Death

"Dead" redirects here. For other uses, see Dead (disambiguation) and Death (disambiguation).

"Deceased" redirects here. For the band, see Deceased (band).

Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism.^[1] For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including brainstem, and^[2][3] brain death is sometimes used as a legal definition of death.^[4] The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Death is an inevitable process that eventually occurs in almost all organisms.

The human skull is used universally as a symbol of death.

Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the similar process seen in individual components of an organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis. Something that is not considered an organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not said to die. As of the early 21st century, over 150,000 humans die each day, with ageing being by far the most common cause of death.^{[citation needed]}

Many cultures and religions have the idea of an afterlife, and also may hold the idea of judgement of good and bad deeds in one's life (heaven, hell, karma).

Diagnosis

 

World Health Organization estimated number of deaths per million persons in 2012

  1,054–4,598

  4,599–5,516

  5,517–6,289

  6,290–6,835

  6,836–7,916

  7,917–8,728

  8,729–9,404

  9,405–10,433

  10,434–12,233

  12,234–17,141

Problems of definition

Main article: Medical definition of death

 

French – 16th-/17th-century ivory pendant, Monk and Death, recalling mortality and the certainty of death (Walters Art Museum)

The concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon.^[5] There are many scientific approaches and various interpretations of the concept. Additionally, the advent of life-sustaining therapy and the numerous criteria for defining death from both a medical and legal standpoint, have made it difficult to create a single unifying definition.

One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death would seem to refer to the moment at which life ends. Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.^[6] Such determination, therefore, requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is difficult, due to there being little consensus on how to define life.

It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, an organism can be said to have died. One of the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. Additionally, many religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness. In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.^[7]

Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of organismic functioning and a human death which refers to irreversible loss of personhood. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning.^[8] As it pertains to human life, death is an irreversible process where someone loses their existence as a person.^[8]

 

A flower, a skull and an hourglass stand for life, death and time in this 17th-century painting by Philippe de Champaigne

Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective, or imprecise. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (DCDD). Proponents of the DCDD believe that this definition is reasonable because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead.^[9] Critics of this definition state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is irreversible, because if CPR was applied, the person could be revived.^[9] Thus, the arguments for and against the DCDD boil down to a matter of defining the actual words "permanent" and "irreversible," which further complicates the challenge of defining death. Furthermore, events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.

Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference.

The category of "brain death" is seen as problematic by some scholars. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s... the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."^[10]

While "brain death" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are certainly proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is reliable and reproducible.^[11] Also, the brain is crucial in determining our identity or who we are as human beings. The distinction should be made that "brain death" cannot be equated with one who is in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.^[11]

Those people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. At present, in most places the more conservative definition of death – irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.

Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.

In the past, adoption of this whole-brain definition was a conclusion of the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1980.^[12] They concluded that this approach to defining death sufficed in reaching a uniform definition nationwide. A multitude of reasons were presented to support this definition including: uniformity of standards in law for establishing death; consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life support; and legal establishment for equating brain death with death in order to proceed with organ donation.^[13]

 

Timeline of postmortem changes (stages of death).

Aside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), established a set of criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death. At that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied in order to determine "irreversible cessation" of the total brain including: coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes.^[14] This set of criteria was then updated again most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies still remain across hospitals and medical specialties.^[14]

The problem of defining death is especially imperative as it pertains to the dead donor rule, which could be understood as one of the following interpretations of the rule: there must be an official declaration of death in a person before starting organ procurement or that organ procurement cannot result in death of the donor.^[9] A great deal of controversy has surrounded the definition of death and the dead donor rule. Advocates of the rule believe the rule is legitimate in protecting organ donors while also countering against any moral or legal objection to organ procurement. Critics, on the other hand, believe that the rule does not uphold the best interests of the donors and that the rule does not effectively promote organ donation.^[9]

Signs

Main article: Stages of death

Signs of death or strong indications that a warm-blooded animal is no longer alive are:

• Respiratory arrest (no breathing)
• Cardiac arrest (no pulse)
• Brain death (no neuronal activity)

The stages that follow after death are:

• Pallor mortis, paleness which happens in 15–120 minutes after death
• Algor mortis, the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature
• Rigor mortis, the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate
• Livor mortis, a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body
• Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition
• Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor.
• Skeletonization, the end of decomposition, where all soft tissues have decomposed, leaving only the skeleton.
• Fossilization, the natural preservation of the skeletal remains formed over a very long period

Legal

See also: Legal death

The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between different jurisdictions. A death certificate is issued in most jurisdictions, either by a doctor, or by an administrative office upon presentation of a doctor's declaration of death.

Misdiagnosed

See also: Premature burial

 

The Premature Burial, Antoine Wiertz's painting of a man buried alive, 1854

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then "coming back to life", sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive,^[15] and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum.^[16] Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.^[17]

In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.^[18] This "diving response", in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.^[18]

As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information-theoretic death^[19] has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside the field of cryonics.

There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success.^[20]

Causes

See also: List of causes of death by rate and Preventable causes of death

The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is biological aging,^[21] leading to various complications known as aging-associated diseases. These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes.^[21] In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, approaching 90%.^[21] With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.

 

American children smoking in 1910. Tobacco smoking caused an estimated 100 million deaths in the 20th century.^[22]

In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.8M people in 2015.^[23] Malaria causes about 400–900M cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually.^[24] AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100M by 2025.^[25][26]

According to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62M people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36M died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.^[27]

Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, a World Health Organization report warned.^[22]

Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.^[28]

 

Le Suicidé by Édouard Manet depicts a man who has recently committed suicide via a firearm

Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted.^[29] Selye assumed that the adaptability is a finite supply, presented at birth. Later on, Goldstone proposed the concept of a production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit), as a capital reserve of adaptation.^[30] In recent works, adaptation energy is considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.^[31]

In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes for leading causes of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls, and murder.^[32] Causes of death are different in different parts of the world. In high-income and middle income countries nearly half up to more than two thirds of all people live beyond the age of 70 and predominantly die of chronic diseases. In low-income countries, where less than one in five of all people reach the age of 70, and more than a third of all deaths are among children under 15, people predominantly die of infectious diseases.^[33]

Autopsy

 

An autopsy is portrayed in The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt

An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.

Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices.

A necropsy, which is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to describe an unregulated postmortem examination. In modern times, this term is more commonly associated with the corpses of animals.

Senescence

Main article: Senescence

 

Dead Camelthorn tree within Sossusvlei

Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all calamities, but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning. Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily.^{[34][full citation needed]}

Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii,^[35] the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day.^[21] Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).^[21]

Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.^[36] Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring.

Cryonics

Main article: Cryonics

 

Technicians prepare a body for cryopreservation in 1985.

Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals and humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future.^[37][38]

Cryopreservation of people or large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent information-theoretic definition of death.^[19][39]

Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics.^[40] Medical science and cryobiologists generally regards cryonics with skepticism.^[41]

Life extension

Main article: Life extension

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging through anti-aging measures. Despite the fact that aging is by far the most common cause of death worldwide, it is socially mostly ignored as such and seen as "necessary" and "inevitable" anyway, which is why little money is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as the pro-aging trance.^[21]

Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is also determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.

A United States poll found that religious people and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people.^[42] 38 percent of the polled said they would desire to have their aging process cured.

Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed.

Location

 

Kyösti Kallio (middle), the fourth President of the Republic of Finland, had a fatal heart attack a few seconds after this photograph was taken by Hugo Sundström on December 19, 1940 at Helsinki railway station in Helsinki, Finland.^[43][44]

Before about 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls.^[45] By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.^[46] By the start of the 21st century, only about 20–25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution.^[46][47][48] The shift away from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible Death".^[46] This shift occurred gradually over the years, until most deaths now occur outside the home.^[49]

Psychology

See also: Death anxiety

Death studies is a field within psychology.^[50] Many people are afraid of dying. Discussing, thinking about, or planning for their own deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization.

Different people have different responses to the idea of their own deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation.^[51] In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes that a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future.^[51][52]

Society and culture

Main articles: Death and culture and Human skull symbolism

 

The regent duke Charles (later king Charles IX of Sweden) insulting the corpse of Klaus Fleming. Albert Edelfelt, 1878

 

Dead bodies can be mummified either naturally, as this one from Guanajuato, or by intention, as those in ancient Egypt

In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its own mortality has for millennia been a concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. This includes belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with Secular humanism).^[53]

Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices and ceremonies of honouring the deceased. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the Latin requiescat in pace), or its initialism RIP.

Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.^[54] Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay.

Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation.

Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.^[55]

Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts.

Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama and Father Time.

 

Santa Muerte, the personification of death in Mexican tradition^[56]

In Brazil, a human death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means, of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs and fees, of filing for a death. For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, cultural burial, which in turn raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates.^[57]

Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue with most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites. Eastern societies (like India) may be more open to accepting it as a fait accompli, with a funeral procession of the dead body ending in an open-air burning-to-ashes of the same.

Consciousness

Main article: Consciousness after death

Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. Belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife. Neither are likely to ever be confirmed without the ponderer having to actually die.

In biology

 

Earthworms are soil-dwelling detritivores

After death, the remains of a former organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger.^[58] Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles.

Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be fully decomposed. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.

Natural selection

Main articles: Competition (biology), Natural selection, and Extinction

Contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection.^[59] It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.

Extinction

Main article: Extinction

 

A dodo, the bird that became a byword in the English language for the extinction of a species^[60]

Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where species presumed extinct abruptly "reappear" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of speciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche – and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition.

Evolution of aging and mortality

Main article: Evolution of ageing

Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (exceptions include Hydra and the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which research shows to be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.

Organisms showing only asexual reproduction (e.g. bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans) and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction (colonial or not, like the volvocine algae Pandorina and Chlamydomonas) are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. In multicellular organisms (and also in multinucleate ciliates),^[61] with a Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line.^[62]

The Volvox algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence include death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history.^[62][63]

Religious views

Buddhism

See also: Anussati § The ten recollections

In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death was what motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the "deathless" and finally to attain enlightenment. In Buddhist doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being. Being reborn as a human being is considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps remind oneself that one should not take life for granted. The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety, since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that one progresses.^[64]

Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.^[64]

Christianity

See also: Soul in the Bible, Second death, and Resurrection of the dead § Christianity

While there are different sects of Christianity with different branches of belief; the overarching ideology on death grows from the knowledge of afterlife. Meaning after death the individual will undergo a separation from mortality to immortality; their soul leaves the body entering a realm of spirits. Following this separation of body and spirit (i.e. death) resurrection will occur.^[65] Representing the same transformation Jesus Christ embodied after his body was placed in the tomb for three days. Like Him, each person's body will be resurrected reuniting the spirit and body in a perfect form.^[66] This process allows the individuals soul to withstand death and transform into life after death.

Hinduism

See also: Reincarnation § Hinduism, Naraka (Hinduism), and Yama (Hinduism)

 

Illustration depicting Hindu beliefs about reincarnation

In Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual jiva-atma (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary material body. The soul exits this body when the body can no longer sustain the conscious self (life), which may be due to mental or physical reasons, or more accurately, the inability to act on one's kama (material desires). During conception, the soul enters a compatible new body based on the remaining merits and demerits of one's karma (good/bad material activities based on dharma) and the state of one's mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death.

Usually the process of reincarnation (soul's transmigration) makes one forget all memories of one's previous life. Because nothing really dies and the temporary material body is always changing, both in this life and the next, death means forgetfulness of one's previous experiences (previous material identity).

Material existence is described as being full of miseries arising from birth, disease, old age, death, mind, weather, etc. To conquer samsara (the cycle of death and rebirth) and become eligible for one of the different types of moksha (liberation), one has to first conquer kama (material desires) and become self-realized. The human form of life is most suitable for this spiritual journey, especially with the help of sadhu (self-realized saintly persons), sastra (revealed spiritual scriptures), and guru (self-realized spiritual masters), given all three are in agreement.

Islam

See also: Islamic view of death

The Islamic view is that death is the separation of the soul from the body as well as the beginning of the afterlife.^[67] The afterlife or akhirah is one of the six main beliefs in Islam. Rather than seeing death as the end of life, Muslims consider death as a continuation of life in another form.^[68] In Islam, the life on earth right now is a short, temporary life and a testing period for every soul. The true life begins with the Day of Judgement, when all people will be divided into two groups. The righteous believers will be welcomed to janna (heaven) and the disbelievers and evildoers will be punished in jahannam (hellfire).^[69]

Muslims believe death to be wholly natural and predetermined by God. Only God knows the exact time of a person’s death.^[70] The Quran emphasizes that death is inevitable, no matter how much people try to escape death, it will reach everyone.^[71] Life on earth is the one and only chance for people to prepare themselves for the life to come and choose to either believe or not believe in God, and death is the end of that learning opportunity.^[72]

Judaism

See also: Bereavement in Judaism

There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference of life over death. This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any commandments.^{[citation needed]}

Language

 

Study of Skeletons, c. 1510, by Leonardo da Vinci

The word "death" comes from Old English dēaþ, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþuz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the "process, act, condition of dying".^[73]

The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms. When a person has died, it is also said they have "passed away", "passed on", "expired", or "gone", among other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms.

As a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of "decease", as in "the deceased"; another noun form is "decedent".

Bereft of life, the dead person is a "corpse", "cadaver", "body", "set of remains" or, when all flesh is gone, a "skeleton". The terms "carrion" and "carcass" are also used, usually for dead non-human animals. The ashes left after a cremation are lately called "cremains".

See also

• Casualty (person)
• Day of Judgment
• Day of the Dead
• Deathbed
• Death drive
• Death row
• Death trajectory
• Dying
• Dying declaration
• End-of-life care
• Eschatology
• Faked death
• Karōshi
• Last rites
• List of deaths by year
• List of expressions related to death
• Memento mori
• Near-death experience
• Origin-of-death myth
• Spiritual death
• Survivalism (life after death)
• Taboo on the dead
• Thanatology
• Yama

References

1. "death". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
2. DeGrazia, David (2021), "The Definition of Death", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, from the original on 23 July 2022, retrieved 23 July 2022
3. Parent, Brendan; Turi, Angela (1 December 2020). "Death's Troubled Relationship With the Law". AMA Journal of Ethics. 22 (12): 1055–1061. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2020.1055. ISSN 2376-6980. PMID 33419507. S2CID 231300316. from the original on 23 July 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
4. "brain death". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
5. Samir Hossain Mohammad; Gilbert Peter (2010). "Concepts of Death: A key to our adjustment". Illness, Crisis and Loss. 18 (1).
6. Henig, Robin Marantz (April 2016). "Crossing Over: How Science Is Redefining Life and Death". National Geographic. from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
7. Metcalf, Peter; Huntington, Richard (1991). Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. New York: Cambridge Press.^{[page needed]}
8. DeGrazia, David (2017), "The Definition of Death", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, from the original on 18 March 2019, retrieved 19 February 2019
9. Bernat, James L. (2018). "Conceptual Issues in DCDD Donor Death Determination". Hastings Center Report. 48 (S4): S26–S28. doi:10.1002/hast.948. ISSN 1552-146X. PMID 30584853.
10. Miller, F.G. (October 2009). "Death and organ donation: back to the future". Journal of Medical Ethics. 35 (10): 616–620. doi:10.1136/jme.2009.030627. PMID 19793942.
11. Magnus, David C.; Wilfond, Benjamin S.; Caplan, Arthur L. (6 March 2014). "Accepting Brain Death". New England Journal of Medicine. 370 (10): 891–894. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1400930. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 24499177.
12. Lewis, Ariane; Cahn-Fuller, Katherine; Caplan, Arthur (March 2017). "Shouldn't Dead Be Dead?: The Search for a Uniform Definition of Death". The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 45 (1): 112–128. doi:10.1177/1073110517703105. ISSN 1073-1105. PMID 28661278. S2CID 4388540.
13. Sarbey, Ben (1 December 2016). "Definitions of death: brain death and what matters in a person". Journal of Law and the Biosciences. 3 (3): 743–752. doi:10.1093/jlb/lsw054. PMC 5570697. PMID 28852554.
14. Bernat, James L. (March 2013). "Controversies in defining and determining death in critical care". Nature Reviews Neurology. 9 (3): 164–173. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2013.12. ISSN 1759-4766. PMID 23419370. S2CID 12296259.
15. Bondeson 2001, p. 77
16. Bondeson 2001, pp. 56, 71.
17. Bondeson 2001, p. 239
18. Limmer, Dan; O'Keefe, Michael F.; Bergeron, J. David; Grant, Harvey; Murray, Bob; Dickinson, Ed (21 December 2006). Brady Emergency Care AHA (10th Updated ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-159390-9.
19. Merkle, Ralph. "Information-Theoretic Death". merkle.com. from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2016. A person is dead according to the information-theoretic criterion if the structures that encode memory and personality have been so disrupted that it is no longer possible in principle to recover them. If inference of the state of memory and personality are feasible in principle, and therefore restoration to an appropriate functional state is likewise feasible in principle, then the person is not dead.
20. . Fox News. 28 June 2005. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
21. Aubrey D.N.J, de Grey (2007). (PDF). Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology. 1 (1, Article 5). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.395.745. doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1011. S2CID 201101995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2009. roughly 150,000 deaths that occur each day across the globe
22. (PDF). WHO. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
23. "Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 – Global and regional incidence". WHO. March 2006. from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2006.
24. Chris Thomas, Global Health/Health Infectious Diseases and Nutrition (2 June 2009). . Usaid.gov. Archived from the original on 26 January 2004. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
25. "Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN". The Guardian. London. 4 March 2005. from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
26. Terry Leonard (4 June 2006). "AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa". The Washington Post. from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
27. Jean Ziegler, L'Empire de la honte, Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p. 130.^{[clarification needed]}
28. Olshansky, S. Jay; Perry, Daniel; Miller, Richard A.; Butler, Robert N. (2006). "Longevity dividend: What should we be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity?". The Scientist. 20: 28–36.
29. Selye, H. (1938). Experimental evidence supporting the conception of "adaptation energy", Am. J. Physiol. 123 (1938), 758–765.
30. Goldstone B (1952). "The general practitioner and the general adaptation syndrome". South African Medical Journal. 26 (6): 106–109. PMID 14913266.
31. Gorban A. N.; Tyukina T. A.; Smirnova E.V.; Pokidysheva L. I. (2016). "Evolution of adaptation mechanisms: adaptation energy, stress, and oscillating death". J. Theor. Biol. 405 (21): 127–139. arXiv:1512.03949. Bibcode:2016JThBi.405..127G. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.12.017. PMID 26801872. S2CID 9173426. from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
32. Steven Reinberg (20 September 2012). "Suicide now kills more Americans than car crashes: study". Medical Express. from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
33. . WHO. 2012. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
34. Hayflick & Moody, 2003
35. . Jellyfishfacts.net. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
36. Crippen, David. . Scientific American Surgery, Critical Care, April 2005. Archived from the original on 24 June 2006. Retrieved 9 January 2007.
37. McKie, Robin (13 July 2002). "Cold facts about cryonics". The Guardian. from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2013. Cryonics, which began in the Fifties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the future to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Banana Reaper
38. "What is Cryonics?". Alcor Foundation. from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2013. Cryonics is an effort to save lives by using temperatures so cold that a person beyond help by today's medicine might be preserved for decades or centuries until a future medical technology can restore that person to full health.
39. Whetstine L, Streat S, Darwin M, Crippen D (2005). "Pro/con ethics debate: When is dead really dead?". Critical Care. 9 (6): 538–42. doi:10.1186/cc3894. PMC 1414041. PMID 16356234.
40. Ben Best (2008). "Scientific justification of cryonics practice". Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503. doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661. PMC 4733321. PMID 18321197.
41. Lovgren, Stefan (18 March 2005). "Corpses Frozen for Future Rebirth by Arizona Company". National Geographic. from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014. Many cryobiologists, however, scoff at the idea...
42. . Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 6 August 2013. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
43. Aladár Paasonen (1974). Marsalkan tiedustelupäällikkönä ja hallituksen asiamiehenä (Marshall's chief of intelligence and Government's official. In Finnish). Weilin, Göös, Helsinki
44. Kari Hokkanen. "Kallio, Kyösti (1873 - 1940) President of Finland". Biografiakeskus, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
45. Ariès, Philippe (1974). Western attitudes toward death: from the Middle Ages to the present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 87–89. ISBN 978-0-8018-1762-5.
46. Nuland, Sherwin B. (1994). How we die: Reflections on life's final chapter. New York: A.A. Knopf. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-0-679-41461-2.
47. Ahmad, S.; O'Mahony, M.S. (December 2005). "Where older people die: a retrospective population-based study". QJM. 98 (12): 865–870. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci138. PMID 16299059.
48. Cassel CK, Demel B (September 2001). "Remembering death: public policy in the USA". J R Soc Med. 94 (9): 433–436. doi:10.1177/014107680109400905. PMC 1282180. PMID 11535743.
49. Ariès, P (1981). "Invisible Death". The Wilson Quarterly. 5 (1): 105–115. JSTOR 40256048. PMID 11624731.
50. Solomon, Sheldon; Piven, J.S. (9 May 2017) [first published 2014]. "Death and Dying". Oxford Bibliographies Online. Oxford University. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0144. from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
51. Strawson, Galen (2018). Things that Bother Me: Death, Freedom, the Self, Etc. New York Review of Books. pp. 72–73. ISBN 9781681372204. from the original on 30 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
52. Strawson, Galen (2017). The Subject of Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–110. ISBN 9780198777885. from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
53. Heath, Pamela Rae; Klimo, Jon (2010). Handbook to the Afterlife. North Atlantic Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-55643-869-1. from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
54. Mullin 1998^{[page needed]}
55. . Shot at Dawn Pardons Campaign. Archived from the original on 4 October 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
56. Chesnut, R. Andrew (2018) [2012]. Devoted to Death: Santa Muerte, the Skeleton Saint (Second ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 6. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199764662.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-063332-5. LCCN 2011009177. from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
57. Nations, Marilyn K.; Amaral, Mara Lucia (September 1999). "Flesh, Blood, Souls, and Households: Cultural Validity in Mortality Inquiry". Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 5 (3): 204–220. doi:10.1525/maq.1991.5.3.02a00020.
58. Falkowski, Paul G. (1 January 2001), "Biogeochemical Cycles", in Levin, Simon Asher (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, New York: Elsevier, pp. 437–453, doi:10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00032-8, ISBN 978-0-12-226865-6, retrieved 23 August 2022
59. Gregory, T. Ryan (June 2009). "Understanding Natural Selection: Essential Concepts and Common Misconceptions". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 2 (2): 156–175. doi:10.1007/s12052-009-0128-1. ISSN 1936-6434. S2CID 4508223.
60. Diamond, Jared M. (1999). "Up to the Starting Line". Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (illustrated, reprint ed.). W.W. Norton. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-393-31755-8.
61. Beukeboom, L. & Perrin, N. (2014). The Evolution of Sex Determination. Online Chapter 2: The diversity of sexual cycles 12 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p. 12. Oxford University Press.
62. Gilbert, S.F. (2003). Developmental biology (7th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-0-87893-258-0.
63. Hallmann, A. (June 2011). "Evolution of reproductive development in the volvocine algae". Sexual Plant Reproduction. 24 (2): 97–112. doi:10.1007/s00497-010-0158-4. PMC 3098969. PMID 21174128.
64. Blum, Mark L. (2004). "Death" (PDF). In Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan Reference, Thomson Gale. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2. (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
65. "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. Alfred Plummer". The Biblical World. 46 (3): 192. September 1915. doi:10.1086/475371. ISSN 0190-3578.
66. "Resurrection - Resurrection of Christ". Sacramentum Mundi Online. doi:10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_003831. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
67. Smith, Jane Idleman; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (12 December 2002), "From Death to Resurrection: Classical Islam", The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection, Oxford University PressNew York, pp. 31–62, doi:10.1093/0195156498.003.0002, ISBN 0195156498, retrieved 6 December 2022
68. Puchalski, Christina M.; O’Donnell, Edward (July 2005). "Religious and spiritual beliefs in end of life care: how major religions view death and dying". Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management. 9 (3): 114–121. doi:10.1053/j.trap.2005.06.003. ISSN 1084-208X.
69. The Qurʼan : an encyclopedia. Oliver Leaman. London: Routledge. 2006. ISBN 0-203-17644-8. OCLC 68963889.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
70. Tayeb, Mohamad A.; Al-Zamel, Ersan; Fareed, Muhammed M.; Abouellail, Hesham A. (May 2010). "A "good death": perspectives of Muslim patients and health care providers". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 30 (3): 215–221. doi:10.4103/0256-4947.62836. ISSN 0256-4947. PMC 2886872. PMID 20427938.
71. "Qaf (surah)", Wikipedia, 10 July 2022, retrieved 6 December 2022
72. Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. OCLC 191882169.
73. "Death". Online Etymology Dictionary. from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2013.

Bibliography

• Bondeson, Jan (2001). Buried Alive: the Terrifying History of our Most Primal Fear. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04906-0.^{[Publisher/year date verification needed]}
• Mullin, Glenn H. (2008) [1998]. Living in the Face of Death: The Tibetan Tradition. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 978-1-55939-310-2.

Further reading

• Cochem, Martin of (1899). "On Death" . The four last things: death, judgment, hell, heaven. Benziger Brothers.
• Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. (1856). "Considerations on Death" . St. Vincent's Manual. John Murphy & Co.
• Liguori, Alphonsus (1868). Preparation for Death . Rivingtons.
• Marques, Susana Moreira (13 October 2015). Now and At the Hour of Our Death. Translated by Sanches, Julia. And Other Stories. ISBN 978-1-908276-62-9.
• Massillon, Jean-Baptiste (1879). "On Death" . Sermons by John-Baptist Massillon. Thomas Tegg & Sons.
• Rosenberg, David (17 August 2014). "How One Photographer Overcame His Fear of Death by Photographing It (Walter Schels' Life Before Death)". Slate.
• Sachs, Jessica Snyder (2001). Corpse: Nature, Forensics, and the Struggle to Pinpoint Time of Death (270 pages). Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7382-0336-2.
• Warraich, Haider (2017). Modern Death: How Medicine Changed the End of Life. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250104588.

External links

• Death at Curlie
• "Death". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016.
• "Death" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 898–900.
• Best, Ben. "Causes of Death". BenBest.com. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
• Schels, Walter; Lakotta, Beate. . LensCulture.com. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2016. Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before, and shortly after, death.
• U.S. Census. . AntiqueBooks.net (scanns). Archived from the original on 18 September 2004. Retrieved 19 September 2016. How the medical profession categorized causes of death.
• Wald, George. "The Origin of Death". ElijahWald.com. A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms, in relation to evolution.
• "Death" (video; 10:18) by Timothy Ferris, producer of the Voyager Golden Record for NASA. 2021