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Harappa

Harappa (Punjabi pronunciation: [ɦəɽəppaː]; Urdu/Punjabi: ہڑپّہ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 km (15 mi) west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the Ravi River, which now runs 8 km (5.0 mi) to the north. The core of the Harappan civilization extended over a large area, from Gujarat in the south, across Sindh and Rajasthan and extending into Punjab and Haryana. Numerous sites have been found outside the core area, including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, not far from Iran.[1][2]

Harappan civilization
ہڑپّہ (in Urdu)
A view of Harappa's Granary and Great Hall
Shown within Pakistan
LocationSahiwal District, Punjab, Pakistan
Coordinates30°37′44″N 72°51′50″E / 30.62889°N 72.86389°E / 30.62889; 72.86389Coordinates: 30°37′44″N 72°51′50″E / 30.62889°N 72.86389°E / 30.62889; 72.86389
TypeSettlement
Area150 ha (370 acres)
History
PeriodsHarappa 1 to Harappa 5
CulturesIndus Valley Civilisation
Site notes
ConditionRuined
Ownership Pakistan
Public accessYes
Websitewww.harappa.com

The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Harappan civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture.[3] The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about 150 hectares (370 acres) with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time.[4][5] Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.

The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway. The current village of Harappa is less than 1 km (0.62 mi) from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today. In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work.[6]

History

 
Map showing the sites and extent of the Indus Valley civilisation. Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central Punjab. The Harappan architecture and Harappan Civilisation was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age.

The Harappan Civilisation has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh.[7] The civilisation, with a possible writing system, urban centres, drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857[8] when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.[9] Because of the reducing sea-levels certain regions in late Harappan period were abandoned .[10] Towards the end Harappan civilisation lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering.[11] As a result the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges cities developed.[10]

The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC. This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC. We then enter the Mature phase from 2600 BC to 2000 BC. This is when the great cities were at their height. Then, from around 2000 BC we have a steady disintegration that lasts till 1400 BC – what is usually called Late Harappan.[12] There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders. The evidence strongly points to natural causes. A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier.[13]

Culture and economy

The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers."[14] Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.

The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated,"[14] as well as "fowl for fighting".[15] Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.[16]

What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.[17] Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle.[18] Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).[19] Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety.

Trade

The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well as which served as trading centres.[20] They also traded extensively with people living in southern India, near modern-day Karnataka, to procure gold and copper from them.[citation needed]

Archaeology

 
Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa, ca. 2500. Hand-modeled terra-cotta figurines with polychromy.

The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:[5]

  1. Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC.
  2. Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC.
  3. Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC.
  4. Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC.
  5. Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC.

By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.[citation needed] Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.[original research?][citation needed]

In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.[21][22] Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".[21] Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.

The area of the late Harappan period consisted of areas of Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi).[23]

Early symbols similar to Indus script

Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project.[24] This primitive symbols is placed slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC.[24] These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet.[24]

Notes

 
Harappa. Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 B.C. Red pottery with red and black slip-painted decoration, 4 15/16 × 6 1/8 in. (12.5 × 15.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum.
Statuettes from Harappa
 
 
The controversial Harappa male torso (left). The discoverer, Madho Sarup Vats, claimed a Harappan date, but Marshall dated the statuette to Gupta period.[25] Another famous statuette from the site is the Harappa grey stone male dancer (right).
  • The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
  • Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC.
  • Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindhprovince of Pakistan. One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.

See also

References

  1. ^ Giosan, L., Clift, P. D., Macklin, M. G., Fuller, D. Q., Constantinescu, S., Durcan, J. A., ... & Syvitski, J. P. (2012). Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(26), E1688-E1694.
  2. ^ Dales, George F. (June 1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast". Antiquity. 36 (142): 86–92. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00029689. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 164175444.
  3. ^ Basham, A. L.; Dani, D. H. (Winter 1968–1969). "(Review of) A Short History of Pakistan: Book One: Pre-Muslim Period". Pacific Affairs. 41 (4): 641–643. doi:10.2307/2754608. JSTOR 2754608.
  4. ^ Fagan, Brian (2003). People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory. Pearson. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-13-111316-9.
  5. ^ a b "Archeological Site of Harappa". World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
  6. ^ Tahir, Zulqernain. 26 May 2005. Probe body on Harappa park, Dawn. Retrieved 13 January 2006. 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ Beck, Roger B. (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
  8. ^ Michel Danino. The Lost River. Penguin India.
  9. ^ Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of Daya Ram Sahni, who gets credit for preliminary excavations of Harappa.
  10. ^ a b Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. Routledge. p. 94.
  11. ^ Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. Routledge. p. 101.
  12. ^ "Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insights on Vedic Aryan issues", The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge, pp. 33–61, 2 August 2004, doi:10.4324/9780203641880-7, ISBN 978-0-203-64188-0, retrieved 30 March 2022
  13. ^ Q., Madella, Marco Fuller, Dorian (18 January 2006). Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration. Elsevier. OCLC 1103344632.
  14. ^ a b Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. Harappan Culture. Retrieved 13 January 2006.
  15. ^ [1] Poultry: Identification, Fabrication, Utilization by Thomas Schneller – Cengage Learning, 28 September 2009 – page 16
  16. ^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. New York: Norton. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.
  17. ^ Robbins Schug, Gwen (2012). "A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa" (PDF). International Journal of Paleopathology. 2 (2–3): 136–147. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012. PMID 29539378. S2CID 3933522.
  18. ^ Robbins Schug, Gwen; Blevins, K. Elaine; Cox, Brett; Gray, Kelsey; Mushrif-Tripathy, V. (17 December 2013). "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e84814. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884814R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3866234. PMID 24358372.
  19. ^ Robbins Schug, Gwen (2013). "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilisation". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e84814. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884814R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814. PMC 3866234. PMID 24358372.
  20. ^ Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. pp. 183–184, 394.
  21. ^ a b Subramaniam, T. S. (1 May 2006). . The Hindu. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 21 May 2008.
  22. ^ Subramaniam, T. S. (1 May 2006). . The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2008.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  23. ^ Kulke, Herman (2004). History of India. Routledge. p. 4.
  24. ^ a b c BBC, UK website. "Earliest writing found". BBC News. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
  25. ^ The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective by Gregory L. Possehl p.111

External links

  • Harappa.com
  • Harappa.info 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • "Harappa Town Planning"-article by Dr S. Srikanta Sastri
  • Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa

harappa, punjabi, pronunciation, ɦəɽəppaː, urdu, punjabi, ہڑپ, archaeological, site, punjab, pakistan, about, west, sahiwal, bronze, civilisation, more, often, called, indus, valley, civilisation, named, after, site, which, takes, name, from, modern, village, . Harappa Punjabi pronunciation ɦeɽeppaː Urdu Punjabi ہڑپ ہ is an archaeological site in Punjab Pakistan about 24 km 15 mi west of Sahiwal The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation is named after the site which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs 8 km 5 0 mi to the north The core of the Harappan civilization extended over a large area from Gujarat in the south across Sindh and Rajasthan and extending into Punjab and Haryana Numerous sites have been found outside the core area including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen dor on the Makran coast of Baluchistan not far from Iran 1 2 Harappan civilizationہڑپ ہ in Urdu A view of Harappa s Granary and Great HallShown within PakistanShow map of PakistanHarappa Punjab Pakistan Show map of Punjab PakistanLocationSahiwal District Punjab PakistanCoordinates30 37 44 N 72 51 50 E 30 62889 N 72 86389 E 30 62889 72 86389 Coordinates 30 37 44 N 72 51 50 E 30 62889 N 72 86389 E 30 62889 72 86389TypeSettlementArea150 ha 370 acres HistoryPeriodsHarappa 1 to Harappa 5CulturesIndus Valley CivilisationSite notesConditionRuinedOwnership PakistanPublic accessYesWebsitewww wbr harappa wbr comThe site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city which was part of the Harappan civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab and then the Cemetery H culture 3 The city is believed to have had as many as 23 500 residents and occupied about 150 hectares 370 acres with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase 2600 BC 1900 BC which is considered large for its time 4 5 Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore Multan Railway The current village of Harappa is less than 1 km 0 62 mi from the ancient site Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period it is a small crossroads town of 15 000 people today In 2005 a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work 6 Contents 1 History 2 Culture and economy 3 Trade 4 Archaeology 5 Early symbols similar to Indus script 6 Notes 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksHistory Edit Map showing the sites and extent of the Indus Valley civilisation Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization located in central Punjab The Harappan architecture and Harappan Civilisation was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age The Harappan Civilisation has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh approximately 6000 BC The two greatest cities Mohenjo daro and Harappa emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh 7 The civilisation with a possible writing system urban centres drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo daro in Sindh near Larkana and Harappa in west Punjab south of Lahore A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab India in the north to Gujarat in the south and east and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 8 when engineers constructing the Lahore Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found 9 Because of the reducing sea levels certain regions in late Harappan period were abandoned 10 Towards the end Harappan civilisation lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering 11 As a result the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges cities developed 10 The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC We then enter the Mature phase from 2600 BC to 2000 BC This is when the great cities were at their height Then from around 2000 BC we have a steady disintegration that lasts till 1400 BC what is usually called Late Harappan 12 There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders The evidence strongly points to natural causes A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier 13 Culture and economy EditThe Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia Both Mohenjo daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having differentiated living quarters flat roofed brick houses and fortified administrative or religious centers 14 Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi orthogonal type of civic layout and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation on the other hand were highly standardised and conform to a set scale of gradations Distinctive seals were used among other applications perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods Although copper and bronze were in use iron was not yet employed Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing wheat rice and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated and a number of animals including the humped bull was domesticated 14 as well as fowl for fighting 15 Wheel made pottery some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites A centralised administration for each city though not the whole civilisation has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity however it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf Mesopotamia and Egypt Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli 16 What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury 15 5 found in South Asian prehistory 17 Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle 18 Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G an ossuary located south east of the city walls 19 Furthermore rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety Trade EditThe Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia especially Elam among other areas Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well as which served as trading centres 20 They also traded extensively with people living in southern India near modern day Karnataka to procure gold and copper from them citation needed Archaeology Edit Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa ca 2500 Hand modeled terra cotta figurines with polychromy The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa s occupation 5 Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase c 3300 2800 BC Kot Dijian Early Harappan phase c 2800 2600 BC Harappan Phase c 2600 1900 BC Transitional Phase c 1900 1800 BC Late Harappan Phase c 1800 1300 BC By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small square steatite soapstone seals engraved with human or animal motifs A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo Daro and Harappa Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script citation needed Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis the signs remain undeciphered It is also unknown if they reflect proto Dravidian or other non Vedic language s The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan and India based scholars original research citation needed In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt tool with an inscription estimated to be up to 3 500 years old 21 22 Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu 21 Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin However the absence of a Bronze Age in South India contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures calls into question the validity of this hypothesis The area of the late Harappan period consisted of areas of Daimabad Maharashtra and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around 2 400 kilometres 1 500 mi 23 Early symbols similar to Indus script EditClay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa which were carbon dated 3300 3200 BC contain trident shaped and plant like markings It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script said Dr Richard Meadow of Harvard University Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project 24 This primitive symbols is placed slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia dated c 3100 BC 24 These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet 24 Notes Edit Harappa Fragment of Large Deep Vessel circa 2500 B C Red pottery with red and black slip painted decoration 4 15 16 6 1 8 in 12 5 15 5 cm Brooklyn Museum Statuettes from Harappa The controversial Harappa male torso left The discoverer Madho Sarup Vats claimed a Harappan date but Marshall dated the statuette to Gupta period 25 Another famous statuette from the site is the Harappa grey stone male dancer right The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725 185 BC uncalibrated or 3338 3213 3203 BC calibrated giving a midpoint of 3251 BC Kenoyer Jonathan Mark 1991 Urban process in the Indus Tradition A preliminary report In Harappa Excavations 1986 1990 A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism edited by Richard H Meadow 29 59 Monographs in World Archaeology No 3 Prehistory Press Madison Wisconsin Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC Mohenjo daro is another major city of the same period located in Sindhprovince of Pakistan One of its most well known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro See also EditCharles Masson First European explorer of Harappa Mohenjo daro Mehrgarh Ganeriwala Dholavira Lothal Harappan architecture Mandi Uttar Pradesh Sheri Khan Tarakai Sokhta Koh Kalibangan Rakhigarhi TaxilaReferences Edit Giosan L Clift P D Macklin M G Fuller D Q Constantinescu S Durcan J A amp Syvitski J P 2012 Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 26 E1688 E1694 Dales George F June 1962 Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast Antiquity 36 142 86 92 doi 10 1017 s0003598x00029689 ISSN 0003 598X S2CID 164175444 Basham A L Dani D H Winter 1968 1969 Review of A Short History of Pakistan Book One Pre Muslim Period Pacific Affairs 41 4 641 643 doi 10 2307 2754608 JSTOR 2754608 Fagan Brian 2003 People of the earth an introduction to world prehistory Pearson p 414 ISBN 978 0 13 111316 9 a b Archeological Site of Harappa World Heritage Centre UNESCO Retrieved 19 February 2013 Tahir Zulqernain 26 May 2005 Probe body on Harappa park Dawn Retrieved 13 January 2006 Archived 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine Beck Roger B 1999 World History Patterns of Interaction Evanston IL McDougal Littell ISBN 978 0 395 87274 1 Michel Danino The Lost River Penguin India Kenoyer J M 1997 Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley New insights from sand clay stones and were baked at very high temperature As early as 1826 Harappa located in west Punjab attracted the attention of Daya Ram Sahni who gets credit for preliminary excavations of Harappa a b Mcintosh Jane 2008 The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives Routledge p 94 Mcintosh Jane 2008 The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives Routledge p 101 Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa new insights on Vedic Aryan issues The Indo Aryan Controversy Routledge pp 33 61 2 August 2004 doi 10 4324 9780203641880 7 ISBN 978 0 203 64188 0 retrieved 30 March 2022 Q Madella Marco Fuller Dorian 18 January 2006 Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia a reconsideration Elsevier OCLC 1103344632 a b Library of Congress Country Studies 1995 Harappan Culture Retrieved 13 January 2006 1 Poultry Identification Fabrication Utilization by Thomas Schneller Cengage Learning 28 September 2009 page 16 Pollard Elizabeth 2015 Worlds Together Worlds Apart New York Norton p 67 ISBN 978 0 393 92207 3 Robbins Schug Gwen 2012 A peaceful realm Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa PDF International Journal of Paleopathology 2 2 3 136 147 doi 10 1016 j ijpp 2012 09 012 PMID 29539378 S2CID 3933522 Robbins Schug Gwen Blevins K Elaine Cox Brett Gray Kelsey Mushrif Tripathy V 17 December 2013 Infection Disease and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization PLOS ONE 8 12 e84814 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 884814R doi 10 1371 journal pone 0084814 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 3866234 PMID 24358372 Robbins Schug Gwen 2013 Infection Disease and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilisation PLOS ONE 8 12 e84814 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 884814R doi 10 1371 journal pone 0084814 PMC 3866234 PMID 24358372 Mcintosh Jane 2008 The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives ABC CLIO pp 183 184 394 a b Subramaniam T S 1 May 2006 Discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu The Hindu Archived from the original on 15 June 2006 Retrieved 21 May 2008 Subramaniam T S 1 May 2006 Significance of Mayiladuthurai find The Hindu Archived from the original on 30 April 2008 Retrieved 23 May 2008 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint unfit URL link Kulke Herman 2004 History of India Routledge p 4 a b c BBC UK website Earliest writing found BBC News Retrieved 17 July 2012 The Indus Civilization A Contemporary Perspective by Gregory L Possehl p 111External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harappa Harappa com Harappa info Archived 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Harappa Town Planning article by Dr S Srikanta Sastri Art of the Bronze Age Southeastern Iran Western Central Asia and the Indus Valley an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art fully available online as PDF which contains material on Harappa Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Harappa amp oldid 1145450790, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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