relief at Bayon temple in CambodiaGeography of historical Champa Edit Champa ca 11th century at its greatest extent Between the 2nd and the 15th centuries AD Champa s territorial extent at times included the modern provinces of Quảng Binh Quảng Trị Thừa Thien Huế Da Nang Quảng Nam Quảng Ngai Binh Định Phu Yen Khanh Hoa Ninh Thuận and Binh Thuận 135 and most of the Central Highlands might have been lightly governed or influenced by coastal Cham 136 note 9 137 note 10 138 Through Cham territory included the mountainous zones west of the coastal plain and at times extended into present day Laos for the most part the Cham remained a seafaring people dedicated to trading and maintained few settlements of any size away from the coast Scholarships also hold consensus that Champa like Dai Viet was always polyethnic and ethnic flexible not just the Cham people alone but also encompassed several different ethnic groups such as Jarai Rhade and Bahnar Bahnaric speaking and Katuic speaking peoples It is clear that the Katuic speaking and Bahnaric speaking peoples of the Central Highlands in Vietnam and Central Laos had been engaged a long direct and complex contact with Chamic speaking peoples resulting in Chamic mutual lexical similarities of the two Austroasiatic ethnolinguistic groups 139 140 141 although it highly likely that most of these borrowings came to Katuics and Bahnarics via the Highland Chamics 142 Others argue that Cham rule once might have stretched as far west as the Mekong River in the present day Lao province of Campassak 143 However boundaries between premodern Southeast Asian states in most of the cases were remote hinterlands extreme mountains and limestones covered by thick jungles with few inland trade routes and can not be accurately determined Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities Indrapura City of Indra Foshi Phật thanh Phật thệ thanh 144 was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD It was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng Dương near the modern city of Da Nang Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura City of the Lion the location of which has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Tra Kiệu and the valley of Mỹ Sơn 145 where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen The associated port was at modern Hội An The territory once controlled by this principality included present day Quảng Binh Quảng Trị and Thừa Thien Huế provinces Amaravati was located in present day Chau Sa citadel of Quảng Ngai Province The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar 146 Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele 965 The stele describes feats by King Jaya Indravarman I r 960 972 Vijaya was located in present day Binh Định Province Tumpraukvijaya Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar 147 The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban The associated port was at present day Qui Nhơn Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Thap Mắm which may have been a religious and cultural centre Vijaya became the political and cultural center of Champa around the 1150s 148 149 It remained the center of Champa until 1471 when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south 150 In its time the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present day Quang Nam Quang Ngai Binh Định and Phu Yen Aia Ru Provinces Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang Aia Trang in Khanh Hoa Province Yanpunagara 151 Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang Kauthara is first mentioned in a 784 AD inscription at Po Nagar 152 Panduranga was located in the area of present day Phan Rang Thap Cham Pan Rang in Ninh Thuận and Binh Thuận province Panduranga with capital Parik was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese It was the most autonomous sometimes independent princedom principality of Champa 97 Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar 152 Within the four principalities were two main clans the Dừa means coconut in Vietnamese and the Cau means areca catechu in Vietnamese The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga The two clans differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage 153 Religion EditChampa was a religiously tolerant kingdom with many different faiths coexisted peacefully or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs Religiously and culturally the Chams were grouped into two major religio cultural groups the Balamon Chams also called Cham Ahier that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism and Bani Chams that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam These two groups mostly live in separate villages Intermarriage was prohibited in former times and remains rare even nowadays Both groups are matrilineal and conform to matrilocal residence practice 154 Both Cham groups common ancestor worship is known as kut characterized in the form of worshiping cemetery steles of dead ancestors The Cham view the living world matters as just as transient one for a short term existence and eternity is the other world where ancestors dead relatives and deities live 155 Another northern group inhabiting around Binh Định and Phu Yen provinces is the Cham Hroi Haroi who practice Chamic animism Under the previous Republic of Vietnam they were considered a distinct ethnic group 156 Since 1979 they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam government as a subgroup of the Cham 157 Hinduism and Buddhism Edit Po Nagar Ninh Thuận Apsara with Saraswati right Dancing Siva c 10th century ADChampa art Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam The term Balamon derived from Brahman or Brahmin one of Hindu caste of religious elite Balamon Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor an indigenized form of Hinduism that thrived since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in the 5th century AD 154 While today the Bacam Bacham are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam the region once hosted some of the most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures in the world The entire region of Southeast Asia in fact was home to numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms From Angkor in neighbouring Cambodia to Java and Bali in Indonesia 2 The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta often refer the Balamon as Kafir Derived from Arabic Kafir for infidels 158 10th century Cham Saivite relief of Siva Cham Bodhisattva on a relief cube c 12th century Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thanh Tong in 1471 the dominant religion of the Cham upper class Thar patao bamao maah was Hinduism and the culture was heavily influenced by that of India The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence but they embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion today The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar The main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam the mukhalinga the jaṭaliṅgam the segmented liṅgam and the kosa 159 A liṅga or liṅgam is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva Cham kings frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in royal temples The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite of the king s own name and suffix isvara which stands for Shiva 160 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a human being or a human face A jaṭaliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva s chignon hairstyle A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three aspects of the Hindu godhead or trimurti the lowest section square in shape represents Brahma the middle section octagonal in shape represents Vishnu and the top section circular in shape represents Shiva A kosa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga The donation of a kosa to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism Cham kings gave names to special kosas in much the way that they gave names to the liṅgas themselves 161 9th century Dong Duong Indrapura lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhartha Gautama who is sitting on a mule The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and 10th centuries AD when a dynasty at Indrapura modern Đồng Dương Quảng Nam Province Vietnam adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith 162 163 King Indravarman II r 854 893 built a giant Buddhist monastery meditation halls and temples for Champa s monks Sangha and celebrated the veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokesvara under the name Laksmindra Lokesvara Svabhayada in 875 164 Mahayana in Champa was blended with observable elements of Tantric Buddhism manifesting in many traces 165 For example Indravarman s successor Jaya Simhavarman I r 897 904 according to his verbatim in 902 Vajrapaṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into the path of the Vajra The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its originality Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics paralleling with Dvaravati Mon art highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their iconographic form of the Buddha Stupa Triad where the Buddha seats in padmasana lotus flanked by on either side by a depiction of a stupa 166 Other shared features are makara lintel fishtail shaped sampot illustrating 167 Gaja Lakṣmi pendant legged Buddhas 168 The sources of Mon Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes between the Muang Fa Daed site on Khorat region near a lost kingdom called Wendan by the Chinese probably the site of Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai Maha Sarakham 169 Southern Laos via Savannakhet then to Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes 170 171 Beginning in the 10th century AD Hinduism again became the predominant religion of Champa Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture from this period are aside from Mỹ Sơn Khương Mỹ Tra Kiệu Chanh Lo and Thap Mắm From the 13th to 15th centuries Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of syncretic Saivite Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Siva seen as the protector and Buddha seen as the savior Buddhism prevailed secondary With the decline of royal power of the ruling Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their capital Vijaya in 1471 all Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared enabling space for the rising Islamic faith Islam Edit Further information Islam in Cambodia and Islam in Vietnam Bani Chams or Bani Awal are Cham Muslims in Central Vietnam that converted to a version of localized Shi a Islam mixed with Hindu Chamic customs as the faith started making headway among the population after the 10th century AD 172 The term Bani derived from Arabic term bani بني which means people The popular account mainly from oversea Cham communities assures that the Cham had been converted by either ʿAli and his son Muḥammad ibn al Ḥanafiyya Al Dimashqi claimed a story that the Alids after being expelled a small group of them took refugee in Champa these Muslim immigrants therefore spread Shi a among the Cham which perhaps eventually led to the synthesis of the Bani Awal religion 173 In their devotions the Cham Bani refer to Adam and Eve the archangel Gabriel Abraham the prophet Muhammad ʿAli Faṭima Ḥasan and Ḥusayn They have religious organization dominated by a class of dignitaries who always wear white tunics the pious color of Islam Quranic books with Cham commentaries and simple mosques However their Imams bear Cham Sanskrit titles gru and acar By the 17th century the royal families of Champa had converted to Bani Islam The Ahier is particularly more than strange as they adhere to a hypersyncretic Islam Balamon Cham religion Ahier meaning later implies that the Cham Ahier were people who converted to Islam in the sixteenth seventh centuries after the Bani Awal 174 Ahier and Bani Awal communities have blended Shi a Islam Balamon with their own customs to the point that sectarian distinction is no longer makes sense For example Allah is usually written as Po Uvalvah and prophet Muhammad which the Cham Bani refer as Po Rasulak was morphed into one of many important Cham deities Most Cham are now evenly split between being followers of Islam and Hinduism with the majority of Central Vietnam Cham being Ahier and Bani while the majority of Cambodian Chams and Mekong Delta Chams are Sunni Muslim also called Cham Baruw meaning new Cham 175 though significant minorities of Mahayana Buddhists continue to exist Historical documents regarded that 18th century Cham and Malay Sunni settlements in the Mekong Delta established by the Nguyen lords earlier than Vietnamese settlements in order to establish Viet controlled settlements for frontier defense The embodiment of more fundamentalist Sunni faiths in the Mekong Delta and Cambodia gave the Cham communities here socio cultural inclinations toward the wider Malay Islamic world compared with the fair isolated Cham Bani in Central Vietnam 176 Islam also instigated certain ethno religious values to the Mekong Delta Cham which help them preserving and retaining their distinct ethnic identity in a dynamic transnational environment 177 178 Indonesian 15th century records indicate the influence of Princess Daravati of Cham origin converted to Islam 179 and influenced her husband Kertawijaya Majapahit s seventh ruler to convert the Majapahit royal family to Islam The Islamic tomb of Putri Champa Princess of Champa can be found in Trowulan East Java the site of the Majapahit imperial capital 180 In the 15th to 17th century Islamic Champa had maintained a cordial relationship with the Aceh Sultanate through dynastic marriage This sultanate was located on the northern tip of Sumatra and was an active promoter of the Islamic faith in the Indonesian archipelago The lunisolar Cham Sawaki calendar is amalgamation of Islamic calendar and traditional Cham calendar which was based on the Indian Saka era A normal year in Sawaki consists of 354 days with 12 months the average length of each month is either 29 or 30 days 181 The calendar has a 12 year cycle of zodiac called Nathak 182 It sets three leap years for every eight years compared to 11 leap years for every 30 years of the orthodox Islamic calendar 183 Economy Edit Phu Loc tower a Cham kalan archetype 184 Binh Dinh constructed in the late 13th century A remain of Vijaya Unlike many contemporaneous mainland Southeast Asian kingdoms Champa s economy was not a heavily agrarian one Fourteenth century Franciscan traveler Odoric of Pordenone who had visited the nation in 1324 25 describes the diet of medieval Champa commoners mainly composed of rice and fish seafood products As a seafaring people the Cham were highly itinerant and established a network of trade including not only the major ports at Hội An Thị Nại but also extending into the mountainous hinterland 185 Maritime trade was facilitated by a network of wells that provided fresh water to Cham and foreign ships along the coast of Champa and the islands of Cu Lao Cham and Ly Sơn 186 While Kenneth R Hall suggests that Champa was not able to rely on taxes on trade for stable revenue but instead financed their rule by raiding neighboring countries and seabustering merchant ships 187 Hardy argues that the country s prosperity was above all based on commerce 188 The vast majority of Champa s export products mostly medieval commodities came from the mountainous hinterland sourced from as far as Attapeu in southern Laos 189 They included gold and silver slaves animal and animal products and precious woods 190 Cham pottery characterized by distinct olive green and brown glazes were primary produced by the kilns of Go Sanh just in the suburbs of Vijaya 191 Cham ceramic production peaked around the 14th to 16th century and have been reported to be discovered in present day Egypt the UAE Malaysia and the Philippines 192 By far the most important export product was eaglewood 193 It was the only product mentioned in Marco Polo s brief account and similarly impressed the Arab trader Sulayman several centuries earlier 194 Most of it was probably taken from the Aquilaria crassna tree just as most of the eaglewood in Vietnam today 194 The largest amount of eaglewood products extracted from the highland of Champa occurred in 1155 when Cham envoy reportedly shipped 55 020 catties around 33 tons of incense of Wuli to the Song court as trade tribute 195 Cham port cities Edit Two Cham women playing Polo c 600 900 AD 196 Cham man playing flute c 600 750 AD During the medieval age the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa Urbanization in Champa took place progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD from the late Sahuynhian to the early Champa period Champa concentrated its wealth in highly urbanized port cities some of them located in self governing regions 197 The earliest of those was Simhapura emerged as a riverine port city and Cham political center around 400 AD 198 Prominent examples include Amarendrapura the modern city of Huế Visnupura Nhan Bieu Quảng Trị and Vrddha Ratnapura Dại Hữu Quảng Binh in the north Indrapura and Amavarati Quang Nam Vijaya Qui Nhon in the central region and Nha Trang Virapura near Phan Rang and Panduranga in the south 199 These cosmopolitan cities were loaded with surplus amount of trading goods and exotic products overcrowded by merchants not just from other Cham states but also Chinese Khmer Malay Viet Arab and Indian traders and travelers 186 The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the port cities of Champa on the arrival of a trading ship in this country officials are sent on board with a book made of folded slips of black leather After an inventory has been taken the cargo may be landed 20 of the goods carried on is claimed as tax and the rest may be traded privately If they discovered that any items were hidden away during the customs check the whole cargo will be confiscated Bas relief of animals and beasties from Tra Kieu c 900 1100 Museum of Cham Sculpture When French scholars arrived in the mid 19th century they were impressed with Cham ruins Cham urbanism and medieval networks throughout the former kingdom The middle age densely populated areas of Tra Kieu and My Son were well connected by paved stone roads bridges urban ruins that were 16 feet high rampart and stone citadel in a rectangle shape of 984 feet by 1640 feet which hosted temples fortified palaces and resident structures and were supplied by canals irrigation projects underground aqueducts and wells 200 From the 4th to 15th century these cities were relatively wealthy Foreign traders and travelers from across medieval Eurasia were well aware of Champa s richness and eyewitnessed the crowded prosperous Cham port cities Abu l Faradj described the city of Indrapura this temple is ancient that all the Buddhas found there enter into conversation with the faithful and reply to all the requests made to them 201 Columbus during his fourth voyage in 1502 along the coast of Central America in accordance with contemporary knowledge that confused Central America with eastern Asia thought that he had reached the kingdom of Ciampa visited by Marco Polo in 1290 202 Peter Martyr d Anghiera recorded in De Orbe Novo Decades that on his fourth voyage in 1502 Columbus found a vast territory called Quiriquetana Quirigua 203 in the language of the inhabitants but he called it Ciamba Champa 204 Portuguese travelers in the early 16th century such as Fernao Mendes Pinto reported vestiges of these cities a town of above ten thousand households which encircled by a strong wall of brick towers and bulwarks 205 Because of this Champa was the target of multiple warring powers surrounding the Chinese in 4th century 605 AD the Javanese in 774 and 787 the Vietnamese in 982 1044 1069 1073 1446 and 1471 the Khmer in 945 950 1074 1126 1128 1139 1150 1190 1220 and the Mongol Yuan in 1283 85 many cities were ransacked by invaders and rebuilt or repaired overtime They also had to face constant threats from hazards per annum such as flood tropical cyclones fire Some Cham port cities later ended up captured by Vietnamese in the mid 15th century which later resulted in the rise of Nguyễn domain depending on these port cities whom benefited international trades and was well balanced enough to fend off several northern Trịnh invasions in the 17th century Role of women Edit Statue of Lady Po Nagar Women enjoy far greater freedom and important role in Cham history and society compared to neighboring and Islamic cultures generally Prior 1975 Cham communities in Central Vietnam Bani Muslim and Ahier still upheld the practice of matrilineality in family relationship Bani priests symbolize women while Ahier priests represent for male 206 Yoshimoto suggests the Bani Awal Ahier binary indicates the notion of symbolic dualism between male and female husband and wife 154 Women take major roles in every aspects of Cham society Neither a gender hierarchy and restriction exists Religious attendance at thang magik Bani mosque during the Ramawan month are mostly accomplished by women from every household 207 The 4th century Vo Canh inscription denotes the existence of matrilineage of early Cham rulers 208 Another prominent example of Cham matrilinealism in royal succession was King Rudravarman I of the Gangaraja dynasty Rudravarman was the son of Manorathavarman s niece Female gods constitute the majority of divinities in Cham historical legends The most sacred Goddess of the Cham people is Lady Po Nagar a mythical princess who was said to be the founder of Champa 23 Po Dava the Cham God of Virginity is the symbol of learning and literature She is worshipped at the Po Nagar Hamu Tanran temple in Panduranga 209 According to the legend of Po Klong Garai Princess Po Sah Ino was the mother of Po Klong Garai She was born of sea foam scrubbings When she grew up she drank water from a spring and magically got pregnant In one day her scabby son encountered a dragon who then healed him and predicted that he should become king The boy Po Klong Garai then acquired supernatural powers The chief of royal astronomy ought to ask Po Klong Garai to marry his daughter Po Klong Garai then became king destroying the Cambodian invaders bringing peace and prosperity to the Kingdom of Champa To commemorate the legendary hero in 1242 the future King Jaya Simhavarman III r 1288 1307 offered the construction of the Po Klong Garai Temple at Phan Rang 209 Archaeological remains Edit Mỹ Sơn is the site of the largest collection of Cham ruins 24 meters 79 ft tall brick towers of Dương Long in Binh Định province Religious Edit Mỹ Sơn near the town of Hội An on the Thu Bồn River Established by Bhadravarman I in the 5th century AD Vikrantavarman I initiated a major building program in the 7th century Construction continued until 1157 AD under Jaya Harivarman I 210 211 Po Nagar in Kauthara on a harbour comprising six temples and a pillared hall Established before the 7th century AD a wooden structure was burned in 774 AD by Javanese raiders Prithindravarman initiated major construction in 757 AD One tower dates from 813 AD and construction continued until 1256 210 Đồng Dương Indrapura was founded by Indravarman II in 875 AD Most of the complex was destroyed during the Vietnam War The site consists of three large courts a large assembly hall and a main temple sanctuary Two bronze statues one of Buddha and one of Avalokitesvara were found at the site 212 Po Klaung Garai in Panduranga Phan Rang Chanh Lo Temple in Chau Sa Quảng Ngai dating 11th century 213 Đại Hữu Quảng Binh 214 A city flourished during 9th 10th centuries with Mahayana shrines and magnificent Avalokitesvara statues 215 Temple of King Po Rome the latest Cham monument built in the 17th century Po Sah Inu in Hamu Lithit Phan Thiết Thap Doi Towers Banh It Temple Duong Long Towers Yang Prong Temple Đắk Lắk Fortresses and cities Edit Khu Tuc known in Chinese sources as Qusu located along the Kiến Giang River of Quảng Binh province was built in the 4th century AD and includes a revetted wall and moat as do the other centers Khu Tuc was sacked by the Chinese in 446 AD all inhabitants over the age of 15 were put to the sword and as much as 48 000 of gold taken 216 Tra Ban Caban was the capital of Vijaya Ruins included Canh Tien towers located north of Quy Nhon and contains a possible royal palace 217 Chau Sa or Amaravati in Quảng Ngai province 218 Tra Kiệu or Simhapura dating from two to three centuries BC until the 6th or 7th centuries AD 218 Thanh Hồ Ayaru is located on the northern bank of the Đa Rằng River Phu Yen 219 Song Luy Bal Cattinon is located on the coast south of Cape Dinh Binh Thuận province 220 Samṛddhipuri nowadays An Khe is located in Gia Lai Province Central Highlands Some of the network of wells that was used to provide fresh water to Cham and foreign ships still remains Cham wells are recognisable by their square shape They are still in use and provide fresh water even during times of drought 186 Museums Edit Champa ladies dance at Poklong Garai stupa in Phan Rang The largest collection of Cham sculpture may be found in the Da Nang Museum of Cham Sculpture formerly known as Musee Henri Parmentier in the coastal city of Da Nang The museum was established in 1915 by French scholars and is regarded as one of the most beautiful in Southeast Asia Other museums with collections of Cham art include the following Museum of Fine Arts Hanoi Museum of History Hanoi Museum of Fine Arts Saigon Museum of History Saigon Musee Guimet Paris Museum of Fine Arts Boston Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City Asian Art Museum San Francisco Museum Rietberg Zurich SwitzerlandCham influences on Vietnamese culture Edit A Vietnamese Shiva figure made by sandstone in Vong La temple Hanoi dated 12th century Cham culture was absorbed by the Vietnamese who in turn were strongly influenced by it 36 In 1044 after raiding Champa Vietnamese king Ly Thai Tong took some 5 000 prisoners and brought back to Dai Viet a number of court dancers familiar with Indian style dances settling to them in a palace specifically built for them 221 222 Both Ly Thai Tong and his son Ly Thanh Tong had a great appreciation for Cham music 223 and in 1060 Ly Thai Tong ordered his court musicians to study the Cham drum rhythms along with Cham songs he himself had translated into Vietnamese 224 225 223 According to some Vietnamese scholars the Vietnamese cult of Princess Liễu Hạnh might have been influenced by Cham deity Yang Pu Inu Nagara Lady Po Nagar 226 Even the Vietnamese Quan họ music and Lục bat six eight poetry could have been influenced by Cham poetry and folk music 227 Cham art also spread far across the Red River Delta where many Vietnamese Buddhist temples hosted Cham style statues of dragons lions naga makara kinnari Brahma and Hamsa dated back to the 11th 13th century however since these creatures also existed in China it was more likely Chinese influence and not Champa 228 Thousand of bricks inscribed with Cham script indicate that a multitude of Vietnamese temples and holy sites were built by Cham engineers 24 A Buddhist stone stupa of Dạm tempe in Bắc Ninh Province built by Vietnamese king Ly Nhan Tong in 1086 is a representation of a lingam and its yoni a Hindu Cham symbol of fertility and the power of creation 229 In 1693 after lord Nguyen Phuc Chu s take over of Panduranga the Cham were forced to wear regulated Vietnamese attire at least the members of the ruling Mah Taha dynasty Cham king Po Saktiraydapatih and Cham court officials 230 Legacy EditIt is important to understand that without the Chams and the former kingdom of Champa Vietnam would probably never have existed The country not only built itself by incorporating Champa territories and populations but has also been receptive to a variety of its cultural and religious influences Indeed over the centuries Chams have woven dense networks not just within Vietnam but all over Southeast Asia Without the Chams and Champa this part of the world would look very different Nicolas Weber The Cham Diaspora in Southeast Asia p 158 According to French researcher and ethnologist Denys Lombard Champa is not only the name of a former kingdom but it is also of a vast network that extended all over the main Southeast Asian centers For nearly 1 500 years the Cham and their diaspora communities had developed and maintained a vast and complex overland and maritime system of networks not just around modern day Vietnam but also extended throughout Mainland and Maritime Southeast Asia These networks served not only for trade but also for connecting peoples transporting culture ideas and religious identities across the region enduring endless historical possibilities and mutual relationships significantly helping most of Southeast Asia to transform into their present day Cham culture influenced nearby communities and tamed most of present day Vietnam and surrounding areas Despite being formed from one of the least coherent places on Earth Champa was a formidable seafaring kingdom that outlasted most empires The Cham today one of the few microcosms in Southeast Asia that still maintain strong links with neighboring countries in the region while still retaining their distinct ethnic identity Modern Vietnamese perceptions of Champa and its legacy are varying 231 note 11 Today the Cham are seen as one minority group within the unnoticeable multi ethnic Vietnam and their legacy is incorporated into the Vietnamese national heritage 231 See also EditKing of Champa Art of Champa History of Vietnam Kampong Cham Province in east Cambodia Kingdom of Champasak in the south of Laos Champa independence movementNotes Edit Early colonial era scholars and later DRV and SRV authors treated Champa as a single unified political body New academic works on Cham studies begun in late 1980s revised this notion The majority of scholarship now at least agree that Champa was a series of dynamic coexisting overlapping polyethnic kingdoms and small principalities Lockhart 2011 pp 22 24 Previous histories of Champa such as Etienne Aymonier s 1889 Tschampa and Georges Maspero s 1910 The Kingdom of Champa had provided the ground academic understanding of Champa for almost a century Maspero represented Champa as a single unified kingdom with the Cham explicitly made up nearly entire of its demographics He also presented a list of 14 presumably Cham dynasties dating back to the 2nd century Lockhart 2011 pp 9 10 The majority of colonial era scholarship had popularized a generic orientalist assumption that Southeast Asian history has always been profoundly driven by external forces from the civilizations of India and China By this narrative Champa was glimpsed as a merely shadow cultural zone of Indian civilization Lockhart 2011 pp 4 5 Some of the colonial era scholars and Indologists often favored the Champa kingdom when it maintained strong affirmation with Indian influence such as Hinduism and showed less interest when exotic oriental Indianized features in Champa began declining by the 11th century as the Cham appeared having tendencies toward localization and Islam Lockhart 2011 pp 6 7 The shrink of Indian traces in Champa or the downfall of Cham civilization was assumed through the eyes of some colonial era French researchers such as Jeanne Leuba as the corruption of pure Hinduism and Buddhism due to syncreticizing with local traditions Leuba also took blame on Islam for the decline of Champa Lockhart 2011 pp 7 8 Along with a global renewal of Cham studies in the late 1980s a group of French academics favored a reevaluation redefinition the importance of Cham and indigenous history in the making of Southeast Asia This trend rejected earlier colonial era scholarship s Eurocentric framework externalist thesis for denying and downplaying indigenous Southeast Asian civilizations slamming them as deliberate attempts to justify colonialism Historians like Vickery criticize the use of Chinese and Vietnamese sources uncritically in reconstructing the history of Champa Vickery conjectures that by the 1100s North Indrapura Amaravati Vijaya and South Champa Kauthara Panduranga had become quite separate However there were two exceptional periods in Cham history when multiple Cham and foreign sources firmly indicated that there was only single king exercising strong authority over the whole Cham realms during given period They were Jaya Harivarman I of the mid 12th century and the Virabhadravarmadevas Indravarman VI and Virabhadravarman of the early 15th century Although evidence of an ancient Cham presence has been found as far north as Quảng Binh province the group s present numbers in Vietnam are confined to small areas along the south central coast Binh Thuận and Ninh Thuận and the Cambodian border The proximity of various highland peoples to the coastal areas the linguistic and cultural ties some of them notably the Rhade Jarai Roglai and Chru shared with the Cham and the scattered archaeological evidence of a historical Cham presence in the Central Highlands were all clearly recognized In general however the French perceived these upland groups as at best peripheral to Champa proper and they only appear in the narrative as hostile barbarians mentioned in certain Cham inscriptions Pre 1975 South Vietnamese RVN intellectuals were quite aware and but satisfying with Vietnamese colonization and destruction of Champa Most Viet nationalist writers entangled Champa with the ethnocentric Nam tien narrative at the same time racism was constructed to rationalize and justify the dark subjugation colonization and genocide over the indigenous peoples and the South Vietnamese identity Vastly contrasting to North Vietnam DRV where Marxist authors in the 1950s criticized all Viet ruler after 1471 for their oppressive rule over the Cham while sympathetic for a multiethnic Vietnamese nation but their views drastically changed in the 1960s and 70s during the height and end of the Vietnam War Later DRV and SVN Socialist Republic of Vietnam authors while pushing for a monolithic Vietnamese nation state narrative deliberately altered or misinterpreted historical events in favor of the VCP s stultifying narrative and so state historians have actively decontextualized and downplayed Cham heritages and the Vietnamese conquest of Champa After DRV s 1971 publication Cham and indigenous history were virtually disenfranchised from official Vietnamese historiography and the Cham and indigenous peoples are perceived by Hanoi authors as merely insignificant outsiders that offer no matter in official Vietnamese history but considered as peripherical supplemental parts of the deeply internalized ethnocentric Kinh history neither being told from the Cham and indigenous peoples own perspectives The Doi moi period post 1986 sees significant resurgences of nationalist and ethnocentric sentiments in Vietnamese scholarship Overtime most authors and the general Vietnamese historiography got extremely low thresholds great unconscious biases and intolerance for enduring any discomfort associated with discussions on the historic Vietnamese conquest and repressions of Vietnam s indigenous peoples The French revisionist academics in the late 1980s also attempted to rescue the neglected Champa and indigenous history from the Vietnamese nationalist nation state narrative Lockhart 2011 Lockhart 2011 p 28 Citations Edit Proctor Ann R 2018 Buddhist Art of 9th Century Campa Đồng Dương Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 140 a b c Parker Vrndavan Brannon Vietnam s Champan Kingdom Marches on Hinduism Today Archived from the original on 7 October 2019 Retrieved 21 November 2015 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 337 Bray A 18 June 2014 The Cham Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines National Geographic Retrieved 1 October 2021 Vickery 2011 p 376 Jenny 2021 pp 855 864 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 pp 28 30 Diffloth 2011 p 348 Hubert 2012 p 17 Champa Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit spokensanskrit org Retrieved 16 January 2019 Vickery 2011 p 372 Vickery Champa Revised p 4 ff Higham 2014 p 319 Marrison 1985 pp 55 56 Maspero Le Royaume de Champa represented the thesis that Champa was politically unified Vickery Champa Revised challenges that thesis Stacy Taus Bolstad 2003 Vietnam in Pictures Twenty First Century Books p 20 ISBN 0 8225 4678 7 Retrieved 9 January 2011 Grant 2005 p 41 a b Grant 2005 p 42 Sidwell 2005 p 211 Thurgood 2021 p 676 Thurgood 2021 p 680 Grant 2005 p 39 a b Marrison 1985 p 51 a b Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 435 Higham 2014 p 317 Thurgood Graham 1999 From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects ISBN 9780824821319 Retrieved 28 December 2014 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 p 26 He Jun Dong Peng Min Sheng Quang Huy Ho Dang Khoa Pham Trieu An Vu Wu Shi Fang Jin Jie Qiong Murphy Robert W Yao Yong Gang Zhang Ya Ping 7 May 2012 Kayser Manfred ed Patrilineal Perspective on the Austronesian Diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia PLOS ONE 7 5 e36437 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 736437H doi 10 1371 journal pone 0036437 PMC 3346718 PMID 22586471 Pischedda S Barral Arca R Gomez Carballa A Pardo Seco J Catelli M L Alvarez Iglesias V Cardenas J M Nguyen N D Ha H H Le A T Martinon Torres F Vullo C Salas A 3 October 2017 Phylogeographic and genome wide investigations of Vietnam ethnic groups reveal signatures of complex historical demographic movements Scientific Reports 7 12630 12630 Bibcode 2017NatSR 712630P doi 10 1038 s41598 017 12813 6 PMC 5626762 PMID 28974757 Liu Dang Nguyen Thuy Duong Nguyen Dang Ton Nguyen Van Phong Pakendorf Brigitte Nong Van Hai Stoneking Mark 28 April 2020 Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity Molecular Biology and Evolution 37 9 2503 2519 doi 10 1093 molbev msaa099 PMC 7475039 PMID 32344428 Champa ancient kingdom Indochina Stacy Taus Bolstad 1 January 2003 Vietnam in Pictures Twenty First Century Books pp 20 ISBN 978 0 8225 4678 8 Haywood John Jotischky Andrew McGlynn Sean 1998 Historical Atlas of the Medieval World AD 600 1492 Barnes amp Noble p 3 31 ISBN 978 0 7607 1976 3 Vickery 2011 p 378 Britannica Academic m eb com a b Champa www britannica com Archived from the original on 21 June 2015 Retrieved 6 June 2022 Cœdes 1968 p 48 Higham 2014 p 324 Ngo 2002 p 31 Cœdes 1968 p 49 Ngo 2002 pp 38 39 Ngo 2005 p 55ff Cœdes 1968 p 57 Nakamura 2020 p 19 Nakamura 2020 pp 19 20 Nakamura 2020 p 21 Cœdes 1968 pp 70 71 Cœdes 1968 pp 77 78 Cœdes 1968 pp 71 72 Momorki 2011 pp 122 123 Le Thanh Khoi Histoire du Vietnam p 109 Cœdes 1968 p 91 SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts 1984 Final report Consultative Workshop on Research on Maritime Shipping and Trade Networks in Southeast Asia I W7 Cisarua West Java Indonesia November 20 27 1984 SPAFA Co ordinating Unit p 66 ISBN 9789747809107 David L Snellgrove 2001 Khmer Civilization and Angkor Orchid Press ISBN 978 974 8304 95 3 Tōyō Bunko Japan 1972 Memoirs of the Research Department p 6 Tōyō Bunko Japan 1972 Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko the Oriental Library Toyo Bunko p 6 Proceedings of the Symposium on 100 Years Development of Krakatau and Its Surroundings Jakarta 23 27 August 1983 Indonesian Institute of Sciences 1985 p 8 Greater India Society 1934 Journal p 69 Ralph Bernard Smith 1979 Early South East Asia essays in archaeology history and historical geography Oxford University Press p 447 ISBN 978 0 19 713587 7 Charles Alfred Fisher 1964 South east Asia a social economic and political geography Methuen p 108 ISBN 9789070080600 Ronald Duane Renard Mahawitthayalai Phayap Walter F Vella Fund University of Hawaii at Manoa Center for Asian and Pacific Studies 1986 Anuson Walter Vella Walter F Vella Fund Payap University p 121 Cœdes 1968 p 95 Cœdes 1968 p 122 Guy 2011 p 305 a b Momorki 2011 p 126 Vickery 2011 pp 383 384 Tran 2011 p 268 Vickery 2011 pp 385 389 Scott William 1984 Prehispanic Source Materials For the Study of Philippine History revised ed Quezon City New Day Publishers p 66 ISBN 9711002264 Song Shih Chapter 7 to 8 The Filipino Moving Onward 5 2007 Ed Rex Bookstore Inc pp 3 ISBN 978 971 23 4154 0 Philippine History Module based Learning I 2002 Ed Rex Bookstore Inc pp 39 ISBN 978 971 23 3449 8 Philippine History Rex Bookstore Inc 2004 pp 46 ISBN 978 971 23 3934 9 Cœdes 1968 p 164 Cœdes 1968 p 160 Cœdes 1968 p 162 Cœdes 1968 p 165 Vickery 2011 p 397 Cœdes 1968 p 166 Cœdes 1968 p 169 Cœdes 1968 p 171 Cœdes 1968 pp 180 181 Vickery 2011 p 400 Chatterji Bijan Raj 1939 JAYAVARMAN VII 1181 1201 A D The last of the great monarchs of Cambodia Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 3 377 385 JSTOR 44252387 Momorki 2011 p 127 Vickery 2011 pp 404 405 a b Hubert 2012 p 22 a b Vickery 2011 p 406 a b Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 494 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 493 Whitmore 2011 pp 186 187 Kiernan 2009 p 104 Whitmore 2011 pp 190 192 Kiernan 2009 p 105 Whitmore 2011 p 196 a b Kiernan 2009 pp 109 110 Vickery 2011 p 407 Southern Champa however remained intact a b Tran amp Lockhart 2011 p 10 Nakamura 2020 p 32 Kiernan 2009 p 110 Hubert 2012 p 23 Juergensmeyer amp Roof 2011 p 1210 Schliesinger 2015 p 18 Wong 2008 p 67 Wong 2008 p 68 Weber 2012 pp 164 166 Weber 2012 pp 166 173 Wong 2008 pp 72 74 Wong 2008 p 73 a b Weber 2012 p 165 Hubert 2012 p 25 Weber 2012 pp 173 175 Weber 2012 pp 176 178 Weber 2012 p 174 Wong 2008 p 71 Wong 2008 p 74 Lockhart 2011 p 14 Kiernan 2019 p 328 Sử dụng trong giai đoạn 192 1474 Sử dụng trong giai đoạn 1474 1832 Whitmore 2011 p 179 Deb Raja Radhakanda 2006 Shabdakalpa druma Nag publishers Momorki 2011 pp 129 130 Whitmore 2011 p 178 Nakamura 2020 p 17 Nakamura 2020 p 22 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 p 29 Momorki 2011 p 125 Momorki 2011 p 124 Tran Ky Phong 2015 The Military History of the Champa Kingdom Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Wales H G Quaritch 1950 The Champa Kingdom and its Military Journal of the Siam Society Tran Ky Phuong 1994 The Military Institutions of the Champa Kingdom Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient Whitmore John K 1977 The Military Institutions of the Champa Kingdom Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vegh Viktoria 2015 Warfare and the Champa State Fifth to Fifteenth Centuries CE Journal of Vietnamese Studies Campbell Brian Tritle Lawrence A The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World Hubert 2012 p 18 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 pp Preface xv 1 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 pp 9 10 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 p 30 Diffloth 2011 pp 354 356 Diffloth 2011 pp 357 359 Thurgood 2021 p 681 Diffloth 2011 p 360 Tran amp Lockhart 2011 pp 29 30 Vickery 2011 p 388 KINGDOM OF CHAMPA Archived from the original on 3 May 2012 Retrieved 29 May 2012 Higham 2014 pp 311 318 Higham 2014 p 318 Momorki 2011 p 129 Whitmore 2011 p 174 Vickery 2011 p 387 Whitmore 2011 p 171 a b Higham 2014 p 318 ibid Rutherford Insight Guide Vietnam pg 256 a b c Yoshimoto 2011 p 325 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 338 Yoshimoto 2011 p 323 Yoshimoto 2011 p 324 Yoshimoto 2011 p 326 Hubert 2012 p 31 Ngo 2005 p 68ff Ngo 2005 p 69 Guy 2011 p 314 Guy 2011 p 316 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 344 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 339 Murphy 2019 pp 304 305 Murphy 2019 p 306 Murphy 2019 p 307 Murphy 2019 p 318 Murphy 2019 p 319 Murphy 2019 p 321 Noseworthy 2017 Nakamura 2020 p 27 Nakamura 2020 p 98 Nakamura 2020 p 101 Nakamura 2020 p 112 Nakamura 2020 p 13 Nakamura 2020 p 114 Maspero 2002 p 114 Taylor 2007 p 72 Yoshimoto 2011 p 327 Yoshimoto 2011 p 328 Yoshimoto 2011 p 329 Hubert 2012 p 43 Hardy 2009 pp 110 111 a b c Hardy 2009 p 111 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 436 Hardy 2009 p 113 Hardy 2009 p 114 Hardy 2009 pp 111 112 Miksic amp Yian 2016 pp 494 495 Nakamura 2020 pp 32 33 Marrison 1985 p 45 a b Hardy 2009 p 116 Momorki 2011 p 131 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 342 Hardy 2009 p 107 Miksic amp Yian 2016 p 188 Hardy 2009 p 108 Hardy 2009 pp 108 109 Hardy 2009 p 109 Kiernan 2009 p 102 Federico Lunardi Honduras maya Etnologia de Honduras 1948 p 51 tellurem reperit vasta nomine incolarum Quiriquetanam ipse vero Ciambam nuncupavit Pietro Martire d Anghiera De Orbe Novo Decades 1502 Quarte navigationis Coloni descriptio in Guglielmo Berchet ed Fonti italiane per la Storia della Scoperta del Nuovo Mondo Reale Commissione Colombiana pel Quarto Centenario dalla Scoperta del l America Raccolta di Documenti e Studi Parte III Volume II Roma Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione 1893 p 33 Hardy 2009 p 110 Nakamura 2020 p 86 Nakamura 2020 p 92 Vickery 2011 p 366 a b Marrison 1985 p 52 a b Higham 2014 p 320 Mya Chau 2021 Mỹ Sơn Hindu temple complex Khan Academy Higham 2014 pp 320 321 Vickery 2011 p 392 Vickery 2011 p 365 Guy 2011 p 317 Higham 2014 pp 321 323 325 Higham 2014 p 322 a b Higham 2014 p 322 ibid Higham 2014 p 321 Higham 2014 p 321 ibid Tran 2011 p 269 Miksic amp Yian 2016 pp 433 434 a b Vu 2017 p 11 Tran 2011 p 272 Tran 2011 p 273 Tran 2011 p 271 Tran 2011 p 274 Hubert 2012 pp 34 37 Vu 2017 pp 21 22 Weber 2012 p 175 a b Lockhart 2011 p 40 References EditCœdes George 1968 Walter F Vella ed The Indianized States of Southeast Asia trans Susan Brown Cowing University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 824 80368 1 Griffiths Arlo Hardy Andrew Wade Geoff eds 2019 Champa Territories and Networks of a Southeast Asian Kingdom Danang Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient ISBN 978 2 85539 269 1 Murphy Stephen A 2019 Cultural Connections and Shared Origins between Campa and Dvaravati A Comparison of Common Artistic and Architectural Motifs ca 7th 10th Centuries ce in Griffiths Arlo Hardy Andrew Wade Geoff eds Champa Territories and Networks of a Southeast Asian Kingdom Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient pp 303 321 Hardy Andrew David Cucarzi Mauro Zolese Patrizia 2009 Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn Vietnam NUS Press ISBN 978 9971 69 451 7 Hardy Andrew David 2009 Eaglewood and the Economic History of Champa and Central Vietnam in Hardy Andrew David Cucarzi Mauro Zolese Patrizia eds Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn Vietnam NUS Press pp 107 127 ISBN 978 9 9716 9451 7 Higham Charles 2014 Early Mainland Southeast Asia From First Humans to Angkor Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 6 16733 944 3 Hubert Jean Francois 8 May 2012 The Art of Champa Parkstone International ISBN 978 1 78042 964 9 Juergensmeyer Mark Roof Wade Clark 2011 Encyclopedia of Global Religion SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1 4522 6656 5 Kiernan Ben 2009 Blood and Soil A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 14425 3 Kiernan Ben 2019 Việt Nam a history from earliest time to the present Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 190 05379 6 Lafont Pierre Bernard 2007 Le Campa Geographie Population Histoire Les Indes savantes ISBN 9782846541626 Marrison G E 1985 The Cham and their literature Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 58 2 45 70 via JSTOR Maspero Georges 1 January 2002 The Champa Kingdom The History of an Extinct Vietnamese Culture White Lotus Press ISBN 978 974 7534 99 3 Miksic John Norman Yian Goh Geok 2016 Ancient Southeast Asia Routledge ISBN 978 0 41573 554 4 Ngo Văn Doanh 2002 Chămpa Ancient Towers Hanoi Thế Giới Publishers Ngo Văn Doanh 2005 Mỹ Sơn Relics Thế Giới Publishers Noseworthy William 2017 Cham Bani also known as Localized Shi a Cham Muslims in Vietnam Bani Islam Database of Religious History University of British Columbia Grant Anthony Sidwell Paul eds 2005 Chamic and Beyond Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages Australian National University ISBN 978 0 85883 561 0 Grant Anthony 2005 Effects of intimate multidirectional linguistic contact in Chamic in Grant Anthony Sidwell Paul eds Chamic and Beyond Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages Pacific Linguistics vol 2 Australian National University pp 37 106 Sidwell Paul 2005 Acehnese and the Aceh Chamic Language Family In Grant Anthony Sidwell Paul eds Chamic and Beyond Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages Pl 569 Pacific Linguistics Vol 569 Australian National University pp 211 231 doi 10 15144 PL 569 hdl 1885 84414 ISBN 978 0 85883 561 0 Nakamura Rie 2020 A Journey of Ethnicity In Search of the Cham of Vietnam Cambridge Scholars Publisher ISBN 978 1 52755 034 6 Sidwell Paul Jenny Mathias 2021 The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia A Comprehensive Guide De Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11055 814 2 Thurgood Graham 2021 The influence of contact between Austroasiatic and Austronesian in Paul Sidwell Mathias Jenny eds The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia A Comprehensive Guide De Gruyter pp 673 682 Jenny Mathias 2021 MSEA epigraphy in Paul Sidwell Mathias Jenny eds The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia A Comprehensive Guide De Gruyter pp 855 877 Schliesinger Joachim 11 January 2015 Ethnic Groups of Cambodia Vol 3 Profile of Austro Thai and Sinitic Speaking Peoples Booksmango ISBN 978 1 63323 240 2 Taylor Philip 2007 Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta Place and Mobility in the Cosmopolitan Periphery NUS Press Singapore ISBN 978 9971 69 361 9 Tran Ky Phuong Lockhart Bruce eds 2011 The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 9 971 69459 3 Lockhart Bruce 2011 Colonial and Post Colonial Constructions of Champa in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 1 54 ISBN 978 9 971 69459 3 Momorki Shiro 2011 Mandala Campa Seen from Chinese Sources in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 120 137 Whitmore John K 2011 The Last Great King of Classical Southeast Asia Che Bong Nga and Fourteenth Century Champa in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art University of Hawaii Press pp 168 203 Tran Quoc Vuong 2011 Việt Cham Cultural Contacts in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 263 276 Guy John 2011 Pan Asian Buddhism and the Bodhisattva Cult in Champa in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 300 322 Yoshimoto Yasuko 2011 A Study of the Almanac of the Cham in South Central Vietnam in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 323 336 Diffloth Gerard 2011 The Westward Expansion of Chamic Influence in Indochina A View from Historical Linguistics in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 348 362 Vickery Michael 2011 Champa Revised in Lockhart Bruce Trần Kỳ Phương eds The Cham of Vietnam History Society and Art Hawaii University of Hawaii Press pp 363 420 Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds 2018 Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture Reference Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series Bangkok River Books ISBN 978 6 16733 999 3 Hall Kenneth R 2018 Champa Ports of Trade Networking on the Coastline c 300 1500 CE in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 19 30 Whitmore John K 2018 Nagara Campa and the Vijaya turn in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 31 36 Tran Ky Phuong 2018 Rethinking Cham temple architecture and sculpture in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 37 44 Dhar P P 2018 The lives of temples in Champa in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 57 64 Schweyer A V 2018 Buddhism in Champa in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 71 78 Tu Grace Chao Hui 2018 Sinitic transfers into Cham art in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 79 88 Guy John 2018 Saiva ritual liṅgakosa and mukhakosa in Champa in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 89 96 Sharrock Peter D 2018 Cham Khmer interactions 1113 1220 CE in Tran Ky Phuong Vo Van Thang Sharrock Peter D eds Vibrancy in Stone Masterpieces of the Đa Nẵng Museum of Cham Sculpture River Books pp 111 119 Vu Hong Lien 2017 Cham Features in Buddhist Arts under the Ly Dynasty of Vietnam Weber Nicolas 2012 The destruction and assimilation of Campa 1832 35 as seen from Cam sources Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 43 1 158 180 doi 10 1017 S0022463411000701 S2CID 154818297 Wong Danny Tze Ken ed 2008 Memory and Knowledge of the Sea in Southeast Asia Kuala Lumpur University of Malaya Press ISBN 978 9 83957 636 8 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Champa This article s use of external links may not follow Wikipedia s policies or guidelines Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references July 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Research on Champa and its Evolution PDF Website of the Asia Research Institute including the working paper Champa Revised by Michael Vickery and the draft translation Champa in the Song hui yao by Geoff Wade Ken Danny Wong Tze 11 March 2004 Vietnam Champa Relations and the Malay Islam Regional Network in the 17th 19th Centuries Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia The Survivors of a Lost Civilisation Cham Muslims A look at Cambodia s Muslim minority Photos of Cham art exhibited in Vietnamese museums Plumeria flowers Champa Flowers La fleur de frangipaniers Hoa Sứ Hoa đại Hoa Champa Photographs of Champa Temples Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Champa amp oldid 1149391572, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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