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Jainism

January 19, 2023

"Jain" redirects here. For other uses, see Jain (disambiguation).

Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/ JAY-nih-zəm), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of Dharma), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism).

Jainism
The official symbol of Jainism, known as the Jain Prateek Chihna. This Jain symbol was agreed upon by all Jain sects in 1974.
TypeUniversal religion
ClassificationDharmic
ScriptureJain scriptures
TheologyTranstheistic
RegionPredominant religion in places in India and some minorities across the world
LanguageSanskrit
FounderRishabhdev (traditional), Parshvanatha and Mahavira (historical)
OriginNone (traditional), 8th century BCE (historical)
India
Membersc. 4.5 million

Jain monks, after positioning themselves in the sublime state of soul consciousness, take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Ṇamōkāra mantra is its most common and basic prayer.

Jainism is one of the world's oldest religions in practice to this day. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts that can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons (śrāvakas and śrāvikas). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Mandirvāsī, Deravasi, and Sthānakavasī.[1] The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains, who reside mostly in India. Outside India, some of the largest communities are in Canada, Europe, and the United States, with Japan hosting a fast-growing community of converts.[2] Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana, Ashtanika, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Akshaya Tritiya, and Dipawali.

Estimates for the population of Jains put them at around five million in the world, with the vast majority situated in India, where they number around 4.5 million as per the 2011 census.

Beliefs and philosophy

Main article: Jain philosophy
 
The hand symbolizes Ahiṃsā, the wheel dharmachakra, the resolve to halt saṃsāra (transmigration).

Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism,[3] and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism.[4]

Dravya (Ontological facts)

Main article: Dravya

Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit.[5] The universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa), and time (kāla).[5][6] The last five are united as the ajiva (non-living).[5] Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed.[7]

Tattva (Soteriological facts)

Main article: Tattva (Jainism)

Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas: the sentient (jiva or living), the insentient (ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (Āsrava, which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul (Bandha),[8][9] the stoppage of karmic particles (Saṃvara), the wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā), and the liberation (Moksha). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas, namely good karma (Punya) and bad karma (Paapa).[10][11][12] The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the tattvas".[11] The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.[13][14]

Pramana (Epistemological facts)

Main article: Jain epistemology

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures).[15][16] These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini.[17][16] Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions.[18]

In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna (clairvoyance), manah prayāya Jñāna (telepathy) and kevala jnana (omniscience).[19] According to the Jain text Tattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge.[20]

Soul and karma

Main article: Karma in Jainism
 
Classification of Saṃsāri Jīvas (transmigrating souls) in Jainism

According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven.[21] It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): consciousness (chaitanya, the most important), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya).[22]

It further claims the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.[22] Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body.[23] Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas.[24] Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.[25]

Saṃsāra

Main articles: Saṃsāra (Jainism) and Vitalism (Jainism)

The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.[26] Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra,[27][28] going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing.[29]

Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.[30][31] Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma.[32] It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation).[26][33] It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.[34]

Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.[33] According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally.[35]

Cosmology

Main article: Jain cosmology
 
Rebirth loka (realms of existence) in Jain cosmology.[36]
 
Division of time in Jain cosmology.

Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient.[37][38] The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (jiva). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy.[38] The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka).[39] Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal;[40] the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (ara), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates.[41]

Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality).[40][42][43] It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī, full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle.[44][45][46]

God

Main article: God in Jainism
 
Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, Jaipur, c. 1850

Jainism is a transtheistic religion,[47] holding that the universe was not created, and will exist forever.[37] It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.[38][48] In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism, but similar to Buddhism.[49] However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hell beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings.[50][51] The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.[52] It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.[52] However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.[52][53] The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without a body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.[35][47][54]

Salvation, liberation

Main articles: Moksha (Jainism), Ratnatraya, and Gunasthana

Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:[20][55][56] Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (jīva);[57] Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas;[58] and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.[58] Jain texts often add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha).[59] The four jewels are called Moksha Marg (the path of liberation).[55]

Main principles

Non-violence (ahimsa)

Main article: Ahimsa in Jainism

The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.[60] It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[60] In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.[60][61] Jain texts such as Acaranga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.[62][63] Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.[61][62]

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.[62][63] It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".[63][a]

Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.[63]

The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.[60][65][66][67][68] The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.[69] Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.[70][71]

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.[72][73] According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".[74]

However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.[72][b]

Many-sided reality (anekāntavāda)

Main article: Anekantavada
 
Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with Blind men and an elephant

The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda,[76][77] from anekānta ("many-sidedness") and vada ("doctrine").[76][77] The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya, "partial expression of the truth".[76] According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".[78] It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.[76] It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.[79] The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[80][81] These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.[82] The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework.[83]

According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.[84] According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence.[85] He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".[84] The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.[86] Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.[87]

Non-attachment (aparigraha)

Main article: Aparigraha

The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.[88] For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.[89] The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.[89] For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.[88] According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.[90]

Jain ethics and five vows

Main article: Ethics of Jainism
See also: Yamas § Five Yamas
 
Nishidhi stone, depicting the vow of sallekhana, 14th century, Karnataka

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants.[91] For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits.[92] Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:

  1. Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":[92] The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).[92] This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.[93][94]
  2. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.[91][93]
  3. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.[92][95] Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.[96]
  4. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.[91][93]
  5. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.[91] Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.[88][97]

Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas.[98][99] The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.[100] In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,[101][102] This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.[103]

Practices

Asceticism and monasticism

Main articles: Asceticism and Jain monasticism
 
Digambara sadhu (monk)
 
Śvētāmbara-Deravasi sadhu (monk)
 
Śvētāmbara-Sthanakwasi sadhu (monk)
 
A Śvētāmbara sadhviji (nun)(early 20th-century)
 
A Digambara sadhviji (nun)

Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.[104][105][106] Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").[104][107][108]

Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.[109] Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).[110] Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.[110] Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.[111][112] Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul).[106] The tirthankaras such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.[113][114][115]

Monastic organization, sangh, has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday, in autonomous regional Jain congregations.[116][117][118] Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.[119][120][121]

Food and fasting

Main articles: Jain vegetarianism and Fasting in Jainism

The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.[122] Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.[123][c] Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata.[124] Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.[124]

Jains fast particularly during festivals.[125] This practice is called upavasa, tapasya or vrata,[126] and may be practiced according to one's ability.[127] Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan, eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,[128] mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.[128] Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana.[129] The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (punya).[125] A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.[125] Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows her piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for her family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.[130] Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.[130]

Meditation

Main article: Jain meditation
 
 
Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th-century Gommateshwara statue depicting standing meditation (Kayotsarga posture)

Jainism considers meditation (dhyana) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism.[131] In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.[131] According to Padmanabh Jaini, Sāmāyika is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint).[132] The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata.[d] The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work.[133][134][135] According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".[136][e]

Rituals and worship

Main article: Jain rituals
 
Praying at the feet of a statue of Bahubali

There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.[138][139] The ultimate ritual is sallekhana, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.[138] The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.[138] The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.[140][141]

Jains ritually worship numerous deities,[139] especially the Jinas. In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved.[142] Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha.[143] Among the non-tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras.[144] The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember the five life events of the tirthankaras, including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava, Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja.[145][146]

 
Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.[147]

The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva, which includes Jina,[148] or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi).[149][150][151] Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.[152] The worship ritual is called devapuja, and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.[153] Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.[153]

Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.[154] Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.[155][156] More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.[157][147]

Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.[158][159] The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (panca namaskara) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.[158][160] Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras.[161] The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.[162]

Festivals

Main article: Jain festivals
 
Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryushana), Jain Center of America, New York City

The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.[163][164] It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.[163] It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.[164] Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.[163]

Forgiveness

I forgive all living beings,
may all living beings forgive me.
All in this world are my friends,
I have no enemies.

— Jain festival prayer on the last day[165]

The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.[163] Forgiveness is asked by saying "Micchami Dukkadam" or "Khamat khamna" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together".[166]

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.[167][168] The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.[167] The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha.[169] The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date (Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.[169] Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities.[170][171]

Traditions and sects

Main article: Jain schools and branches
 
Digambara Mahāvīra iconography
 
Śvētāmbara Simandhar Swami iconography

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes.[172]

During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha.[173] Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.[174] This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes.[175] Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.[176][177] The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda.[178]

Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code,[179][180][181] interpretations of teachings,[180][182] and on Jain history especially concerning the tirthankaras.[183][184][185][186][187] Their monasticism rules differ,[188] as does their iconography.[188] Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants,[189] where Digambara has mostly had male monks[190] and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.[191][192] The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism[192][193] and state that the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female,[194] which Digambara rejects.[195] Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century A.D. where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.[196]

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE).[197] Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.[197] The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.[197] In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.[198]

Scriptures and texts

Main article: Jain literature
 
Stela depicting Śhrut Jnāna, or complete scriptural knowledge
 
The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a fourth or third century a.C. astronomy text of Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its manuscript from c. 1500 CE.[199]
 
Mangulam inscription dated 3rd century a.C.

Jain canonical scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,[200] and to have originated from the sermons of the tirthankaras, whereupon the Ganadharas (chief disciples) transmitted them as Śhrut Jnāna (heard knowledge).[201][202] The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.[200]

The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,[203][204] and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara Āchāryas recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four anuyoga.[205][206][207] The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.[208] The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or Vedas: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.[209][f]

The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa Sūtras are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 a.C.). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.[211] Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.[211] Both traditions consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati, the Tattvarthasūtra is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.[212][213][g] In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential,[215][216][217] while the oldest being Kasayapahuda and Shatkhandagama attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include: Samayasara, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, and Niyamasara.[218]

Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism

Main articles: Buddhism and Jainism and Jainism and Hinduism

All four Dharmic religions, viz., Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism, share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, with similar festivals and monastic traditions.[219][220][221] They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as non-violence to be important,[222]: p. 635  link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (moksha).[223][224]

Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of anatta ("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging atman ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing jiva ("soul").[225][226][227] In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal jivas, predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few siddhas (perfected ones).[228] Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one[229][230][231]

While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (vibhu), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.[232]

Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.[223][233] Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.[234][235] Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,[236][237] but later scholars consider this a Western error.[238] A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.[234][239][240][241][h]

Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,[244][245] with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month monsoon season, and celibacy,[245] originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.[244] Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a sangha (monastery) and staying in its premises.[246] Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.[244] In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.[244][i]

Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,[248] and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.[249] Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.[250] The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour,[251][252] while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.[253][254]

Art and architecture

Main article: Jain art
 
The birth of Mahavira, from the Kalpa Sūtra (c. 1375–1400 CE)
 
Sihanamdika ayagapata, 25-50 CE, Kankali Tila, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh
 
Inscriptions at a Udaygiri-Khandagiri 2nd-1st-century a.C. Jain rock cut cave, Odisha.[255]

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of tirthankara or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them.[256] The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated approximately to the third century a.C.[256] Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century a.C.[257]

Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra and triratna. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century a.C. to third century CE.[258][259] Samavasarana, a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.[260]

The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.[261] Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.[262] Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.[263] In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.[264] Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara.[265]

Temples

Main article: Jain temple
class=notpageimage|
Major pilgrimage and temple sites in Jainism.

A Jain temple, a Derasar or Basadi, is a place of worship.[266] Temples contain tirthankara images, some fixed, others moveable.[266] These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.[266] One of the images is marked as the moolnayak (primary deity).[267] A manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.[268] Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.[269]

Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) and Pataini temple in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.[270][271] Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.[272] According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tīrthaṅkaras along with many other monks attained moksha (died without being reborn, with their soul in Siddhashila). The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.[273][j] The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.[275] Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community.[276] The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[277][278] Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka.[279][280][281] In and around Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.[282]

The second–first century a.C. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of tirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription.[283][284] Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important.[285] The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century a.C. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.[286] The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.[287]

Pilgrimages

Main article: Tirtha (Jainism)

Jain Tirtha (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:[288]

Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".[289]

Statues and sculptures

Main article: Jain sculpture
 
Idol of Suparśvanātha

Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or kayotsarga, along with Arihant, Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika.[290] Quadruple images are also popular. Tirthankar idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.[291]

Gommateshwara
(Bahubali)
 
The 58.8ft high monolithic statue of Bahubali built in 981 C.E
Religion
AffiliationJainism

A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) statue of Bahubali, Gommateshvara, built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India.[292] The 33-metre (108-foot) tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015.[293] Idols are often made in Ashtadhatu (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.[294][295]

Symbols

Main article: Jain symbols
 
Om in Jainism
 
Jain flag

Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, Om, and the Ashtamangala. In Jainism, Om is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "Arihant, Ashiri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni",[296][297] or the five lines of the Ṇamōkāra Mantra.[citation needed] The Ashtamangala is a set of eight auspicious symbols:[298] in the Digambara tradition, these are chatra, dhvaja, kalasha, fly-whisk, mirror, chair, hand fan and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel), Bhadrasana (seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish.[298]

 
A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira’s nirvana.

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsā. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ahimsā. The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five vows.[299] The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.[300][301] The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.[302]

In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.[303] It depicts the three lokas, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of Ahiṃsā are included, with the Jain mantra Parasparopagraho Jīvānām[304] from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, meaning "souls render service to one another".[305]

History

Main article: History of Jainism
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Jainism.

Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankaras and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two tirthankaras, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira (c. 599 – c. 527 BCE) are considered historical figures[by whom?] . Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.[306]

 
Rishabhdev, believed to have lived over 592.704×1018 years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.

Ancient

See also: Timeline of Jainism and Śramaṇa
 
Jain inscription of Ashoka (c. 236 BCE)
 
Chaumukha Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), LACMA, sixth century

Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins.[307][308][309] Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.[310] It is one of the Śramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas,[311][312] and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.[313][314][k]

The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.[316][317] The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was a historical being,[318][319] dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;[320] historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BC.[321] Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.[322][323] The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;[324] later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.[325][246] Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.[326]

Kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism.[327] Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life.[328][329] Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.[328][330] Versions of Chandragupta's story appear in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts.[331][332]

 
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves built by King Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty in second century a.C.
 
The Indra Sabha cave at the Ellora Caves, are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments.

The third century BC emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the Niganthas (Jains).[333] Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BC.[334] Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BC. onwards.[259] Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.[335] There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.[336]

Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.[337] In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.[338] King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.[339] The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.[340] His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.[341] The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.[342][343][344] King Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.[345] Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.[346] During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.[347] The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.[348]

Medieval

 
The ruins of Gori Jain temples in Nagarparkar, Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947.[289]

Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.[349] One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.[350][351] Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.[352]

The Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun (1540-1556), Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605–1627) and even Aurangzeb (1658-1707).[353] Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. Babur (1526-1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior.[354] In 1567, Akbar ravaged Chittor (capital of the Sisodias). After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.[355] Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb.[356]

The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.[357]

Colonial era

 
A poster of Virchand Gandhi who represented Jainism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.
 
A 34 feet tall idol of Shrimad Rajchandra at Dharampur, Valsad

A Gujarati Jain scholar Virchand Gandhi represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in America during the Chicago World's Fair. He worked to defend the rights of Jains, and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.[358][359]

Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in Gujarat is believed to have attained jatismaran gnana (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.[360] He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.[361] They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa. Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, calling him his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of spiritual crisis". Shrimad Rajchandra composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.[362] He expounds on the 6 fundamental truths of the soul:[363]

  1. Self (soul) exists
  2. It is permanent and eternal
  3. It the doer of its own actions
  4. It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions
  5. Liberation exists
  6. There is a path to achieve liberation.

Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.[364][365][366] Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.[367] Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.[368] These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.[369]

The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.[370] The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[370] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[371] The laws were abolished by India after independence.[372]

Modern era

Main article: Jain communities

Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit jina (victor), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation.[42][373] The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With four to five million followers worldwide,[374][375] Jainism is small compared to major world religions. Jains form 0.37% of India's population, mostly in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011,[376] 31.46% of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%). Significant Jain populations exist in Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%).[376] Outside India, Jain communities can be found in most areas hosting large Indian populations, such as Europe, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada,[377] Australia and Kenya.[378] Jainism also counts several non-Indian converts; for example, it is spreading rapidly in Japan, where more than 5,000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020.[379]

According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India.[380] According to its 2011 census, they have the country's highest literacy rate (87%) among those aged seven and older, and the most college graduates;[381] excluding the retired, Jain literacy in India exceeded 97%. The female to male sex ratio among Jains is .940; among Indians in the 0–6 year age range the ratio was second lowest (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher only than Sikhs. Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India, while Jain females have the lowest.[382]

Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism:[383]

No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā.[384]

Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987.[385]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.[64]
  2. ^ Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.[75]
  3. ^ In Jainism, the ahiṃsā precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.[70]
  4. ^ The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is posadhopavasa (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is dana (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).[132]
  5. ^ According to Dundas, samayika seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.[137]
  6. ^ Not to be confused with the four Vedas of Hinduism.[210]
  7. ^ That Which Is, known as the Tattvartha Sūtra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."[214]
  8. ^ According to Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."[242][238][243]
  9. ^ Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.[247]
  10. ^ Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.[274]
  11. ^ Long notes that Ṛṣabha, the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the Indus Valley civilization, speculating that they may be related to Jainism.[315]

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Sources

January 19, 2023
jainism, jain, redirects, here, other, uses, jain, disambiguation, zəm, also, known, jain, dharma, indian, religion, traces, spiritual, ideas, history, through, succession, twenty, four, tirthankaras, supreme, preachers, dharma, with, first, current, time, cyc. Jain redirects here For other uses see Jain disambiguation Jainism ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z em JAY nih zem also known as Jain Dharma is an Indian religion Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty four tirthankaras supreme preachers of Dharma with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago the twenty third tirthankara Parshvanatha whom historians date to the 9th century BCE and the twenty fourth tirthankara Mahavira around 600 BCE Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsa non violence anekantavada non absolutism and aparigraha asceticism JainismThe official symbol of Jainism known as the Jain Prateek Chihna This Jain symbol was agreed upon by all Jain sects in 1974 TypeUniversal religionClassificationDharmicScriptureJain scripturesTheologyTranstheisticRegionPredominant religion in places in India and some minorities across the worldLanguageSanskritFounderRishabhdev traditional Parshvanatha and Mahavira historical OriginNone traditional 8th century BCE historical IndiaMembersc 4 5 millionJain monks after positioning themselves in the sublime state of soul consciousness take five main vows ahiṃsa non violence satya truth asteya not stealing brahmacharya chastity and aparigraha non possessiveness These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle Parasparopagraho jivanam the function of souls is to help one another is the faith s motto and the Ṇamōkara mantra is its most common and basic prayer Jainism is one of the world s oldest religions in practice to this day It has two major ancient sub traditions Digambaras and Svetambaras with different views on ascetic practices gender and the texts that can be considered canonical both have mendicants supported by laypersons sravakas and sravikas The Svetambara tradition in turn has three sub traditions Mandirvasi Deravasi and Sthanakavasi 1 The religion has between four and five million followers known as Jains who reside mostly in India Outside India some of the largest communities are in Canada Europe and the United States with Japan hosting a fast growing community of converts 2 Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana Ashtanika Mahavir Janma Kalyanak Akshaya Tritiya and Dipawali Estimates for the population of Jains put them at around five million in the world with the vast majority situated in India where they number around 4 5 million as per the 2011 census Contents 1 Beliefs and philosophy 1 1 Dravya Ontological facts 1 2 Tattva Soteriological facts 1 3 Pramana Epistemological facts 1 4 Soul and karma 1 5 Saṃsara 1 6 Cosmology 1 7 God 1 8 Salvation liberation 2 Main principles 2 1 Non violence ahimsa 2 2 Many sided reality anekantavada 2 3 Non attachment aparigraha 2 4 Jain ethics and five vows 3 Practices 3 1 Asceticism and monasticism 3 2 Food and fasting 3 3 Meditation 3 4 Rituals and worship 3 5 Festivals 4 Traditions and sects 5 Scriptures and texts 6 Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism 7 Art and architecture 7 1 Temples 7 2 Pilgrimages 7 3 Statues and sculptures 7 4 Symbols 8 History 8 1 Ancient 8 2 Medieval 8 3 Colonial era 9 Modern era 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Citations 12 2 Sources 13 External linksBeliefs and philosophy EditMain article Jain philosophy The hand symbolizes Ahiṃsa the wheel dharmachakra the resolve to halt saṃsara transmigration Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism 3 and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism 4 Dravya Ontological facts Edit Main article Dravya Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit 5 The universe is made up of six eternal substances sentient beings or souls jiva non sentient substance or matter pudgala the principle of motion dharma the principle of rest adharma space akasa and time kala 5 6 The last five are united as the ajiva non living 5 Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body or thing by declaring the former a simple indestructible element while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed 7 Tattva Soteriological facts Edit Main article Tattva Jainism Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation According to Digambara Jains there are seven tattvas the sentient jiva or living the insentient ajiva or non living the karmic influx to the soul Asrava which is a mix of living and non living the bondage of karmic particles to the soul Bandha 8 9 the stoppage of karmic particles Saṃvara the wiping away of past karmic particles Nirjara and the liberation Moksha Svetambaras add two further tattvas namely good karma Punya and bad karma Paapa 10 11 12 The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as faith in the tattvas 11 The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics but for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation 13 14 Pramana Epistemological facts Edit Main article Jain epistemology Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge pramana It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception pratyaksa inference anumana and testimony sabda or the word of scriptures 15 16 These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasutra Parvacanasara Nandi and Anuyogadvarini 17 16 Some Jain texts add analogy upamana as the fourth reliable means in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions 18 In Jainism jnana knowledge is said to be of five kinds mati jnana sensory knowledge srutu jnana scriptural knowledge avadhi jnana clairvoyance manah prayaya Jnana telepathy and kevala jnana omniscience 19 According to the Jain text Tattvartha sutra the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge 20 Soul and karma Edit Main article Karma in Jainism Classification of Saṃsari Jivas transmigrating souls in Jainism According to Jainism the existence of a bound and ever changing soul is a self evident truth an axiom which does not need to be proven 21 It maintains that there are numerous souls but every one of them has three qualities Guṇa consciousness chaitanya the most important bliss sukha and vibrational energy virya 22 It further claims the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul 22 Jain texts state that souls exist as clothed with material bodies where it entirely fills up the body 23 Karma as in other Indian religions connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law However it is envisioned as a material substance subtle matter that can bind to the soul travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas 24 Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth 25 Saṃsara Edit Main articles Saṃsara Jainism and Vitalism Jainism The conceptual framework of the Saṃsara doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions Soul jiva is accepted as a truth as in Hinduism but not Buddhism The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism 26 Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8 400 000 birth situations as they circle through Saṃsara 27 28 going through five types of bodies earth bodies water bodies fire bodies air bodies and vegetable lives constantly changing with all human and non human activities from rainfall to breathing 29 Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism with negative karmic effects 30 31 Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma 32 It further clarifies that abhavya incapable souls can never attain moksha liberation 26 33 It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act 34 Souls can be good or evil in Jainism unlike the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism 33 According to Jainism a Siddha liberated soul has gone beyond Saṃsara is at the apex is omniscient and remains there eternally 35 Cosmology Edit Main article Jain cosmology Rebirth loka realms of existence in Jain cosmology 36 Division of time in Jain cosmology Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas realms of existence As in Buddhism and Hinduism both time and the universe are eternal but the universe is transient 37 38 The universe body matter and time are considered separate from the soul jiva Their interaction explains life living death and rebirth in Jain philosophy 38 The Jain cosmic universe has three parts the upper middle and lower worlds urdhva loka madhya loka and adho loka 39 Jainism states that Kala time is without beginning and eternal 40 the cosmic wheel of time kalachakra rotates ceaselessly In this part of the universe it explains there are six periods of time within two eons ara and in the first eon the universe generates and in the next it degenerates 41 Thus it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half cycles utsarpiṇi ascending progressive prosperity and happiness and avasarpiṇi descending increasing sorrow and immorality 40 42 43 It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇi full of sorrow and religious decline where the height of living beings shrinks According to Jainism after the sixth ara the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle 44 45 46 God Edit Main article God in Jainism Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras Jaipur c 1850 Jainism is a transtheistic religion 47 holding that the universe was not created and will exist forever 37 It is independent having no creator governor judge or destroyer 38 48 In this it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism but similar to Buddhism 49 However Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hell beings who are born die and are reborn like earthly beings 50 51 The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma 52 It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms 52 However once their past karmic merit is exhausted it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans animals or other beings 52 53 The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants victors and perfect souls without a body are called Siddhas liberated souls Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves 35 47 54 Salvation liberation Edit Main articles Moksha Jainism Ratnatraya and Gunasthana Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels 20 55 56 Samyak Darsana Correct View meaning faith acceptance of the truth of soul jiva 57 Samyak Gyana Correct Knowledge meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas 58 and Samyak Charitra Correct Conduct meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows 58 Jain texts often add samyak tap Correct Asceticism as a fourth jewel emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation moksha 59 The four jewels are called Moksha Marg the path of liberation 55 Main principles EditNon violence ahimsa Edit Main article Ahimsa in Jainism The principle of ahimsa non violence or non injury is a fundamental tenet of Jainism 60 It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non violence all religious behavior is worthless 60 In Jain theology it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be one must not kill or harm any being and non violence is the highest religious duty 60 61 Jain texts such as Acaranga Sutra and Tattvarthasutra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings whether tiny or large movable or immovable 62 63 Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being nor cause another to kill nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly 61 62 Furthermore Jainism emphasizes non violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought 62 63 It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone all living creatures must help each other 63 a Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one s soul particularly when the violence is done with intent hate or carelessness or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non human living being 63 The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism but is most highly developed in Jainism 60 65 66 67 68 The theological basis of non violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures nor a duty to rescue all creatures but resulting from continual self discipline a cleansing of the soul that leads to one s own spiritual development which ultimately affects one s salvation and release from rebirths 69 Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one s rebirth future well being and causes suffering 70 71 Late medieval Jain scholars re examined the Ahiṃsa doctrine when faced with external threat or violence For example they justified violence by monks to protect nuns 72 73 According to Dundas the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution that anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance 74 However examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare 72 b Many sided reality anekantavada Edit Main article Anekantavada Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with Blind men and an elephant The second main principle of Jainism is anekantavada 76 77 from anekanta many sidedness and vada doctrine 76 77 The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects It further states that reality can be experienced but cannot be fully expressed with language It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya partial expression of the truth 76 According to it one can experience the taste of truth but cannot fully express that taste through language It holds that attempts to express experience are syat or valid in some respect but remain perhaps just one perspective incomplete 78 It concludes that in the same way spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed 76 It suggests that the great error is belief in ekanta one sidedness where some relative truth is treated as absolute 79 The doctrine is ancient found in Buddhist texts such as the Samannaphala Sutta The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira s approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a qualified yes syat 80 81 These texts identify anekantavada as a key difference from the Buddha s teachings The Buddha taught the Middle Way rejecting extremes of the answer it is or it is not to metaphysical questions The Mahavira in contrast taught his followers to accept both it is and it is not qualified with perhaps to understand Absolute Reality 82 The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva soul and ajiva matter within a dualistic anekantavada framework 83 According to Paul Dundas in contemporary times the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to promote a universal religious tolerance and a teaching of plurality and benign attitude to other ethical religious positions Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahavira s teachings 84 According to him the many pointedness multiple perspective teachings of the Mahavira is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence 85 He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as perhaps right 84 The five vows for Jain monks and nuns for example are strict requirements and there is no perhaps about them 86 Similarly since ancient times Jainism co existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas but Jainism disagreed in specific areas with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions and vice versa 87 Non attachment aparigraha Edit Main article Aparigraha The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non attachment to worldly possessions 88 For monks and nuns Jainism requires a vow of complete non possession of any property relations and emotions 89 The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition or a resident mendicant in the Svetambara tradition 89 For Jain laypersons it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned and giving excess property to charity 88 According to Natubhai Shah aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic Material possessions refer to various forms of property Psychic possessions refer to emotions likes and dislikes and attachments of any form Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one s personality 90 Jain ethics and five vows Edit Main article Ethics of Jainism See also Yamas Five Yamas Nishidhi stone depicting the vow of sallekhana 14th century Karnataka Jainism teaches five ethical duties which it calls five vows These are called anuvratas small vows for Jain laypersons and mahavratas great vows for Jain mendicants 91 For both its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru teacher counsellor deva Jina god doctrine and that the individual is free from five offences doubts about the faith indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism sincere desire for Jain teachings recognition of fellow Jains and admiration for their spiritual pursuits 92 Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism Ahiṃsa intentional non violence or noninjury 92 The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings as well as all living beings particularly animals 92 This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism and it applies not only to one s actions but demands that one be non violent in one s speech and thoughts 93 94 Satya truth This vow is to always speak the truth Neither lie nor speak what is not true and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth 91 93 Asteya not stealing A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given 92 95 Additionally a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given 96 Brahmacharya celibacy Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns For laypersons the vow means chastity faithfulness to one s partner 91 93 Aparigraha non possessiveness This includes non attachment to material and psychological possessions avoiding craving and greed 91 Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations own nothing and are attached to no one 88 97 Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows including three guna vratas merit vows and four siksa vratas 98 99 The Sallekhana or Santhara vow is a religious death ritual observed at the end of life historically by Jain monks and nuns but rare in the modern age 100 In this vow there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one s life by choice and with dispassion 101 102 This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul s future rebirths 103 Practices EditAsceticism and monasticism Edit Main articles Asceticism and Jain monasticism Digambara sadhu monk Svetambara Deravasi sadhu monk Svetambara Sthanakwasi sadhu monk A Svetambara sadhviji nun early 20th century A Digambara sadhviji nun Of the major Indian religions Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition 104 105 106 Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non possession even of clothes fasting body mortification and penance to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha liberation from rebirths and salvation 104 107 108 Jain texts like Tattvartha Sutra and Uttaradhyayana Sutra discuss austerities in detail Six outer and six inner practices are oft repeated in later Jain texts 109 Outer austerities include complete fasting eating limited amounts eating restricted items abstaining from tasty foods mortifying the flesh and guarding the flesh avoiding anything that is a source of temptation 110 Inner austerities include expiation confession respecting and assisting mendicants studying meditation and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body 110 Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition 111 112 Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires and to purify the jiva soul 106 The tirthankaras such as the Mahavira Vardhamana set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years 113 114 115 Monastic organization sangh has a four fold order consisting of sadhu male ascetics muni sadhvi female ascetics aryika sravaka laymen and sravika laywomen The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday in autonomous regional Jain congregations 116 117 118 Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover as well as the Dandasan a long stick with woolen threads to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path 119 120 121 Food and fasting Edit Main articles Jain vegetarianism and Fasting in Jainism The practice of non violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian Devout Jains practice lacto vegetarianism meaning that they eat no eggs but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare 122 Jain monks nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because a bulb or tuber s ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being 123 c Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset observing a vow of ratri bhojana tyaga vrata 124 Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day 124 Jains fast particularly during festivals 125 This practice is called upavasa tapasya or vrata 126 and may be practiced according to one s ability 127 Digambaras fast for Dasa laksana parvan eating only one or two meals per day drinking only boiled water for ten days or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival 128 mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period 128 Svetambara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari pratikramana 129 The practice is believed to remove karma from one s soul and provides merit punya 125 A one day fast lasts about 36 hours starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after 125 Among laypeople fasting is more commonly observed by women as it shows her piety and religious purity gains merit earning and helps ensure future well being for her family Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group 130 Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies 130 Meditation Edit Main article Jain meditation Left Jain nuns meditating Right 10th century Gommateshwara statue depicting standing meditation Kayotsarga posture Jainism considers meditation dhyana a necessary practice but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism 131 In Jainism meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity not as a means to transformational insights or self realization in other Indian religions 131 According to Padmanabh Jaini Samayika is a practice of brief periods in meditation in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata ritual restraint 132 The goal of Samayika is to achieve equanimity and it is the second siksavrata d The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work 133 134 135 According to Johnson as well as Jaini samayika connotes more than meditation and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of assuming temporary ascetic status 136 e Rituals and worship Edit Main article Jain rituals Praying at the feet of a statue of Bahubali There are many rituals in Jainism s various sects According to Dundas the ritualistic lay path among Svetambara Jains is heavily imbued with ascetic values where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic 138 139 The ultimate ritual is sallekhana a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks 138 The Digambara Jains follow the same theme but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy 138 The overlap is mainly in the life cycle rites of passage rituals and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular 140 141 Jains ritually worship numerous deities 139 especially the Jinas In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar incarnation but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved 142 Out of the 24 tirthankaras Jains predominantly worship four Mahavira Parshvanatha Neminatha and Rishabhanatha 143 Among the non tirthankara saints devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras 144 The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember the five life events of the tirthankaras including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja 145 146 Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals 147 The basic ritual is darsana seeing of deva which includes Jina 148 or other yaksas gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva 52 Viras Padmavati Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis including Sarasvati and Lakshmi 149 150 151 Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras 152 The worship ritual is called devapuja and is found in all Jain sub traditions 153 Typically the Jain layperson enters the Derasar Jain temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings bows down says the namaskar completes his or her litany and prayers sometimes is assisted by the temple priest leaves the offerings and then departs 153 Jain practices include performing abhisheka ceremonial bath of the images 154 Some Jain sects employ a pujari also called upadhye who may be a Hindu to perform priestly duties at the temple 155 156 More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice fresh and dry fruits flowers coconut sweets and money Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste Devotees also recite Jain texts particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras 157 147 Traditional Jains like Buddhists and Hindus believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious powerful and spiritual 158 159 The most famous of the mantras broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism is the five homage panca namaskara mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara s time 158 160 Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the Rishi mandala including the tirthankaras 161 The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms 162 Festivals Edit Main article Jain festivals Celebrating Das Lakshana Paryushana Jain Center of America New York City The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar 163 164 It lasts eight days for Svetambaras and ten days among the Digambaras 163 It is a time when lay people fast and pray The five vows are emphasized during this time 164 Svetambaras recite the Kalpasutras while Digambaras read their own texts The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals 163 Forgiveness I forgive all living beings may all living beings forgive me All in this world are my friends I have no enemies Jain festival prayer on the last day 165 The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari Jains consider this a day of atonement granting forgiveness to others seeking forgiveness from all living beings physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends 163 Forgiveness is asked by saying Micchami Dukkadam or Khamat khamna to others This means If I have offended you in any way knowingly or unknowingly in thought word or action then I seek your forgiveness The literal meaning of Paryushana is abiding or coming together 166 Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahavira It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar 167 168 The festivities include visiting Jain temples pilgrimages to shrines reading Jain texts and processions of Mahavira by the community At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar north of Patna special events are held by Jains 167 The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahavira s attainment of moksha 169 The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date Kartika Amavasya Jain temples homes offices and shops are decorated with lights and diyas small oil lamps The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance Sweets are often distributed On Diwali morning Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahavira in all Jain temples across the world The Jain new year starts right after Diwali 169 Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan similar to those in the Hindu communities 170 171 Traditions and sects EditMain article Jain schools and branches Digambara Mahavira iconography Svetambara Simandhar Swami iconography The Jain community is divided into two major denominations Digambara and Svetambara Monks of the Digambara sky clad tradition do not wear clothes Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas Svetambara white clad monastics on the other hand wear seamless white clothes 172 During Chandragupta Maurya s reign Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve year long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples Sthulabhadra a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu is believed to have stayed in Magadha 173 Later as stated in tradition when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked 174 This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Svetambara schism began with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes 175 Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which according to them required not even possession of clothes i e complete nudity In the fifth century CE the Council of Valabhi was organized by Svetambara which Digambara did not attend At the council the Svetambara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures which Digambara has ever since rejected This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism 176 177 The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda 178 Digambaras and Svetambara differ in their practices and dress code 179 180 181 interpretations of teachings 180 182 and on Jain history especially concerning the tirthankaras 183 184 185 186 187 Their monasticism rules differ 188 as does their iconography 188 Svetambara has had more female than male mendicants 189 where Digambara has mostly had male monks 190 and considers males closest to the soul s liberation 191 192 The Svetambaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism 192 193 and state that the 19th Tirthankara Mallinatha was female 194 which Digambara rejects 195 Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century A D where Svetambara iconography starts appearing 196 Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire c 1st century CE 197 Tirthankara represented without clothes and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as the Ardhaphalaka half clothed mentioned in texts 197 The Yapaniyas believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka followed Digambara nudity along with several Svetambara beliefs 197 In the modern era according to Flugel new Jain religious movements that are a primarily devotional form of Jainism have developed which resemble Jain Mahayana style devotionalism 198 Scriptures and texts EditMain article Jain literature Stela depicting Shrut Jnana or complete scriptural knowledge The Suryaprajnaptisutra a fourth or third century a C astronomy text of Svetambara Jains Above its manuscript from c 1500 CE 199 Mangulam inscription dated 3rd century a C Jain canonical scriptures are called Agamas They are believed to have been verbally transmitted much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts 200 and to have originated from the sermons of the tirthankaras whereupon the Ganadharas chief disciples transmitted them as Shrut Jnana heard knowledge 201 202 The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Svetambara Jains and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains 200 The Svetambaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts while the Digambaras believe that all were lost 203 204 and that Acharya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon According to them Digambara Acharyas recreated the oldest known Digambara Jain texts including the four anuyoga 205 206 207 The Digambara texts partially agree with older Svetambara texts but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions 208 The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE compiling it into four groups or Vedas history cosmography philosophy and ethics 209 f The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non canonical literature Of these the Kalpa Sutras are particularly popular among Svetambaras which they attribute to Bhadrabahu c 300 a C This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition 211 Svetambaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal 211 Both traditions consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas important The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati the Tattvarthasutra is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism 212 213 g In the Digambara tradition the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential 215 216 217 while the oldest being Kasayapahuda and Shatkhandagama attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali Other important Digambara Jain texts include Samayasara Ratnakaranda sravakacara and Niyamasara 218 Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism EditMain articles Buddhism and Jainism and Jainism and Hinduism All four Dharmic religions viz Jainism Hinduism Sikhism and Buddhism share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth with similar festivals and monastic traditions 219 220 221 They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods to disagree with core teachings and to choose whether to participate in prayers rituals and festivals They all consider values such as non violence to be important 222 p 635 link suffering to craving individual s actions intents and karma and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace bliss and eternal liberation moksha 223 224 Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises All believe in impermanence but Buddhism incorporates the premise of anatta no eternal self or soul Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging atman soul while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing jiva soul 225 226 227 In Jain thought there are infinite eternal jivas predominantly in cycles of rebirth and a few siddhas perfected ones 228 Unlike Jainism Hindu philosophies encompass nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one 229 230 231 While both Hinduism and Jainism believe soul exists to be a self evident truth most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present infinite and constant vibhu but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework In contrast Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being 232 Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman Jainism and Hinduism however both believe soul exists as a self evident truth 223 233 Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried particularly in northern central and western regions of India 234 235 Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was in part a rejection of the Hindu caste system 236 237 but later scholars consider this a Western error 238 A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society and Jainism focused on transforming the individual not society 234 239 240 241 h Monasticism is similar in all three traditions 244 245 with similar rules hierarchical structure not traveling during the four month monsoon season and celibacy 245 originating before the Buddha or the Mahavira 244 Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a sangha monastery and staying in its premises 246 Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha s distinctive ruddy robe or to use wooden bowls 244 In contrast Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness Digambara or white clothes Svetambara and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks 244 i Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self defence can be justified 248 and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty 249 Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence there were Jain monarchs military commanders and soldiers 250 The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour 251 252 while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments 253 254 Art and architecture EditMain article Jain art The birth of Mahavira from the Kalpa Sutra c 1375 1400 CE Sihanamdika ayagapata 25 50 CE Kankali Tila Mathura Uttar Pradesh Inscriptions at a Udaygiri Khandagiri 2nd 1st century a C Jain rock cut cave Odisha 255 Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture Jain arts depict life legends of tirthankara or other important people particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture Yakshas and yakshinis attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara are usually shown with them 256 The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum It is dated approximately to the third century a C 256 Bronze images of Parsva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum Mumbai and in the Patna museum these are dated to the second century a C 257 Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa dharmacakra and triratna They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh India The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century a C to third century CE 258 259 Samavasarana a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed is an important theme of Jain art 260 The Jain tower in Chittor Rajasthan is a good example of Jain architecture 261 Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries containing diagrams from Jain cosmology 262 Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events known as Panch Kalyanaka from the life of the tirthankara Rishabha the first tirthankara is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga the standing position He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders Bull images also appear in his sculptures 263 In paintings incidents from his life like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead are depicted Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers he is also seen painting a house weaving and being visited by his mother Marudevi 264 Each of the twenty four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara 265 Temples Edit Main article Jain temple Palitana Girnar Mount Abu Sonagiri Hastinapur Ayodhya Shikharji Kundalpur Pawapuri Bawangaja Ranakpur Khajuraho Varanasi Shravanabelagola Udayagiri Kumbhoj Osian Pattadakal Halebidu Ellora Guntur Kulpakji Mattancherry Tirumalai Pudukottai Madurai Chitharalclass notpageimage Major pilgrimage and temple sites in Jainism A Jain temple a Derasar or Basadi is a place of worship 266 Temples contain tirthankara images some fixed others moveable 266 These are stationed in the inner sanctum one of the two sacred zones the other being the main hall 266 One of the images is marked as the moolnayak primary deity 267 A manastambha column of honor is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples 268 Temple construction is considered a meritorious act 269 Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa Vidisha and Pataini temple in Madhya Pradesh the Ellora in Maharashtra the Palitana temples in Gujarat and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu Rajasthan 270 271 Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings 272 According to Jain texts Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty four Jain Tirthaṅkaras along with many other monks attained moksha died without being reborn with their soul in Siddhashila The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site 273 j The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Svetambara Murtipujaka sect 275 Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community 276 The Jain complex Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site 277 278 Shravanabelagola Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka 279 280 281 In and around Madurai there are 26 caves 200 stone beds 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures 282 The second first century a C Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of tirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription 283 284 Jain cave temples at Badami Mangi Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important 285 The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter and a medieval rock cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century a C Tamil Brahmi inscriptions 286 The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India 287 Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad Ranakpur Jain Temple Dilwara Temples Parshvanath Temple in Khajuraho Girnar Jain temples Jal Mandir Pawapuri Lodhurva Jain temple Palitana temples Saavira Kambada Basadi Moodbidri Karnataka Jain temple Antwerp Belgium Brahma Jinalaya Lakkundi Hutheesing Jain TemplePilgrimages Edit Main article Tirtha Jainism Shikharji Jain Tirtha pilgrim sites are divided into the following categories 288 Siddhakshetra Site of the moksha of an arihant kevalin or tirthankara such as Ashtapada of Rishabhanatha Shikharji of 20 Tirthankara Girnar of Neminatha Pawapuri of Mahaveera Champapuri capital of Anga of Vasupujya Mangi Tungi of Ram Palitana of 3 Pandavas Atishayakshetra Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred such as Mahavirji Rishabhdeo Kundalpur Tijara and Aharji Puranakshetra Places associated with the lives of great men such as Ayodhya Vidisha Hastinapur and Rajgir Gyanakshetra Places associated with famous acharyas or centers of learning such as Shravanabelagola Outside contemporary India Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar Sindh Pakistan However according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application Nagarparkar was not a major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage for Jainism but it was once an important cultural landscape before the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition 289 Statues and sculptures Edit Main article Jain sculpture Idol of Suparsvanatha Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty four tirthaṅkaras Parshvanatha Rishabhanatha and Mahavira are among the more popular often seated in lotus position or kayotsarga along with Arihant Bahubali and protector deities like Ambika 290 Quadruple images are also popular Tirthankar idols look similar differentiated by their individual symbol except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake Digambara images are naked without any beautification whereas Svetambara depictions are clothed and ornamented 291 Gommateshwara Bahubali The 58 8ft high monolithic statue of Bahubali built in 981 C EReligionAffiliationJainismA monolithic 18 metre 59 foot statue of Bahubali Gommateshvara built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India 292 The 33 metre 108 foot tall Statue of Ahiṃsa depicting Rishabhanatha was erected in the Nashik district in 2015 293 Idols are often made in Ashtadhatu literally eight metals namely Akota Bronze brass gold silver stone monoliths rock cut and precious stones 294 295 Symbols Edit Main article Jain symbols Om in Jainism Jain flag Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika Om and the Ashtamangala In Jainism Om is a condensed reference to the initials A A A U M of the five parameshthis Arihant Ashiri Acharya Upajjhaya Muni 296 297 or the five lines of the Ṇamōkara Mantra citation needed The Ashtamangala is a set of eight auspicious symbols 298 in the Digambara tradition these are chatra dhvaja kalasha fly whisk mirror chair hand fan and vessel In the Svetambar tradition they are Swastika Srivatsa Nandavarta Vardhmanaka food vessel Bhadrasana seat Kalasha pot Darpan mirror and pair of fish 298 A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2 500th anniversary of Mahavira s nirvana The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsa The wheel represents the dharmachakra which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsara wandering through the relentless pursuit of ahimsa The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Panca Parameṣṭhi and the five vows 299 The swastika s four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism humans heavenly beings hellish beings and non humans 300 301 The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts correct faith correct understanding and correct conduct believed to lead to spiritual perfection 302 In 1974 on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahavira the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism 303 It depicts the three lokas heaven the human world and hell The semi circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila a zone beyond the three realms The Jain swastika and the symbol of Ahiṃsa are included with the Jain mantra Parasparopagraho Jivanam 304 from sutra 5 21 of Umaswati s Tattvarthasutra meaning souls render service to one another 305 History EditMain article History of Jainism For a chronological guide see Timeline of Jainism Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India Jains trace their history through twenty four tirthankaras and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara in the present time cycle Some artifacts found in the Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script The last two tirthankaras the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha c 9th 8th century BCE and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira c 599 c 527 BCE are considered historical figures by whom Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha According to Jain texts the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85 000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna 306 Rishabhdev believed to have lived over 592 704 1018 years ago is considered the traditional founder of Jainism Ancient Edit See also Timeline of Jainism and Sramaṇa Jain inscription of Ashoka c 236 BCE Chaumukha Sculpture with Four Jinas Rishabhanatha Adinatha Parshvanatha Neminatha and Mahavira LACMA sixth century Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins 307 308 309 Jains claim it to be eternal and consider the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle 310 It is one of the Sramaṇa traditions of ancient India those that rejected the Vedas 311 312 and according to the twentieth century scholar of comparative religion Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed 313 314 k The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet 316 317 The 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha was a historical being 318 319 dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE 320 historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BC 321 Mahavira is considered a contemporary of the Buddha in around the sixth century BCE 322 323 The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha 324 later they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them 325 246 Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines 326 Kings Bimbisara c 558 491 BCE Ajatashatru c 492 460 BCE and Udayin c 460 440 BCE of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism 327 Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya 322 298 BCE the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life 328 329 Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting 328 330 Versions of Chandragupta s story appear in Buddhist Jain and Hindu texts 331 332 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves built by King Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty in second century a C The Indra Sabha cave at the Ellora Caves are co located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments The third century BC emperor Ashoka in his pillar edicts mentions the Niganthas Jains 333 Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BC 334 Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BC onwards 259 Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Svetambara 335 There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE 336 Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism 337 In the second half of the first century CE Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples 338 King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism 339 The Pallava King Mahendravarman I 600 630 CE converted from Jainism to Shaivism 340 His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics 341 The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE 342 343 344 King Ama of the eighth century converted to Jainism and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era 345 Mularaja 10th century CE the founder of the Chalukya dynasty constructed a Jain temple even though he was not a Jain 346 During the 11th century Basava a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use 347 The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana c 1108 1152 CE became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka 348 Medieval Edit The ruins of Gori Jain temples in Nagarparkar Pakistan a pilgrimage site before 1947 289 Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate Alauddin Khalji 1296 1316 as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi 349 One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him During his reign his governor of Gujarat Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples 350 351 Muhammad bin Tughluq 1325 1351 according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars 352 The Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun 1540 1556 Akbar 1556 1605 Jahangir 1605 1627 and even Aurangzeb 1658 1707 353 Despite this there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains Babur 1526 1530 the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior 354 In 1567 Akbar ravaged Chittor capital of the Sisodias After the conquest of the fort Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor 355 Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb 356 The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers However they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent 357 Colonial era Edit A poster of Virchand Gandhi who represented Jainism at the Parliament of the World s Religions in Chicago in 1893 A 34 feet tall idol of Shrimad Rajchandra at Dharampur Valsad A Gujarati Jain scholar Virchand Gandhi represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893 held in America during the Chicago World s Fair He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism 358 359 Shrimad Rajchandra a mystic poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in Gujarat is believed to have attained jatismaran gnana ability to recollect past lives at the age of seven Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World s Religions 360 He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi 361 They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth calling him his guide and helper and his refuge in moments of spiritual crisis Shrimad Rajchandra composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra considered his magnum opus containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1 5 2 hours 362 He expounds on the 6 fundamental truths of the soul 363 Self soul exists It is permanent and eternal It the doer of its own actions It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions Liberation exists There is a path to achieve liberation Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism a sect of Buddhism or a distinct religion 364 365 366 Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists 367 Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious 368 These criticisms states John E Cort were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity 369 The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance However laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population but particularly impacted Digambara monks 370 The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay now Mumbai in 1927 but was forced to cover his body He then led an India wide tour as the naked monk with his followers to various Digambara sacred sites and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces 370 Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance 371 The laws were abolished by India after independence 372 Modern era EditMain article Jain communities Followers of Jainism are called Jains a word derived from the Sanskrit jina victor which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation 42 373 The majority of Jains currently reside in India With four to five million followers worldwide 374 375 Jainism is small compared to major world religions Jains form 0 37 of India s population mostly in the states of Maharashtra 1 4 million in 2011 376 31 46 of Indian Jains Rajasthan 13 97 Gujarat 13 02 and Madhya Pradesh 12 74 Significant Jain populations exist in Karnataka 9 89 Uttar Pradesh 4 79 Delhi 3 73 and Tamil Nadu 2 01 376 Outside India Jain communities can be found in most areas hosting large Indian populations such as Europe the United Kingdom the United States Canada 377 Australia and Kenya 378 Jainism also counts several non Indian converts for example it is spreading rapidly in Japan where more than 5 000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020 379 According to the National Family Health Survey NFHS 4 conducted in 2015 16 Jains form the wealthiest community in India 380 According to its 2011 census they have the country s highest literacy rate 87 among those aged seven and older and the most college graduates 381 excluding the retired Jain literacy in India exceeded 97 The female to male sex ratio among Jains is 940 among Indians in the 0 6 year age range the ratio was second lowest 870 girls per 1 000 boys higher only than Sikhs Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India while Jain females have the lowest 382 Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra the leader of the campaign for Indian independence Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism 383 No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsa or non violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsa 384 Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987 385 See also Edit Religion portalJain law Jain cosmology List of Jains NonviolenceNotes Edit This view however is not shared by all Jain sub traditions For example the Terapanthi Jain tradition with about 250 000 followers considers both good karma such as compassionate charity and bad karma such as sin as binding one s soul to worldly morality It states that any karma leads to a negation of the absolute non violence principle given man s limited perspective It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form 64 Jain literature like Buddhist and Hindu literature has also debated the aspects of violence and non violence in food creation 75 In Jainism the ahiṃsa precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants It also mandates never swimming in water nor lighting or fire or extinguish one nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter 70 The first is desavakasika staying in a restrained surrounding cutting down worldly activities The third is posadhopavasa fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles The fourth is dana giving alms to Jain monks nuns or spiritual people 132 According to Dundas samayika seems to have meant correct behavior in early Jainism 137 Not to be confused with the four Vedas of Hinduism 210 That Which Is known as the Tattvartha Sutra to Jains is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion 214 According to Richard Gombrich and other scholars Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual s liberation from rebirths and suffering The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented Gombrich states Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether this is not the case but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors 242 238 243 Whether the begging utensils of a monk such as robe and begging bowl were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara Svetambara split although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks robes and bowls 247 Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta 274 Long notes that Ṛṣabha the first Tirthaṅkara of Jainism means bull and that images of bulls are found at seals from the Indus Valley civilization speculating that they may be related to Jainism 315 References EditCitations Edit Long Jeffery D 2013 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris ISBN 978 0 85771 392 6 p 20 22 Archana K C 23 February 2020 Jainism Gains Traction In Japan Thousands Travel To India To Transition From Zen To Jain The Times of India Retrieved 18 May 2021 Yandell 1999 p 243 Sinha 1944 p 20 a b c Grimes 1996 pp 118 119 Nemicandra amp Balbir 2010 p 1 of Introduction Champat Rai Jain 1917 p 15 von Glasenapp 1925 pp 188 190 Jaini 1980 pp 219 228 von Glasenapp 1925 pp 177 187 a b Jaini 1998 p 151 Dundas 2002 pp 96 98 Bailey 2012 p 108 Long 2013 pp 18 98 100 Grimes 1996 p 238 a b Soni 2000 pp 367 377 Dundas 2002 pp 75 76 131 229 230 Dundas 2002 pp 229 230 S A Jain 1992 p 16 sfn error no target CITEREFS A 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Shades of Enlightenment A Jain Tantric Diagram and the Colours of the Tirthankaras International Journal of Jain Studies vol 8 Granoff Phyllis 1992 The violence of non violence a study of some Jain responses to non Jain religious practices The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15 1 Grimes John 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English New York SUNY Press ISBN 0 7914 3068 5 Hackett Rosalind I J 2008 Proselytization Revisited Rights Talk Free Markets and Culture Wars Equinox Academic ISBN 978 1 84553 227 7 Harvey Graham 2016 Religions in Focus New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 93690 8 Jacobi Hermann 1964 Max Muller The Sacred Books of the East Series Volume XXII ed Jain Sutras Translation Motilal Banarsidass Original Oxford University Press Hirakawa Akira 1993 A History of Indian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0955 0 Hiriyanna M 1993 Outlines of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1086 0 Hopkins Edward Washburn 1902 The Religions of India Ginn amp Company Izawa A 2008 Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual vol 12 Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku Jain Jyotindra Fischer Eberhard 1978 Jain Iconography vol 12 Brill ISBN 978 90 04 05259 8 Jain Kailash Chand 1991 Lord Mahavira and His Times Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0805 8 Jain Shanti Lal 1998 ABC of Jainism Jnanodaya Vidyapeeth ISBN 978 81 7628 000 6 Jaini Padmanabh 1980 Doniger Wendy ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Jaini Padmanabh S 1991 Gender and Salvation Jain Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 06820 9 Jaini Padmanabh S 1998 1979 The Jain Path of Purification Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1578 0 Jaini Padmanabh S ed 2000 Collected Papers On Jain Studies First ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1691 6 Jambuvijaya Muni 2002 Piotr Balcerowicz amp Marek Mejor ed Essays in Jain Philosophy and Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1977 1 Jansma Rudi Jain Sneh Rani 2006 Introduction to Jainism Jaipur Prakrit Bharti Academy ISBN 978 81 89698 09 6 Johnson W J 1995 Harmless Souls Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umasvati and Kundakunda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1309 0 Johnston William M 2000 Encyclopedia of Monasticism A L Routledge ISBN 978 1 57958 090 2 Jones Constance Ryan James D 2007 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase Publishing ISBN 978 0 8160 5458 9 Jones Lindsay 2005 Encyclopedia of religion Macmillan Reference ISBN 978 0 02 865733 2 Juergensmeyer Mark 2011 The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 976764 9 Kelting M Whitney 2009 Heroic Wives Rituals Stories and the Virtues of Jain Wifehood Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 973679 9 Keown Damien Prebish Charles S 2013 Encyclopedia of Buddhism Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 98588 1 Ring Trudy Watson Noelle Schellinger Paul eds 1996 Asia and Oceania International Dictionary of Historic Places Routledge ISBN 978 1 884964 04 6 Kishore Kanika 16 June 2015 Symbol and Image Worship in Jainism Indian Historical Review 42 1 17 43 doi 10 1177 0376983615569814 S2CID 151841865 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 2004 A History of India Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 32920 0 Kumar Sehdev 2001 A Thousand Petalled Lotus Jain Temples of Rajasthan Architecture amp Iconography Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 348 9 Lochtefeld James G 2002a The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism A M vol 1 The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8239 3179 8 Lochtefeld James G 2002b The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism N Z vol 2 The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8239 2287 1 Long Jeffery D 2009 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris ISBN 978 0 85773 656 7 Long Jeffery D 2013 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris ISBN 978 0 85771 392 6 Lorenzen David N 1978 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History Journal of the American Oriental Society 98 1 61 75 doi 10 2307 600151 JSTOR 600151 Markham Ian S Lohr Christy 2009 A World Religions Reader John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4051 7109 0 Matilal Bimal Krishna 1990 Logic Language and Reality Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0717 4 Matilal Bimal Krishna 1998 Ganeri Jonardon Tiwari Heeraman eds The Character of Logic in India State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3739 1 McFaul Thomas R 2006 The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty first Century Greenwood Publishing ISBN 978 0 275 99313 9 Melton J Gordon ed 2011 Religious Celebrations An Encyclopedia of Holidays Festivals Solemn Observances and Spiritual Commemorations vol 1 ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 59884 206 7 Melton J Gordon Baumann Martin eds 2010 Religions of the World A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices vol One A B Second ed ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 59884 204 3 Michell George l 2014 Temple Architecture and Art of the Early Chalukyas Badami Mahakuta Aihole Pattadakal Niyogi Books ISBN 978 93 83098 33 0 Miller Christopher Patrick Long Jeffery D Reading Michael 2019 Beacons of Dharma Spiritual Exemplars for the Modern Age Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4985 6485 4 Mishra Susan Verma Ray Himanshu Prabha 2016 The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces The temple in western India 2nd century BCE 8th century CE Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 19374 6 Mookerji Radha Kumud 1988 first published in 1966 Chandragupta Maurya and his times 4th ed Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0433 3 Mugambi J N K ed 2010 1990 A Comparative Study of Religions Second ed University of Nairobi Press ISBN 978 9966 846 89 1 Nayanar 2005 Gatha 1 29 Neelis Jason 2010 Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia Brill Academic ISBN 978 90 04 18159 5 Nemicandra Acarya Balbir Nalini 2010 Dravyasamgrha Exposition of the Six Substances in Prakrit and English Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series vol 19 Mumbai Hindi Granth Karyalay ISBN 978 81 88769 30 8 Nesfield John Collinson 1885 Brief View of the Caste System of the North Western Provinces and Oudh North Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press Olson Carl 2014 The conflicting themes of nonviolence and violence in ancient Indian asceticism as evident in the practice of fasting International Journal of Dharma Studies 1 2 1 doi 10 1186 2196 8802 2 1 Owen Lisa 2012a Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora Brill ISBN 978 90 04 20629 8 Owen Lisa 2012b Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora Brill Academic ISBN 978 90 04 20629 8 Pal Pratapaditya 1986 Indian Sculpture Circa 500 B C A D 700 vol 1 Los Angeles Country Museum of Art University of California Press ISBN 978 0 87587 129 5 Pande Govind 1957 Studies in the 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04014 9 Rudolph Lloyd I Rudolph Susanne Hoeber 1984 The Modernity of Tradition Political Development in India University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 73137 7 Salter Emma September 2002 Raj Bhakta Marg the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra A Jain community in the twenty first century Doctoral thesis University of Wales pp 125 150 Retrieved 21 September 2018 via University of Huddersfield Repository Salvadori Cynthia 1989 Through open doors Kenway ISBN 978 9966 848 05 5 Sangave Vilas Adinath 1980 Jain Community A Social Survey 2nd ed Bombay Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 0 317 12346 3 Sangave Vilas Adinath 2001 Facets of Jainology Selected Research Papers on Jain Society Religion and Culture Mumbai Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 839 2 Sangave Vilas Adinath 2006 1990 Aspects of Jain religion 5 ed Bharatiya Jnanpith ISBN 978 81 263 1273 3 Saraswati Dayanand 1908 An English translation of Satyarth Prakash Reprinted in 1970 Lahore Virganand Press Sethia Tara 2004 Ahiṃsa Anekanta and 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1944 Indian Psychology Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 9788120801653 Solomon Robert C Higgins Kathleen M 1998 A Passion for Wisdom A Very Brief History of Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 511209 2 Soni Jayandra 2000 Basic Jain Epistemology Philosophy East and West 50 3 367 377 JSTOR 1400179 Sunavala A J 1934 Adarsha Sadhu An Ideal Monk Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 001 40429 5 Sundararajan K R Mukherji Bithika eds 1997 20 Hindu spirituality Postclassical and modern Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1937 5 Schwartz William Andrew 2018 The Metaphysics of Paradox Jainism Absolute Relativity and Religious Pluralism Lexington Books ISBN 978 1 4985 6392 5 archived from the original on 24 August 2018 retrieved 23 August 2018 Taylor Bron 2008 Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1 4411 2278 0 Titze Kurt 1998 Jainism A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non Violence 2 ed Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1534 6 Truschke Audrey 1 September 2015 Dangerous Debates Jain responses to theological challenges at the Mughal court Modern Asian Studies 49 5 1311 1344 doi 10 1017 S0026749X14000055 ISSN 0026 749X S2CID 146540567 Umasvati Umaswami 1994 That which is Translator Nathmal Tatia Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 06 068985 8 Vallely Anne 2002 Guardians of the Transcendent An Ethnology of a Jain Ascetic Community University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 8415 6 Vallely Anne 2013 Bullivant Stephen Ruse Michael eds The Oxford Handbook of Atheism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 166739 8 von Glasenapp Helmuth 1925 Jainism An Indian Religion of Salvation Der Jainismus Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion Shridhar B Shrotri trans Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Reprint 1999 ISBN 978 81 208 1376 2 Voorst Robert E Van 2014 RELG World 2 ed Cengage Learning ISBN 978 1 285 43468 1 link re, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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