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Wikipedia

Megalith

April 12, 2023

A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. There are over 35,000 in Europe alone, located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea.[1]

Dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South Korea (c. 300 BC).
Megalithic Batu Brak in Batu Brak District, West Lampung Regency, Lampung Province, Indonesia (c. 2100 BC)
Megalithic grave Harhoog in Keitum, Sylt, Germany (c. 3000 BC)

The word was first used in 1849 by the British antiquarian Algernon Herbert in reference to Stonehenge[2][3] and derives from the Ancient Greek words "mega" for great and "lithos" for stone. Most extant megaliths were erected between the Neolithic period (although earlier Mesolithic examples are known) through the Chalcolithic period and into the Bronze Age.[4]

Types and definitions

While "megalith" is often used to describe a single piece of stone, it also can be used to denote one or more rocks hewn in definite shapes for special purposes.[5] It has been used to describe structures built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods.[citation needed] The most widely known megaliths are not tombs.[6]

Single stones

 
Dolmen in Sumatra Liwa, Indonesia c. 2100 BC
 
The largest megalith of the ancient world, found in Baalbek, Lebanon, was quarried during the Roman Empire[7]
Menhir
Menhir is the name used in Western Europe for a single upright stone erected in prehistoric times; sometimes called a "standing stone".[8]
Monolith
Any single standing stone erected in prehistoric times.[9]
Capstone style
Single megaliths placed horizontally, often over burial chambers, without the use of support stones.[10]

Multiple stones

Alignments
Multiple megaliths placed in relation to each other with intention. Often placed in rows or spirals. Some alignments, such as the Carnac Stones in Brittany, France consist of thousands of stones.
Megalithic walls
Also called Cyclopean walls[11]
Stone circles
In most languages stone circles are called "cromlechs" (a word in the Welsh language); the word "cromlech" is sometimes used with that meaning in English.
Dolmen
A Dolmen is a stone table, consisting of a wide stone supported by several other stones[12]
Cist
A Cist is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. Burials are megalithic forms very similar to dolmens in structure. These type of burials were completely underground.[citation needed]

Timeline

Mesolithic

  • c. 7400 BC: A 12 m long monolith probably weighing around 15,000 kg found submerged 40 m under water in the Strait of Sicily south-west of Sicily. Its origin and purpose are unknown.[13]

Neolithic

 
Spread of megalithic culture in Europe
 
Klekkende Høj passage grave, Denmark, c. 3500-2800 BC

Chalcolithic

  • c. 2500 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Le Menec, Kermario and elsewhere), Italy (Otranto), Sardinia, and Scotland (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic Bell-beaker culture in Iberia, Germany, and the British Isles (stone circle at Stonehenge). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic, the age of copper.
  • c. 2500 BC: Tombs at Algarve, Portugal.[19] Additionally, a problematic dating (by optically stimulated luminescence) of Quinta da Queimada Menhir in western Algarve indicates "a very early period of megalithic activity in the Algarve, older than in the rest of Europe and in parallel, to some extent, with the famous Anatolian site of Göbekli Tepe"[20]
  • c. 2400 BC: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time.

Stone Age

  • c. 2100 BC:The highest plateau Lampung, West Lampung Regency, Batu Brak Liwa, Indonesia Megalith Site.

Bronze Age

 
Daorson, Bosnia, built around a prehistoric central fortified settlement or acropolis (existed there cca. 17–16th to the end of the Bronze Age, cca. 9–8th c. BCE), surrounded by cyclopean walls (similar to Mycenae) dated to the 4th c. BCE.[21][22]
  • c. 2000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Er Grah), Italy : (Bari); Sicily (Cava dei Servi, Cava Lazzaro);, and Scotland (Callanish). The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe.
  • c. 1800 BC: Constructions in Italy (Giovinazzo, in Sardinia started the nuragic civilisation).
  • c. 1500 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Alter Pedroso and Mourela).
  • c. 1400 BC: Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark, whose body is today one of the best-preserved examples of its kind.
  • c. 1200 BC: Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the Invasions of the Sea Peoples.[citation needed] Megalithic construction persisted in Egypt into the Iron Age.[a]

Geographic distribution of megaliths

Megalithic sites in Turkey

 
Göbekli Tepe

Göbekli Tepe

At a number of sites in southeastern Turkey, ceremonial complexes with large T-shaped megalithic orthostats, dating from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN, c. 9600–7000 cal BC), have been discovered.

At the most famous of these sites, Göbekli Tepe, parts of the oldest level (III) have been C14-dated as far back as to the mid-10th millennium BC (cal).[23] On this level, 20 great stone circles (up to 20 meters in diameter) with standing stones up to 7 meters high have been identified.[24] At least 5 of these circles have so far (as of 2019) been excavated.[25] Many of the standing stones are richly ornamented with carved reliefs of "[b]ears, boars, snakes, foxes, wildcats, aurochs, gazelle, quadruped reptiles, birds, spiders, insects, quadrupeds, scorpions" and other animals; in addition, some of the stones are carved in low profile with stylized human features (arms, hands, loincloths, but no heads).[26][27]

On the younger level (II) rectangular structures with smaller megaliths have been excavated. In the surrounding area, several village sites incorporating elements similar to those of Göbekli Tepe have been identified.[28] Four of these have Göbekli Tepe's characteristic T-shaped standing stones, though only one of them, Nevalı Çori, has so far been excavated.[29] At Göbekli Tepe itself, no traces of habitation have so far been found, nor any trace of agriculture or cultivated plants, though bones of wild animals and traces of wild edible plants, along with many grinding stones, have been unearthed.[30] It is thus assumed that these structures (which have been characterized as the first known ceremonial architecture)[31] were erected by hunter-gatherers.

Göbekli Tepe's oldest structures are about 7,000 years older than the Stonehenge megaliths, although it is doubtful that any of the European megalithic traditions (see below) are derived from them.[32]

Middle Eastern megaliths

See also: Matzevah
 
Standing stone at Ader, Southern Jordan

Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo, southwards down to Yemen. They can be encountered in Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley; these are threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age.[33] Megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and Pirazmian in Iran, at Barda Balka in Iraq.

 
Megalithic structure at Atlit Yam, Israel

A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam, a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early example, dating from the 7th millennium BC.[34]

The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia.

 
Standing stone in Amman, Jordan.

The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the area and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as at Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10–22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating standing stones continued in Nabatean times. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles, also occur in the Middle East.

European megaliths

 
Triangular prismatic megalith of Valle Levante, Fondachelli-Fantina, Sicily

The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb—a chamber consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many portal tombs have been found to contain human remains, but it is debated if their primary function was use as burial sites. The megalithic structures in the northwest of France are believed to be the oldest in Europe based on radiocarbon dating.[35] Though generally known as "dolmens", the term most accepted by archaeologists is "portal tomb". Local names for portal tombs exist in multiple locations, such as anta in Galicia and Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia, hunebed in the Netherlands, Hünengrab in Germany, dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds.

The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.

The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and German Steinkisten belong to this group.

Standing stones, or menhirs as they are known in France, are very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted.[citation needed] Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight.[citation needed] In some areas, long and complex "alignments" of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at Carnac in Brittany, France.[citation needed]

In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which examples include Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur, near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages.

Tombs

 
Large T shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, Netherlands.

Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone.

 
Construction of a megalith grave

There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow.

In Italy, dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia. There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500–2700 BC) and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada (near Mores). During the Bronze Age, the Nuragic civilization built c. 800 Giants' grave, a type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so-called Arzachena culture, also found in Corsica, southern France and eastern Spain.

 
Dolmen of Monte Bubbonia (Sicily)

Dolmens are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne (Palermo), Sciacca (Agrigento), Monte Bubbonia (Caltanissetta), Butera (Caltanissetta), Cava Lazzaro (Siracusa), Cava dei Servi (Ragusa), Avola (Siracusa), and Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona (Messina). Dating to the Early Bronze Age (2200–1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi, archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics (Early Bronze Age) which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact.[36]

 
Eagle, one of the Megaliths of Argimusco, Sicily

Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living.

 
Saint-Michel tumulus, megalith grave in Brittany

Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of pre-historic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.

Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at Louisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm.[37]

Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.

Other structures

 
Cup and ring marks, in England

In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs—ditches and banks (like the Dorset Cursus), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia (the prehistoric step pyramid).

Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe

 
Nuraghe in Sardinia

In Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late Stone Age and Chalcolithic or Copper Age (4500–1500 BC). The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structures made by a Nuragic civilisation, called Nuraghe: buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near giant's grave or the other megalithic monuments.

 
Tumulus of Kercado, near Carnac. Smaller but older structure in the area. (Part of the Cairn is visible)

The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones. Pierre Jean-Baptiste Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen, both taken from the Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as Gallic tombs. In Britain, the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques, where he proposed a Celtic stone cult. This unproven connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since.[citation needed] In Belgium, there are the Wéris megaliths at Wéris, a little town situated in the Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of Drenthe. Knowth is a passage grave of the Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c. 3500–3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.

African megaliths

North Africa

Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day Cairo.[38] By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks the summer solstice.[39] Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle.[40] There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.

At Nabta Playa, located in Egypt and broader region of the Eastern Sahara, there is a megalithic cultural complex (e.g., sacrificed cow burial site, solar calendar, altar) that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE.[41] Likely part of Copper Age and Bronze Age cultural traditions of megalith-building, megaliths (e.g., dolmens) were constructed in Mediterranean North Africa.[41]

West Africa

In Cross-River State, Nigeria, there are megalithic monoliths of an anthropomorphic nature.[41] At Tondidarou, in the Malian Lakes Region, there are megaliths of an anthropomorphic nature (e.g., face, navel, scarifications) that date between 600 CE and 700 CE.[41] Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, Senegambian megaliths (e.g., tumuli) were constructed for the purpose of ancestral reverence.[41]

Central Africa

In the northwestern region of the Central African Republic, there are megaliths that were created for various purposes (e.g., burial, ritual performances).[41] Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid-2nd millennium CE, megaliths (e.g., monuments, cairn burials) were constructed in the regions (e.g., Eastern Adamawa, Oubanguian Ridge, Chad/Congo watershed) in Central African Republic and Cameroon, throughout various periods (e.g., Balimbé: 2000 BCE – 1000 BCE; Early Gbabiri: 950 BCE – 200 BCE; Late Gbabiri: 200 BCE – 500 CE; Bouboun: 500 CE – 1600 CE), for various purposes (e.g., ritual practices, territorial marking).[41]

Eastern Africa

In the Ethiopian Highlands of Harar, the earliest construction of megaliths occurred.[41] From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, tumuli with burial chambers organized in cemeteries), the subsequent traditions in other areas of Ethiopia likely developed.[41] In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of Axum developed a megalithic stelae-building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the Christian period of Axum.[41] In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory.[41] Sidamo Province has the most megaliths in Ethiopia.[41] In 2nd millennium BCE, Namoratunga (Monolith Circles) megaliths were constructed as burials the eastern Turkana region of northwestern Kenya.[41]

Namoratunga, a group of megaliths dated 300 BC, was used by Cushitic-speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This site was excavated by B. N. Lynch and L. H. Robins of Michigan State University.[42]

Additionally, Tiya in central Ethiopia has a number of old megaliths. Some of these ancient structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area.

Southern Africa

In the mid-2nd millennium CE, the megalithic funerary monuments of Madagascar were constructed amid the emergent period of the Merina Kingdom.[41] Some of the megaliths remain utilized by Malagasy-speakers for funerary practices (e.g., ceremony of turning the dead) in present-day.[41]

Asian megaliths

 
Northern-style megalithic burial dolmen from Ganghwa Island, South Korea.

Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the Liaoning, Shandong, and Zhejiang in China, the East Coast of Taiwan, Kyūshū and Shikoku in Japan, Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and South Asia. Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula.[43][44] Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen).

North East Asia

Northern style

Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated from Gojoseon, which was in modern-day Manchuria and North Korea. This was prominent within the Liao River basin in particular in the early phases.[45][46] The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist.[47] An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. Few northern-style megaliths in North Korea and Manchuria contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals.[48] However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.

Southern style
 
Representations of a dagger (right) and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim-dong, Yeosu, Korea.

Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period.[47][48] Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type.

As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals.[49] The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.

Capstone style
 
Example of a southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South Korea

These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles.[50] A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700–550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56×18 m in size.

Southeast Asia

Main article: Archaeology of Indonesia
Living megalith culture of Indonesia
 
Toraja monolith, c. 1935.

The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian and Melanesians megalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias, an isolated island off the western coast of North Sumatra, the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra, on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century.[citation needed]

Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, and ancestral stone statues were discovered in various sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, and New Guinea.[51]

The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi.[52][53]

Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.[54]

South Asia

See also: Archaeology in India
 
Cross section of a megalithic burial site

Megaliths in South Asia are dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India.[55] Megaliths are found in almost all parts of South Asia. There is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and the upper Indus valley where the oldest megaliths are found, while those in the east are of much later date.[56][57] A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals, including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. The case-example is that of Brahmagiri, which was excavated by Wheeler (1975) and helped establish the culture sequence in south Indian prehistory. However, there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials.[56]

 
Megalithic dolmen in Marayoor, India.

In South Asia, megaliths of all kinds are noted; these vary from Menhirs, Rock-cut burial, chamber tomb, dolmens, stone alignment, stone circles and anthropomorphic figures.[58] These are broadly classified into two (potentially overlapping) classes (after Moorti, 1994, 2008): Sepulchral (containing remains of the dead), or memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed; and Non-sepulchral including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area. The 'non-sepulchral' type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world (Menon and Vahia, 2010).[59]

In the context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India, (Rao 1988/1999, Upinder Singh 2008) note that it is unclear what these giant anthropomorphs symbolize. They usually occur in association with megalithic monuments and are located in megalithic burial grounds, and may have been connected with ancestor worship.[60][61]

Melanesian megaliths

Megaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia, mainly in Milne Bay Province, Fiji and Vanuatu. Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2,000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites.

Micronesian megaliths

Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from the ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohnpei was probably inhabited as early as c. 800, probably as artificial islands, with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000 to 1400 AD.

Modern theories

Purposes

Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory, being reminder of past events, to being part of the society's religion.[62] Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much as the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the indigenous peoples of India, Malaysia, Polynesia, North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility.[63] In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture"[64] (hyperdiffusionism, e. g. "the Manchester school",[65] by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods.[citation needed] Nor is it believed any longer that there was a pan-European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote, "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!".[66]

Methods of construction

Much scholarship over history has suggested that Stone Age peoples moved the large stones on cylindrical wooden rollers. However, there is some disagreement with this theory, specifically as experiments have indicated that this method is impractical on uneven ground. In some contemporary megalith building cultures, such as in Sumba, Indonesia, great emphasis is placed on the social status of moving heavy stones without the relief of rollers. In the majority of documented contemporary megalithic-building communities, the stones have been placed on timber sledges and dragged without rollers.[67]

Types of megalithic structure

The types of megalithic structure can be divided into two categories, the "polylithic type" and the "monolithic type".[68] Different megalithic structures include:

Polylithic type
Monolithic type

Contemporary megalith-building cultures

The Toraja of Indonesia

The megalithic culture of the Toraja people in the mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia dates back to around 2500–1000 BC.[70][better source needed]

The Marapu of Indonesia

In West Sumba, Indonesia, the more than 20,000 followers[71] of the Marapu animist religion construct monolithic tombs by hand. Originally built with slave labor, the large tombs of nobles are now built by a class of dependents who are paid either in animals or cash (an amount equal to $0.65–0.90 per day). The tombs are planned long in advance, with families sometimes going into extreme debt to finance the construction. In 1971, one leading family sacrificed 350 buffalo over the course of a year in order to feed the 1,000 people necessary to drag the capstone 3 km from the quarry to the tombsite.[72]

Quarrying the stones for a tomb can take almost a month and typically involves 20–40 laborours, sometimes subcontracted by a relative. It can be months or years before the stones are actually transported to the gravesite, which is done traditionally by hand, using a wooden sled and rollers with the help of many members of the family's clan. Building the sled itself can take several days, and typically males between the ages of 10–60 are assembled to pull the stone from the quarry to the tombsite. Smaller capstones may be moved by a few hundred members of a clan, but larger ones can involve upwards of 2,000 individuals over many days. Sometimes the stones are draped with woven cloths given as gifts by relatives of the owner. The sidewalls are smaller and usually require fewer participants. The entire process is accompanied by large feasts and ritual singers provided by the owner. Some contemporary practitioners now choose to use large machinery and trucks to move the stones.

Once on site, the stones were traditionally assembled and mortared with a mix of water buffalo dung and ash, but are now more commonly cemented together. Typically, the walls are assembled first, and then the capstone is incrementally elevated to the height of the walls by means of a wood scaffolding which is inserted log by log at alternating ends. Once the capstone is at the correct height beside the walls it is slid into place above the tomb. Alternately, some tombs are constructed by dragging the capstone up a fabricated ramp and then assembling the sidewalls below it, before removing the ramp structure to let the capstone rest upon the walls. Often, but not always, the finished structure is decorated by a professional stone carver with symbolic motifs. The carving alone can at times take over a month to complete.[73]

References in literature

And Moses wrote down all the words of the Lord. He rose early in the morning and built an altar at the foot of the mountain, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel.

— The Old Testament, Book of Exodus, 24:4 (400 BC)[74]

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Construction of large stone monuments in the rest of the classical world consisted of assembled sections of relatively small stones, including most construction in Egypt. Elsewhere in the world some megalithic construction persisted: Occasionally large stone sculptures, relief carvings, and open pillared temples were carved in-place in cliff-faces, out of natural rock.[citation needed]

References

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  4. ^ Johnson, W. (1908) p. 67. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
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Articles

  • A Fleming, "Megaliths and post-modernism. The case of Wales". Antiquity, 2005.
  • A Fleming, "Phenomenology and the Megaliths of Wales: a Dreaming Too Far?". Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 1999
  • A Sherratt, "The Genesis of Megaliths". World Archaeology. 1990. (JSTOR)
  • A Thom, "Megaliths and Mathematics". Antiquity, 1966.
  • Turnbull, D (2002). "Performance and Narrative, Bodies and Movement in the Construction of Places and Objects, Spaces and Knowledges: The Case of the Maltese Megaliths". Theory, Culture & Society. 19 (5–6): 125–143. doi:10.1177/026327602761899183. S2CID 145375098.
  • G Kubler, "Period, Style and Meaning in Ancient American Art". New Literary History, Vol. 1, No. 2, A Symposium on Periods (Winter, 1970), pp. 127–144. doi:10.2307/468624
  • HJ Fleure, HJE Peake, "Megaliths and Beakers". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 60, Jan. – Jun., 1930 (Jan. – Jun., 1930), pp. 47–71. doi:10.2307/2843859
  • J McKim Malville, F Wendorf, AA Mazar, R Schild, "Megaliths and Neolithic astronomy in southern Egypt". Nature, 1998.
  • KL Feder, "Irrationality and Popular Archaeology". American Antiquity, Vol. 49, No. 3 (July 1984), pp. 525–541. doi:10.2307/280358
  • Hiscock, P (1996). . Archaeology in Oceania. 31 (3): 152–164. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1996.tb00358.x. Archived from the original on 2007-06-10.
  • MW Ovenden, DA Rodger, "Megaliths and Medicine Wheels". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 1978

Books

  • Asthana, S. (1976). History and archaeology of India's contacts with other countries, from earliest times to 300 B.C.. Delhi: B.R. Pub. Corp.
  • Deo, S. B. (1973). Problem of South Indian megaliths. Dharwar: Kannada Research Institute, Karnatak University.
  • Goblet d'Alviella, E., & Wicksteed, P. H. (1892). Lectures on the origin and growth of the conception of God as illustrated by anthropology and history. London: Williams and Norgate.
  • Goudsward, D., & Stone, R. E. (2003). America's Stonehenge: the . Boston: Branden Books.
  • Illustrated Encyclopedia of Humankind (The): Worlds Apart (1994) Weldon Owen Pty Limited
  • Keane, A. H. (1896). Ethnology. Cambridge: University Press.
  • Johnson, Walter (1908). Folk-Memory: Or, The Continuity of British Archaeology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Lancaster Brown, P. (1976). Megaliths, myths, and men: an introduction to astro-archaeology. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co.
  • Moffett, M., Fazio, M. W., & Wodehouse, L. (2004). A world history of architecture. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
  • Nelson, Sarah M. (1993) The Archaeology of Korea. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  • O'Kelly, M. J., et al. (1989). Early Ireland: An Introduction to Irish Prehistory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521336872
  • Parker, Joanne (editor) (2009). Written On Stone: The Cultural Reception of British Prehistoric Monuments (Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2009). ISBN 1443813389
  • Patton, Mark (1993). Statements in Stone: monuments and society in Neolithic Brittany. Routledge. 209 pages. ISBN 0415067294
  • Piccolo, Salvatore (2013). Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily. Thornham/Norfolk: Brazen Head Publishing. ISBN 978-0956510624
  • Pohribný, Jan (photo) & Richards, J (introduction) (2007). Magic Stones; the secret world of ancient megaliths. London: Merrell. ISBN 978-1858944135
  • Pozzi, Alberto (2013). Megalithism – Sacred and Pagan Architecture in Prehistory. Universal Publisher. ISBN 978-1612332550
  • Scheltema, H.G. (2008). Megalithic Jordan; an introduction and field guide. Amman, Jordan: The American Center of Oriental Research. ISBN 978-9957-8543-3-1
  • Stukeley, W., Burl, A., & Mortimer, N. (2005). Stukeley's 'Stonehenge': an unpublished manuscript, 1721–1724. New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University Press.
  • Subbayya, K. K. (1978). Archaeology of Coorg with special reference to megaliths. Mysore: Geetha Book House.
  • Tyler, J. M. (1921). The new stone age in northern Europe. New York: C. Scribner's Sons.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Megaliths.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Megalith.
 
Look up megalith in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Catalog of megaliths
  • MegalithicIreland.com
  • Dolmens, Menhirs & Stones-Circles in the South of France
  • Megaliths in Charente-Maritime, France
  • (archived 10 January 2007)
  • The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map
  • Index of Megalithic monuments in Ireland
  • The Modern Antiquarian
  • (archived 12 March 2012)
  • (archived 25 January 1999)

April 12, 2023
megalith, megalith, large, stone, that, been, used, construct, prehistoric, structure, monument, either, alone, together, with, other, stones, there, over, europe, alone, located, widely, from, sweden, mediterranean, dolmen, ganghwa, island, south, korea, batu. A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument either alone or together with other stones There are over 35 000 in Europe alone located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea 1 Dolmen at Ganghwa Island South Korea c 300 BC Megalithic Batu Brak in Batu Brak District West Lampung Regency Lampung Province Indonesia c 2100 BC Megalithic grave Harhoog in Keitum Sylt Germany c 3000 BC The word was first used in 1849 by the British antiquarian Algernon Herbert in reference to Stonehenge 2 3 and derives from the Ancient Greek words mega for great and lithos for stone Most extant megaliths were erected between the Neolithic period although earlier Mesolithic examples are known through the Chalcolithic period and into the Bronze Age 4 Contents 1 Types and definitions 1 1 Single stones 1 2 Multiple stones 2 Timeline 2 1 Mesolithic 2 2 Neolithic 2 3 Chalcolithic 2 4 Stone Age 2 5 Bronze Age 3 Geographic distribution of megaliths 3 1 Megalithic sites in Turkey 3 1 1 Gobekli Tepe 3 2 Middle Eastern megaliths 3 3 European megaliths 3 3 1 Tombs 3 3 2 Other structures 3 3 3 Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe 3 4 African megaliths 3 4 1 North Africa 3 4 2 West Africa 3 4 3 Central Africa 3 4 4 Eastern Africa 3 4 5 Southern Africa 3 5 Asian megaliths 3 5 1 North East Asia 3 5 1 1 Northern style 3 5 1 2 Southern style 3 5 1 3 Capstone style 3 5 2 Southeast Asia 3 5 2 1 Living megalith culture of Indonesia 3 5 3 South Asia 3 6 Melanesian megaliths 3 7 Micronesian megaliths 4 Modern theories 4 1 Purposes 4 2 Methods of construction 4 3 Types of megalithic structure 5 Contemporary megalith building cultures 5 1 The Toraja of Indonesia 5 2 The Marapu of Indonesia 6 References in literature 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10 1 Articles 10 2 Books 11 External linksTypes and definitions EditWhile megalith is often used to describe a single piece of stone it also can be used to denote one or more rocks hewn in definite shapes for special purposes 5 It has been used to describe structures built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods citation needed The most widely known megaliths are not tombs 6 Single stones Edit Dolmen in Sumatra Liwa Indonesia c 2100 BC The largest megalith of the ancient world found in Baalbek Lebanon was quarried during the Roman Empire 7 Menhir Menhir is the name used in Western Europe for a single upright stone erected in prehistoric times sometimes called a standing stone 8 Monolith Any single standing stone erected in prehistoric times 9 Capstone style Single megaliths placed horizontally often over burial chambers without the use of support stones 10 Multiple stones Edit Alignments Multiple megaliths placed in relation to each other with intention Often placed in rows or spirals Some alignments such as the Carnac Stones in Brittany France consist of thousands of stones Megalithic walls Also called Cyclopean walls 11 Stone circles In most languages stone circles are called cromlechs a word in the Welsh language the word cromlech is sometimes used with that meaning in English Dolmen A Dolmen is a stone table consisting of a wide stone supported by several other stones 12 Cist A Cist is a small stone built coffin like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead Burials are megalithic forms very similar to dolmens in structure These type of burials were completely underground citation needed Timeline EditMesolithic Edit c 7400 BC A 12 m long monolith probably weighing around 15 000 kg found submerged 40 m under water in the Strait of Sicily south west of Sicily Its origin and purpose are unknown 13 Neolithic Edit Spread of megalithic culture in Europe Klekkende Hoj passage grave Denmark c 3500 2800 BC c 9000 BC Constructions in Asia Minor Gobekli Tepe Nevali Cori and other sites perhaps proto Hattian citation needed a yet to be named culture the oldest discovered ceremonial structures in the world 14 15 c 7000 BC Construction in proto Canaanite Israel Atlit Yam c 6000 BC Constructions in Portugal Almendres Cromlech Evora Possibly first standing stones in Portugal 16 c 5000 BC Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period the age of agriculture along the western shores of Europe during the sixth millennium BC pottery culture of La Almagra Spain nearby perhaps precedent from Africa c 4800 BC Constructions in Brittany France 17 Barnenez and Poitou Bougon c 4500 BC Constructions in south Egypt Nabta Playa c 4300 BC Constructions in south Spain Dolmen de Alberite Cadiz c 4000 BC Constructions in Brittany Carnac Portugal Great Dolmen of Zambujeiro Evora France central and southern Corsica Spain Galicia England and Wales Constructions in Andalusia Spain Villa Martin Cadiz Construction in proto Canaanite Israel c 4000 3000 BC Constructions in the rest of the proto Canaanite Levant e g Rujm el Hiri and dolmens c 3700 BC Constructions in Ireland Knockiveagh and elsewhere c 3600 BC Constructions in Malta Skorba temples 18 A model of the prehistoric town of Los Millares with its walls Andalusia Spain c 3600 BC Constructions in England Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester and Malta Ġgantija and Mnajdra temples c 3500 BC Constructions in Spain Malaga and Guadiana Ireland south west France Arles and the north Malta and elsewhere in the Mediterranean Belgium north east and Germany central and south west c 3400 BC Constructions in Sardinia circular graves Ireland Newgrange Netherlands north east Germany northern and central Sweden and Denmark c 3300 BC Constructions in France Carnac stones c 3200 BC Constructions in Malta Ħaġar Qim and Tarxien c 3100 BC Constructions in Russia Dolmens of North Caucasus c 3000 BC Constructions in Sardinia earliest construction phase of the prehistoric altar of Monte d Accoddi France Saumur Dordogne Languedoc Biscay and the Mediterranean coast Spain Los Millares Sicily Belgium Ardennes and Orkney as well as the first henges circular earthworks in Britain Chalcolithic Edit c 2500 BC Constructions in Brittany Le Menec Kermario and elsewhere Italy Otranto Sardinia and Scotland northeast plus the climax of the megalithic Bell beaker culture in Iberia Germany and the British Isles stone circle at Stonehenge With the bell beakers the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic the age of copper c 2500 BC Tombs at Algarve Portugal 19 Additionally a problematic dating by optically stimulated luminescence of Quinta da Queimada Menhir in western Algarve indicates a very early period of megalithic activity in the Algarve older than in the rest of Europe and in parallel to some extent with the famous Anatolian site of Gobekli Tepe 20 c 2400 BC The Bell beaker culture was dominant in Britain and hundreds of smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time Stone Age Edit c 2100 BC The highest plateau Lampung West Lampung Regency Batu Brak Liwa Indonesia Megalith Site Bronze Age Edit Daorson Bosnia built around a prehistoric central fortified settlement or acropolis existed there cca 17 16th to the end of the Bronze Age cca 9 8th c BCE surrounded by cyclopean walls similar to Mycenae dated to the 4th c BCE 21 22 c 2000 BC Constructions in Brittany Er Grah Italy Bari Sicily Cava dei Servi Cava Lazzaro and Scotland Callanish The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe c 1800 BC Constructions in Italy Giovinazzo in Sardinia started the nuragic civilisation c 1500 BC Constructions in Portugal Alter Pedroso and Mourela c 1400 BC Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark whose body is today one of the best preserved examples of its kind c 1200 BC Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the Invasions of the Sea Peoples citation needed Megalithic construction persisted in Egypt into the Iron Age a Geographic distribution of megaliths EditMegalithic sites in Turkey Edit Gobekli Tepe Gobekli Tepe Edit At a number of sites in southeastern Turkey ceremonial complexes with large T shaped megalithic orthostats dating from the Pre Pottery Neolithic PPN c 9600 7000 cal BC have been discovered At the most famous of these sites Gobekli Tepe parts of the oldest level III have been C14 dated as far back as to the mid 10th millennium BC cal 23 On this level 20 great stone circles up to 20 meters in diameter with standing stones up to 7 meters high have been identified 24 At least 5 of these circles have so far as of 2019 been excavated 25 Many of the standing stones are richly ornamented with carved reliefs of b ears boars snakes foxes wildcats aurochs gazelle quadruped reptiles birds spiders insects quadrupeds scorpions and other animals in addition some of the stones are carved in low profile with stylized human features arms hands loincloths but no heads 26 27 On the younger level II rectangular structures with smaller megaliths have been excavated In the surrounding area several village sites incorporating elements similar to those of Gobekli Tepe have been identified 28 Four of these have Gobekli Tepe s characteristic T shaped standing stones though only one of them Nevali Cori has so far been excavated 29 At Gobekli Tepe itself no traces of habitation have so far been found nor any trace of agriculture or cultivated plants though bones of wild animals and traces of wild edible plants along with many grinding stones have been unearthed 30 It is thus assumed that these structures which have been characterized as the first known ceremonial architecture 31 were erected by hunter gatherers Gobekli Tepe s oldest structures are about 7 000 years older than the Stonehenge megaliths although it is doubtful that any of the European megalithic traditions see below are derived from them 32 Middle Eastern megaliths Edit See also Matzevah Standing stone at Ader Southern Jordan Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo southwards down to Yemen They can be encountered in Lebanon Syria Iran Israel Jordan and Saudi Arabia The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley these are threatened with destruction They date from the late Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age 33 Megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and Pirazmian in Iran at Barda Balka in Iraq Megalithic structure at Atlit Yam Israel A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam a site that is now under the sea It is a very early example dating from the 7th millennium BC 34 The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley with greater predominance on the eastern side They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights the Hauran and in Jordan which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East In Saudi Arabia only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz They seem however to re emerge in Yemen in small numbers and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia Standing stone in Amman Jordan The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East dating back from Mesopotamian times Although not always megalithic in the true sense they occur throughout the area and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases such as at Ader in Jordan This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament such as those related to Jacob the grandson of Abraham who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven Genesis 28 10 22 Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel The tradition of venerating standing stones continued in Nabatean times Related phenomena such as cupholes rock cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East European megaliths Edit Triangular prismatic megalith of Valle Levante Fondachelli Fantina Sicily The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb a chamber consisting of upright stones orthostats with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof Many portal tombs have been found to contain human remains but it is debated if their primary function was use as burial sites The megalithic structures in the northwest of France are believed to be the oldest in Europe based on radiocarbon dating 35 Though generally known as dolmens the term most accepted by archaeologists is portal tomb Local names for portal tombs exist in multiple locations such as anta in Galicia and Portugal stazzone in Sardinia hunebed in the Netherlands Hunengrab in Germany dysse in Denmark and cromlech in Wales It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds The second most common tomb type is the passage grave It normally consists of a square circular or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof accessed by a long straight passageway with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb Prominent examples include the sites of Bru na Boinne and Carrowmore in Ireland Maes Howe in Orkney and Gavrinis in France Poulnabrone portal tomb Ireland The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds The Irish court tombs British long barrows and German Steinkisten belong to this group Standing stones or menhirs as they are known in France are very common throughout Europe where some 50 000 examples have been noted citation needed Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight citation needed In some areas long and complex alignments of such stones exist the largest known example being located at Carnac in Brittany France citation needed In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle of which examples include Stonehenge Avebury Ring of Brodgar and Beltany These too display evidence of astronomical alignments both solar and lunar Stonehenge for example is famous for its solstice alignment Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe The circle at Lough Gur near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages Zorats Karer at Armenia Armenian Stonehenge Tombs Edit Large T shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger Odoorn Netherlands Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers built of large stone slabs megaliths laid on edge and covered with earth or other smaller stones They are a type of chamber tomb and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe the Mediterranean and neighbouring regions mostly during the Neolithic period by Neolithic farming communities They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone Construction of a megalith grave There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs The free standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany Denmark Germany Ireland Netherlands Sweden Wales and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three four or more standing stones They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow In Italy dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic 3500 2700 BC and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada near Mores During the Bronze Age the Nuragic civilization built c 800 Giants grave a type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so called Arzachena culture also found in Corsica southern France and eastern Spain Dolmen of Monte Bubbonia Sicily Dolmens are also in Apulia and in Sicily In this latter region they are small structures located in Mura Pregne Palermo Sciacca Agrigento Monte Bubbonia Caltanissetta Butera Caltanissetta Cava Lazzaro Siracusa Cava dei Servi Ragusa Avola Siracusa and Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona Messina Dating to the Early Bronze Age 2200 1800 BC the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics Early Bronze Age which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact 36 Eagle one of the Megaliths of Argimusco Sicily Examples with outer areas not used for burial are also known The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland the Severn Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features although the links between them are not yet fully understood That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living Saint Michel tumulus megalith grave in Brittany Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long term deposition of the remains of their dead and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of pre historic art carved into the stones at some sites Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at Louisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm 37 Despite its name the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary Other structures Edit Cup and ring marks in England In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe there are often large earthworks of various designs ditches and banks like the Dorset Cursus broad terraces circular enclosures known as henges and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d Accoddi in Sardinia the prehistoric step pyramid Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe Edit Nuraghe in Sardinia In Europe megaliths are in general constructions erected during the Neolithic or late Stone Age and Chalcolithic or Copper Age 4500 1500 BC The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England In Sardinia in addition to dolmens menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structures made by a Nuragic civilisation called Nuraghe buildings similar to towers sometimes with really complex structures made using only rocks They are often near giant s grave or the other megalithic monuments Tumulus of Kercado near Carnac Smaller but older structure in the area Part of the Cairn is visible The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones Pierre Jean Baptiste Legrand d Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen both taken from the Breton language into antiquarian terminology He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as Gallic tombs In Britain the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths In 1805 Jacques Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres precedees d une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides et suivies d Etymologie celtiques where he proposed a Celtic stone cult This unproven connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since citation needed In Belgium there are the Weris megaliths at Weris a little town situated in the Ardennes In the Netherlands megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country mostly in the province of Drenthe Knowth is a passage grave of the Bru na Boinne neolithic complex in Ireland dating from c 3500 3000 BC It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Europe with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations African megaliths Edit North Africa Edit Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert located 500 miles south of modern day Cairo 38 By the 5th millennium BC the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks the summer solstice 39 Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle 40 There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert At Nabta Playa located in Egypt and broader region of the Eastern Sahara there is a megalithic cultural complex e g sacrificed cow burial site solar calendar altar that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE 41 Likely part of Copper Age and Bronze Age cultural traditions of megalith building megaliths e g dolmens were constructed in Mediterranean North Africa 41 West Africa Edit In Cross River State Nigeria there are megalithic monoliths of an anthropomorphic nature 41 At Tondidarou in the Malian Lakes Region there are megaliths of an anthropomorphic nature e g face navel scarifications that date between 600 CE and 700 CE 41 Between 1350 BCE and 1500 1600 CE Senegambian megaliths e g tumuli were constructed for the purpose of ancestral reverence 41 Central Africa Edit In the northwestern region of the Central African Republic there are megaliths that were created for various purposes e g burial ritual performances 41 Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid 2nd millennium CE megaliths e g monuments cairn burials were constructed in the regions e g Eastern Adamawa Oubanguian Ridge Chad Congo watershed in Central African Republic and Cameroon throughout various periods e g Balimbe 2000 BCE 1000 BCE Early Gbabiri 950 BCE 200 BCE Late Gbabiri 200 BCE 500 CE Bouboun 500 CE 1600 CE for various purposes e g ritual practices territorial marking 41 Eastern Africa Edit In the Ethiopian Highlands of Harar the earliest construction of megaliths occurred 41 From this region and its megalith building tradition e g dolmens tumuli with burial chambers organized in cemeteries the subsequent traditions in other areas of Ethiopia likely developed 41 In the late 1st millennium BCE the urban civilization of Axum developed a megalithic stelae building tradition which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites that persisted until the Christian period of Axum 41 In the Sidamo Province the megalithic monoliths of the stelae building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries e g Arussi Konso Sedene Tiya Tuto Felo and have engraved anthropomorphic features e g swords masks phallic form and some of that served as markers of territory 41 Sidamo Province has the most megaliths in Ethiopia 41 In 2nd millennium BCE Namoratunga Monolith Circles megaliths were constructed as burials the eastern Turkana region of northwestern Kenya 41 Namoratunga a group of megaliths dated 300 BC was used by Cushitic speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days This site was excavated by B N Lynch and L H Robins of Michigan State University 42 Additionally Tiya in central Ethiopia has a number of old megaliths Some of these ancient structures feature engravings and the area is a World Heritage Site Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area Southern Africa Edit In the mid 2nd millennium CE the megalithic funerary monuments of Madagascar were constructed amid the emergent period of the Merina Kingdom 41 Some of the megaliths remain utilized by Malagasy speakers for funerary practices e g ceremony of turning the dead in present day 41 Asian megaliths Edit Northern style megalithic burial dolmen from Ganghwa Island South Korea Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula They are also found in the Liaoning Shandong and Zhejiang in China the East Coast of Taiwan Kyushu and Shikoku in Japan Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and South Asia Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea Archaeologists estimate that there are 15 000 to 100 000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula 43 44 Typical estimates hover around the 30 000 mark for the entire peninsula which in itself constitutes some 40 of all dolmens worldwide see Dolmen North East Asia Edit Northern style Edit Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated from Gojoseon which was in modern day Manchuria and North Korea This was prominent within the Liao River basin in particular in the early phases 45 46 The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct The earliest megalithic burials are called northern or table style because they feature an above ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist 47 An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber giving the appearance of a table top These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun pottery period c 1500 850 BC and are distributed with a few exceptions north of the Han River Few northern style megaliths in North Korea and Manchuria contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals 48 However whether a result of grave robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour most northern megaliths contain no grave goods Southern style Edit Representations of a dagger right and two human figures one of which is kneeling left carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No 5 Orim dong Yeosu Korea Southern style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period 47 48 Southern style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type As with northern megaliths southern examples contain few if any artifacts However a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red burnished pottery bronze daggers polished groundstone daggers and greenstone ornaments Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles Broken red burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals 49 The capstones of many southern megaliths have cup marks carvings A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations Capstone style Edit Example of a southern style dolmen at Ganghwa Island South Korea These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft sometimes up to 4 m in depth which is lined with large cobbles 50 A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones Capstone style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun c 700 550 BC and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon ni where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial No 1 with a massive rectangularly shaped stone and earthen platform Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature but the low platform was at least 56 18 m in size Southeast Asia Edit Main article Archaeology of Indonesia Living megalith culture of Indonesia Edit Toraja monolith c 1935 The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian and Melanesians megalith cultures both past and present Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias an isolated island off the western coast of North Sumatra the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi These megalith cultures remained preserved isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century citation needed Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia Menhirs dolmens stone tables and ancestral stone statues were discovered in various sites in Java Sumatra Sulawesi Lesser Sunda Islands and New Guinea 51 The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths stone terraces and sarcophagi 52 53 Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues mostly located in the Bada Besoa and Napu valleys 54 South Asia Edit See also Archaeology in India Cross section of a megalithic burial site Megaliths in South Asia are dated before 3000 BC with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India 55 Megaliths are found in almost all parts of South Asia There is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and the upper Indus valley where the oldest megaliths are found while those in the east are of much later date 56 57 A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available The case example is that of Brahmagiri which was excavated by Wheeler 1975 and helped establish the culture sequence in south Indian prehistory However there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials 56 Megalithic dolmen in Marayoor India In South Asia megaliths of all kinds are noted these vary from Menhirs Rock cut burial chamber tomb dolmens stone alignment stone circles and anthropomorphic figures 58 These are broadly classified into two potentially overlapping classes after Moorti 1994 2008 Sepulchral containing remains of the dead or memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed and Non sepulchral including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area The non sepulchral type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world Menon and Vahia 2010 59 In the context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India Rao 1988 1999 Upinder Singh 2008 note that it is unclear what these giant anthropomorphs symbolize They usually occur in association with megalithic monuments and are located in megalithic burial grounds and may have been connected with ancestor worship 60 61 Melanesian megaliths Edit Megaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia mainly in Milne Bay Province Fiji and Vanuatu Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2 000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia However very few megaliths have been dated The constructions have been used for different rituals For example tombs sacrifices and rituals of fecundity Dance sites exist next to some megaliths In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites Micronesian megaliths Edit Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae These building sites remote from the ocean appear to have been abandoned early Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common royal and religious structures Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohnpei was probably inhabited as early as c 800 probably as artificial islands with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000 to 1400 AD Modern theories EditPurposes Edit Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory being reminder of past events to being part of the society s religion 62 Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power much as the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs Amongst the indigenous peoples of India Malaysia Polynesia North Africa North America and South America the worship of these stones or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity is a possibility 63 In the early 20th century some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global Megalithic culture 64 hyperdiffusionism e g the Manchester school 65 by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods citation needed Nor is it believed any longer that there was a pan European megalithic culture although regional cultures existed even within such small areas as the British Isles The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles Ruggles amp Barclay 2000 figure 1 No one has ever been rash enough to claim a nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology 66 Methods of construction Edit Much scholarship over history has suggested that Stone Age peoples moved the large stones on cylindrical wooden rollers However there is some disagreement with this theory specifically as experiments have indicated that this method is impractical on uneven ground In some contemporary megalith building cultures such as in Sumba Indonesia great emphasis is placed on the social status of moving heavy stones without the relief of rollers In the majority of documented contemporary megalithic building communities the stones have been placed on timber sledges and dragged without rollers 67 Types of megalithic structure Edit The types of megalithic structure can be divided into two categories the polylithic type and the monolithic type 68 Different megalithic structures include Polylithic typeDolmen a free standing chamber consisting of standing stones covered by a capstone as a lid Dolmens were used for burial and were covered by mounds Great dolmens Rectangular dolmens Simple dolmens Polygonal dolmens Taula a straight standing stone topped with another forming a T shape Cistvaens Unchambered long barrows Guardian stones Passage grave Tumuli or barrows Cairns or Galgals Cromlech a Welsh term for a stone circle Cyclopean walls Kurgans Nuraghi Giant s grave Talayots Round Towers Marae Polynesia Ahus with Moai and Pukao Easter Island Monolithic typeMenhir a large single upright standing stone Baetylus Alignments 69 or Stone row avenues e g Linear arrangement of upright parallel standing stones Cycoliths or stone circles Trilithon Two parallel upright stones with a horizontal stone lintel placed on top e g Stonehenge Orthostat an upright slab forming part of a larger structure Stone ship Statues such as most moai Verraco central IberiaContemporary megalith building cultures EditThe Toraja of Indonesia Edit The megalithic culture of the Toraja people in the mountainous region of South Sulawesi Indonesia dates back to around 2500 1000 BC 70 better source needed The Marapu of Indonesia Edit In West Sumba Indonesia the more than 20 000 followers 71 of the Marapu animist religion construct monolithic tombs by hand Originally built with slave labor the large tombs of nobles are now built by a class of dependents who are paid either in animals or cash an amount equal to 0 65 0 90 per day The tombs are planned long in advance with families sometimes going into extreme debt to finance the construction In 1971 one leading family sacrificed 350 buffalo over the course of a year in order to feed the 1 000 people necessary to drag the capstone 3 km from the quarry to the tombsite 72 Quarrying the stones for a tomb can take almost a month and typically involves 20 40 laborours sometimes subcontracted by a relative It can be months or years before the stones are actually transported to the gravesite which is done traditionally by hand using a wooden sled and rollers with the help of many members of the family s clan Building the sled itself can take several days and typically males between the ages of 10 60 are assembled to pull the stone from the quarry to the tombsite Smaller capstones may be moved by a few hundred members of a clan but larger ones can involve upwards of 2 000 individuals over many days Sometimes the stones are draped with woven cloths given as gifts by relatives of the owner The sidewalls are smaller and usually require fewer participants The entire process is accompanied by large feasts and ritual singers provided by the owner Some contemporary practitioners now choose to use large machinery and trucks to move the stones Once on site the stones were traditionally assembled and mortared with a mix of water buffalo dung and ash but are now more commonly cemented together Typically the walls are assembled first and then the capstone is incrementally elevated to the height of the walls by means of a wood scaffolding which is inserted log by log at alternating ends Once the capstone is at the correct height beside the walls it is slid into place above the tomb Alternately some tombs are constructed by dragging the capstone up a fabricated ramp and then assembling the sidewalls below it before removing the ramp structure to let the capstone rest upon the walls Often but not always the finished structure is decorated by a professional stone carver with symbolic motifs The carving alone can at times take over a month to complete 73 References in literature EditAnd Moses wrote down all the words of the Lord He rose early in the morning and built an altar at the foot of the mountain and twelve pillars according to the twelve tribes of Israel The Old Testament Book of Exodus 24 4 400 BC 74 Gallery Edit Easter Island s Moai at Rano Raraku Inside the burial chamber at Mane Braz Brittany France Menhirs at the Almendres Cromlech Evora Portugal Megalithic tomb in Khakasiya Russian Federation Capstones of southern style megalithic burials in Guam ri Jeollabuk do Korea Ale s Stones at Kaseberga around ten kilometres south east of Ystad Sweden Bryn Celli Ddu in Wales Talaiot in Majorca Giant s grave near Dorgali in Sardinia Italy Deer stone near Moron in Mongolia the Great Menhir of Er Grah in Brittany the largest known single stone erected by Neolithic man which later fell down Taula in Talati de Dalt Menorca Megaliths with engraved figures in Tiya southern Ethiopia Dolmen of Avola Sicily Italy Dolmen at the Kuejiyeh dolmen field close to Madaba Jordan Dolmen of Menga in Antequera SpainSee also EditBilger s rocks British megalith architecture Irish megalithic tombs List of megalithic sites Megalithic monuments in Europe Megaliths in Mecklenburg Vorpommern Megaliths in the Urals Nature worship Nordic megalith architecture Plain of Jars ranging from the Khorat Plateau in Thailand in the south through Laos and to Dima Hasao of northerneastern India Strasse der Megalithkultur tourist route from Osnabruck to Oldenburg via some 33 Megalithic sites Unidentified submerged object Yonaguni Monument Stone circles of JunapaniNotes Edit Construction of large stone monuments in the rest of the classical world consisted of assembled sections of relatively small stones including most construction in Egypt Elsewhere in the world some megalithic construction persisted Occasionally large stone sculptures relief carvings and open pillared temples were carved in place in cliff faces out of natural rock citation needed References Edit Europe s Megalithic Monuments Originated in France and Spread by Sea Routes New Study Suggests Herbert A Cyclops Christianus or the supposed Antiquity of Stonehenge London J Petheram 1849 Europe s Mighty Megaliths Mark the Winter Solstice National Geographic Society 21 December 2017 Johnson W 1908 p 67 Retrieved July 28 2018 Price T Douglas Feinman Gary M 2005 Glossary Images of the Past 4th Student ed McGraw Hill Higher Education Archived from the original on 2017 09 30 Retrieved 2018 07 28 Glossary of Cemetery Terms Rochester s History An Illustrated Timeline Definition of megalith Archived from the original on 2013 06 05 Retrieved 2018 07 28 Baalbek myth megalith New Yorker Annals of Technology full citation needed menhir cambridge org full citation needed monolith cambridge org full citation needed no title cited english cha go kr full citation needed no title cited architetturadipietra it full citation needed Dolman Glosarium Online Retrieved 18 December 2022 Lodolo Emanuele Ben Avraham Ben September 2015 A submerged monolith in the Sicilian Channel central Mediterranean Sea Evidence for Mesolithic human activity Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 3 398 407 doi 10 1016 j jasrep 2015 07 003 Upper Mesopotamia SE Turkey N Syria and N Iraq 14 C databases 11th 6th millennia cal BC Archived from the original on 2009 03 13 Dietrich Oliver Schmidt Klaus 2010 A Radiocarbon Date from the Wall Plaster of Enclosure D of Gobekli Tepe Neo Lithics 2 10 82 83 David Calado Francisco Nocete Maria Dolores Camalich Dimas Martin Socas Jose Miguel Nieto Antonio Delgado Amelia Rodriguez Moises Bayona Esther Alex Nuno Inacio January 2010 Some stones can speak The social structure identity and territoriality of SW Atlantic Europe complex appropriator communities reflected in their standing stones In D Calado M Baldia M Boulanger eds Monumental Questions Prehistoric Megaliths Mounds and Enclosures BAR International Series Vol 2122 Oxford British Archaeological Reports pp 7 15 Gorman James 11 February 2019 Ancient European Stone Monuments Said to Originate in Northwest France The New York Times Megalithic Temples of Malta Archaeology Calado Manuel 2015 Menhirs of Portugal all Quiet on the Western Front Statues menhirs et pierres leveesdu Neolithique a aujourd hui Saint Pons de Thomieres Direction regionale des affaires culturelles Languedoc RoussillonGroupe Archeologique du Saint Ponais pp 243 253 Retrieved 2016 09 01 Seka Brkljaca 1996 Urbano bice Bosne i Hercegovine in Serbo Croatian Sarajevo Međunarodni centar za mir Institut za istoriju p 27 Retrieved 2021 10 28 The natural and architectural ensemble of Stolac UNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved 2021 10 28 Notroff Jens Dietrich Oliver January 2013 Establishing a radiocarbon sequence for Gobekli Tepe State of research and new data NeoLithics 1 13 36 47 The Site The Tepe Telegrams News amp Notes from the Gobekli Tepe Research Staff Retrieved 2019 08 04 Notroff Jens May 2017 Introducing Enclosure H Welcoming a new member to the Gobekli Tepe family The Tepe Telegrams News amp Notes from the Gobekli Tepe Research Staff Blog entry 26 Retrieved 2019 08 04 Dietrich Oliver August 2016 Emblematic signs On the iconography of animals at Gobekli Tepe The Tepe Telegrams News amp Notes from the Gobekli Tepe Research Staff Blog entry 16 Retrieved 2019 08 04 Birch Nicholas 22 April 2008 7 000 years older than Stonehenge The site that stunned archaeologists The Guardian London UK Dietrich Oliver August 2016 Who built Gobekli Tepe The Tepe Telegrams News amp Notes from the Gobekli Tepe Research Staff Blog entry 18 Retrieved 2019 08 04 Dietrich O Heun M Notroff J Schmidt K Zarnkow M 2012 The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities New evidence from Gobekli Tepe south eastern Turkey Antiquity 86 33 674 695 doi 10 1017 S0003598X00047840 Dietrich Laura et al 2019 Cereal processing at early Neolithic Gobekli Tepe southeastern Turkey PLOS ONE 14 5 e0215214 Bibcode 2019PLoSO 1415214D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0215214 PMC 6493732 PMID 31042741 The World s First Temple Archaeology magazine November December 2008 p 23 Mithen S 2003 After the Ice A global human History 21 000 5 000 BC London pp 62 71 Scheltema H G 2008 Megalithic Jordan an introduction and field guide Amman Jordan The American Center of Oriental Research Atlit Yam Israel a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help from the feature by Jo Marchant 28 November 2009 Drowned cities Myths and secrets of the deep a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Schulz Paulsson B 11 February 2019 Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian modeling support maritime diffusion model for megaliths in Europe Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 9 3460 3465 Bibcode 2019PNAS 116 3460S doi 10 1073 pnas 1813268116 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 6397522 PMID 30808740 Salvatore Piccolo op cit pp 14 17 Louisenlund taet ved Ostermarie pa Bornholm Europage dk in Danish Archived from the original on 2013 04 02 Retrieved 2012 11 14 Slayman Andrew L 27 May 1998 Neolithic skywatchers Archaeology Retrieved 2007 03 21 Alan Hall 6 April 1998 Ancient Alignments Scientific American Retrieved 2015 12 27 J Clendenon Nabta Archived from the original on 2009 05 03 Retrieved 2007 03 21 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Holl Augustin F C 2021 Megaliths in Tropical Africa Social Dynamics and Mortuary Practices in Ancient Senegambia Ca 1350 BCE 1500 CE International Journal of Modern Anthropology 2 15 363 412 doi 10 4314 ijma v2i15 1 Krup Edwin C 2003 Echoes of the Ancient Skies Courier Dover Publications pp 170 171 ISBN 0486428826 Goindol Megalith in Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon Dictionary of Korean Archaeology National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage ed NRICH Seoul ISBN 8955080255 pp 72 75 Rhee Song nai Choi Mong lyong 1992 Emergence of Complex Society in Prehistoric Korea Journal of World Prehistory 6 1 68 doi 10 1007 bf00997585 S2CID 145722584 Rhee amp Choi 1992 p 70 Nelson Sarah M 1999 Megalithic Monuments and the Introduction of Rice into Korea In C Gosden J Hather eds The Prehistory of Food Appetites for Change London Routledge pp 147 165 a b Rhee amp Choi 1992 p 68 a b Nelson 1999 GARI Gyeongnam Archaeological Research Institute 2002 Jinju Daepyeong Okbang 1 9 Jigu Mumun Sidae Jibrak The Mumun Period Settlement at Localities 1 9 Okbang in Daepyeong Jinju GARI Jinju Bale Martin T Excavations of Large scale Megalithic Burials at Yulha ri Gimhae si Gyeongsang Nam do in Early Korea Project Korea Institute Harvard University Retrieved 10 October 2007 Megalit Tutari Doyo Lama Sistem Registrasi Nasional Cagar Budaya 4 October 2017 Retrieved 2022 07 29 I G N Anom Sri Sugiyanti Hadniwati Hasibuan 1996 Maulana Ibrahim Samidi eds Hasil Pemugaran dan Temuan Benda Cagar Budaya PJP I in Indonesian Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan p 87 Cipari archaeological park discloses prehistoric life in West Java The Jakarta Post 10 May 1995 Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi Archived from the original on 2010 02 23 Retrieved 2009 12 10 P Pavan Megalith from 5000 BC found in Telangana Times of India a b Vahia N Menon M Abbas R Yadav N September 2010 Megaliths in Ancient India and their possible association to astronomy PDF 7th International Conference on Oriental Astronomy Japan Anuja Geetali 2002 Living Megalithic practices amongst the Madia gonds of Bhamragad District Gadchiroli Maharashtra Puratattva 32 1 244 Archived from the original on 2013 05 10 Retrieved 2009 06 18 Vahia et al 2010 p 4 Vahia et al 2010 pp 3 4 Singh Upinder 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India New Delhi Pearson Education p 252 ISBN 978 8131711200 Rao K P Megalithic Anthropomorphic Statues Meaning and Significance ResearchWorks Journal Hosting Goblet d Alviella et al 1892 pp 22 23 Goblet d Alviella et al 1892 p 23 Gaillard Gerald 2004 The Routledge Dictionary of Anthropologists Routledge ISBN 0415228255 p 48 Lancaster Brown P 1976 p 267 Mackoe Euan W The structure and skills of British Neolithic Society a brief response to Clive Ruggles amp Gordon Barclay Response Antiquity September 2002 Harris Barney 2018 Roll Me a Great Stone A Brief Historiography of Megalithic Construction and the Genesis of the Roller Hypothesis Oxford Journal of Archaeology 37 3 267 281 doi 10 1111 ojoa 12142 Keane A H 1896 p 124 Lancaster 1976 p 6 cf French word alignement is used to describe standing stones arranged in rows to form long processional avenues The Megaliths of Indonesia 12 February 2019 Marapu people struggle to get their beliefs recognized The Jjakarta Post 17 March 2014 Eveleigh Mark Sumba Inside Indonesia s secretive Marapu religion The Independent Sumba travel Indonesia travel London UK Archived from the original on 2022 05 12 Sumba s Marapu religion is possibly the most expensive to follow in the world The megalithic tradition PDF Passage to Indonesia Report West Sumba Exodus 24 4 ESV And Moses wrote down all the Biblia Retrieved 2022 12 18 Articles Edit A Fleming Megaliths and post modernism The case of Wales Antiquity 2005 A Fleming Phenomenology and the Megaliths of Wales a Dreaming Too Far Oxford Journal of Archaeology 1999 A Sherratt The Genesis of Megaliths World Archaeology 1990 JSTOR A Thom Megaliths and Mathematics Antiquity 1966 Turnbull D 2002 Performance and Narrative Bodies and Movement in the Construction of Places and Objects Spaces and Knowledges The Case of the Maltese Megaliths Theory Culture amp Society 19 5 6 125 143 doi 10 1177 026327602761899183 S2CID 145375098 G Kubler Period Style and Meaning in Ancient American Art New Literary History Vol 1 No 2 A Symposium on Periods Winter 1970 pp 127 144 doi 10 2307 468624 HJ Fleure HJE Peake Megaliths and Beakers The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Vol 60 Jan Jun 1930 Jan Jun 1930 pp 47 71 doi 10 2307 2843859 J McKim Malville F Wendorf AA Mazar R Schild Megaliths and Neolithic astronomy in southern Egypt Nature 1998 KL Feder Irrationality and Popular Archaeology American Antiquity Vol 49 No 3 July 1984 pp 525 541 doi 10 2307 280358 Hiscock P 1996 The New Age of alternative archaeology of Australia Archaeology in Oceania 31 3 152 164 doi 10 1002 j 1834 4453 1996 tb00358 x Archived from the original on 2007 06 10 MW Ovenden DA Rodger Megaliths and Medicine Wheels Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 1978 Books Edit Asthana S 1976 History and archaeology of India s contacts with other countries from earliest times to 300 B C Delhi B R Pub Corp Deo S B 1973 Problem of South Indian megaliths Dharwar Kannada Research Institute Karnatak University Goblet d Alviella E amp Wicksteed P H 1892 Lectures on the origin and growth of the conception of God as illustrated by anthropology and history London Williams and Norgate Goudsward D amp Stone R E 2003 America s Stonehenge the Boston Branden Books Illustrated Encyclopedia of Humankind The Worlds Apart 1994 Weldon Owen Pty Limited Keane A H 1896 Ethnology Cambridge University Press Johnson Walter 1908 Folk Memory Or The Continuity of British Archaeology Oxford Clarendon Press Lancaster Brown P 1976 Megaliths myths and men an introduction to astro archaeology New York Taplinger Pub Co Moffett M Fazio M W amp Wodehouse L 2004 A world history of architecture Boston McGraw Hill Nelson Sarah M 1993 The Archaeology of Korea Cambridge University Press Cambridge O Kelly M J et al 1989 Early Ireland An Introduction to Irish Prehistory Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521336872 Parker Joanne editor 2009 Written On Stone The Cultural Reception of British Prehistoric Monuments Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2009 ISBN 1443813389 Patton Mark 1993 Statements in Stone monuments and society in Neolithic Brittany Routledge 209 pages ISBN 0415067294 Piccolo Salvatore 2013 Ancient Stones The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily Thornham Norfolk Brazen Head Publishing ISBN 978 0956510624 Pohribny Jan photo amp Richards J introduction 2007 Magic Stones the secret world of ancient megaliths London Merrell ISBN 978 1858944135 Pozzi Alberto 2013 Megalithism Sacred and Pagan Architecture in Prehistory Universal Publisher ISBN 978 1612332550 Scheltema H G 2008 Megalithic Jordan an introduction and field guide Amman Jordan The American Center of Oriental Research ISBN 978 9957 8543 3 1 Stukeley W Burl A amp Mortimer N 2005 Stukeley s Stonehenge an unpublished manuscript 1721 1724 New Haven Conn Yale University Press Subbayya K K 1978 Archaeology of Coorg with special reference to megaliths Mysore Geetha Book House Tyler J M 1921 The new stone age in northern Europe New York C Scribner s Sons External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Megaliths Wikiquote has quotations related to Megalith Look up megalith in Wiktionary the free dictionary Catalog of megaliths MegalithicIreland com Dolmens Menhirs amp Stones Circles in the South of France Megaliths in Charente Maritime France Dolmen Path Russian Megaliths archived 10 January 2007 The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map Index of Megalithic monuments in Ireland The Modern Antiquarian Pretanic World Megaliths and Monuments archived 12 March 2012 Modern Megalith Building archived 25 January 1999 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Megalith amp oldid 1148767818, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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