Hispanic America

Not to be confused with Spanish America or Spanish Americans.

The region known as Hispanic America (in Spanish called Hispanoamérica or América Hispana) and historically as Spanish America (América Española) is the portion of the Americas comprising the Spanish-speaking countries of North, Central, and South America.^[1][2] In all of these countries, Spanish is the main language, sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages (such as Guaraní, Quechua, Aymara, or Mayan) or English (in Puerto Rico),^[3] and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion.^[4]

Map of countries that make up Hispanic America

Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under the term "Ibero-America", meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula.^[5] Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America, which includes not only Hispanic America, but also Brazil (the former Portuguese America) and the former French colonies in the Western Hemisphere (areas that are now in either the United States or Canada are usually excluded).^[6]

History

The Spanish conquest of the Americas began in 1492, and ultimately was part of a larger historical process of world discovery, through which various European powers colonized a considerable amount of territory and peoples in the Americas, Asia, and Africa between the 15th and 20th centuries. Hispanic America became the main part of the vast Spanish Empire. Napoleon's intervention in Spain in 1808 and the consequent chaos initiated the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, as the Hispanic American territories began their struggle for emancipation. By 1830, the only remaining Spanish American territories were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, until the 1898 Spanish–American War.^[7]

The 26th of July Movement, led by Fidel Castro, seized power in Cuba on 1 January 1959, overthrowing Fulgencio Batista's pro-US government. Castro nationalized Cuba's fruit resources, driving the United Fruit Company out, and his purchase of oil from the USSR led to a deterioration of relations with the US, leading to the failed 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion by Cuban exiles, and in 1962 the Cuban Missile Crisis almost sparked World War III. Castro's revolution was only the first of its kind in Hispanic America. Leftist governments rose to power across the region, so the United States resorted to backing coups, such as the 1954 overthrow of the popular Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in Guatemala and the ouster of Juan Bosch in 1965 in the Dominican Republic, the latter of which led to the Dominican Civil War and the US occupation of the republic that year. The United States supported coups that installed dictators in Chile, Uruguay, and other countries, and they set up the School of the Americas to train future dictators like Leopoldo Galtieri of Argentina and Manuel Noriega of Panama. Some dictators' rules led to civil wars, such as the Nicaraguan Civil War, Salvadoran Civil War, and Guatemalan Civil War in the 1970s-1990s, and the United States backed governments that used death squads to massacre villagers and priests accused of siding with leftists. These civil wars would end with the end of the Cold War, resulting in the communist guerrillas becoming legal political parties, and many of them would proceed to rule over the country, such as the Sandinistas of Nicaragua and FMLN of El Salvador.

Demographics

Countries

Country	Population^[8]	Area (km^2)	GDP (nominal [USD, billions])^[9]	GDP (nominal) per capita	GDP (PPP)	GDP (PPP) per capita
Argentina	45,376,763	2,780,400	418.15	9,121.56	1,015.01	22,141.44
Bolivia	11,673,029	1,098,581	43.11	3,624.15	105.06	8,832.32
Chile	19,116,209	756,950	307.94	15,617.13	491.53	24,928.25
Colombia	50,882,884	1,141,748	295.61	5,752.67	780.26	15,184.18
Costa Rica	5,094,114	51,000	61.18	11,805.84	107.09	20,666.67
Cuba	11,326,616	110,861	93.79^[10]	8,270.00	134.80	12,300.00
Dominican Republic	10,847,904	48,730	83.92	7,951.35	208.96	19,799.14
Ecuador	17,643,060	256,370	100.59	5,665.18	201.19	11,330.60
El Salvador	6,486,201	21,040	26.28	4,031.27	57.95	8,890.78
Guatemala	16,858,333	108,890	81.40	4,439.46	158.57	8,648.04
Honduras	9,904,608	112,492	26.16	2,585.97	57.65	5,698.47
Mexico	128,932,753	1,972,550	1,192.48	9,246.01	2,613.80	20,266.32
Nicaragua	6,624,554	129,494	12.28	1,876.90	36.96	5,648.20
Panama	4,314,768	75,571	59.38	13,689.51	131.81	30,388.36
Paraguay	7,132,530	406,752	37.84	5,145.63	98.93	13,454.20
Peru	32,971,846	1,285,220	225.92	6,678.27	439.26	12,984.88
Puerto Rico^[sn 1]	3,194,034	9,104	100.68	32,232.71	112.27	35,942.78
Uruguay	3,473,727	176,215	55.46	15,653.11	83.17	23,474.28
Venezuela	28,435,943	916,445	42.53	1,541.70	144.74	5,178.27
Total	420,289,876	11,458,413	3,264.70	7,767.73	6,979.01	16,605.23

1. Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the   United States.

Largest cities

City	Country	Population	Metro
Mexico City	Mexico	9,209,944	21,804,515
Buenos Aires	Argentina	3,054,300	12,806,866
Bogotá	Colombia	7,963,734	12,545,272
Lima	Peru	8,894,000	9,569,468
Santiago	Chile	5,428,590	7,112,000
Guadalajara	Mexico	1,385,621	5,286,642
Caracas	Venezuela	3,273,863	5,239,364
Guatemala City	Guatemala	2,149,188	4,500,000
Monterrey	Mexico	1,133,814	4,106,054
Medellín	Colombia	2,636,101	3,731,447
Quito	Ecuador	2,011,388	3,156,182
Guayaquil	Ecuador	2,698,077	3,113,725
Havana	Cuba	2,350,000	3,073,000
Maracaibo	Venezuela	2,201,727	2,928,043
Santo Domingo	Dominican Republic	965,040^[11]	2,908,607^[12]
Puebla	Mexico	1,399,519	2,728,790
Asunción	Paraguay	525,294	2,698,401
Cali	Colombia	2,068,386	2,530,796
San Juan	Puerto Rico^[sn 1]	434,374	2,509,007
San Salvador	El Salvador	540,090	2,223,092
San José	Costa Rica	1,543,000	2,158,898
Toluca	Mexico	820,000	1,936,422
Montevideo	Uruguay	1,325,968	1,868,335
Managua	Nicaragua	1,380,300	1,825,000
Barranquilla	Colombia	1,148,506	1,798,143
Santa Cruz	Bolivia	1,594,926	1,774,998
Valencia	Venezuela	894,204	1,770,000
Tijuana	Mexico	1,286,157	1,751,302
Tegucigalpa	Honduras	1,230,000	1,600,000
La Paz	Bolivia	872,480	1,590,000
Panama City	Panama	990,641	1,500,000
Barquisimeto	Venezuela	1,116,000	1,500,000
León	Mexico	1,278,087	1,488,000
Córdoba	Argentina	1,309,536	1,452,000
Ciudad Juárez	Mexico	1,301,452	1,343,000
San Pedro Sula	Honduras	1,250,000	1,300,000
Maracay	Venezuela	1,007,000	1,300,000
Rosario	Argentina	908,163	1,203,000
Torreón	Mexico	548,723	1,144,000
Bucaramanga	Colombia	516,512	1,055,331

1. Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the   United States.

Ethnology

The population of the Hispanic America is made up of the descendants of three large ethnic groups and their combinations.

• The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, descendants of Incas, Aztecs, Mayan and others.

• Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish, and Italian; less, German, and French.

• Those of African ancestry, mainly of West and Central African descent.

Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-European admixture.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives.^[17] A 2002 study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.^[18]

The most common combinations are:

• Mestizos, those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry.

And

• Mulattoes, people of mixed African and European ancestry.

Ethnic distribution, in 2005^[19] - Population estimates, as of 2020^[8]

Country	Population^[20]^[21]	Mestizos	Whites	Amerindians	Mulattoes	Blacks
Argentina	45,376,763	25.0%	70.0%	3.0%	1.0%	1.0%
Bolivia	11,673,029	46.0%	7.0%	45.0%	1.0%	1.0%
Chile	19,116,209	42.0%	43.0%	11.0%	2.0%	2.0%
Colombia	50,882,884	50.0%	34.0%	5.0%	6.0%	5.0%
Costa Rica	5,094,114	33.0%	57.0%	2.0%	7.0%	1.0%
Cuba	11,326,616	0.0%	55.0%	0.0%	29.0%	16.0%
Dominican Republic	10,847,904	45.0%	18.0%	0.0%	9.0%	17.0%
Ecuador	17,643,060	79.0%	7.0%	7.0%	0.0%	7.0%
El Salvador	6,486,201	86.0%	13.0%	1.0%	0.0%	0.0%
Guatemala	16,858,333	55.0%	1.0%	44.0%	0.0%	0.0%
Honduras	9,904,608	90.0%	1.0%	7.0%	0.0%	2.0%
Mexico	128,932,753	43.0%	42.0%	13.0%	1.0%	1.0%
Nicaragua	6,624,554	69.0%	17.0%	4.0%	9.0%	0.0%
Panama	4,314,768	65.0%	7.0%	12.0%	7.0%	6.0%
Paraguay	7,132,530	94.0%	3.0%	1.0%	1.0%	1.0%
Peru	32,971,846	60.0%	6.0%	26.0%	4.0%	4.0%
Puerto Rico^[sn 1]	3,194,034	66.0%	17.0%	0.0%	10.0%	7.0%
Uruguay	3,473,727	4.0%	85.0%	4.0%	3.0%	4.0%
Venezuela	28,435,943	50.0%	33.0%	5.0%	5.0%	5.0%
Total	420,289,876	48.0%	34.0%	10.0%	4.0%	4.0%

1. Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the   United States.

Languages

 

Linguistic map of Latin America. Spanish America in green, Lusophone America (Brazil) in orange, and francophone areas in blue.

 

Quechua, Guarani, Aymara, Nahuatl, Mayan languages, Mapudungun.

Spanish is the official language in most Hispanic American countries, and it is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Native American languages are widely spoken in Chile, Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and, to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Colombia,and Venezuela. In some Hispanic American countries, the population of speakers of indigenous languages tends to be very small or even non-existent (e.g. Uruguay). Mexico contains the largest variety of indigenous languages; there, the most spoken native language is Nahuatl.

In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, along with Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 native languages spoken by indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish.

Other European languages spoken in Hispanic America include: English, by some groups in Puerto Rico and descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile; German, in southern Chile and portions of Argentina, Venezuela, and Paraguay; Italian, in Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina.^{[22][23][24][25][26][27]}Yiddish and Hebrew can be heard around Buenos Aires. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay; Korean in Argentina and Paraguay; Arabic in Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile; and Chinese throughout South America.

In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.

The Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize mostly by the Garifuna people a mixed race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.

Culture

Cuisine

Hispanic cuisine as the term is applied in the Western Hemisphere, is a misnomer. What is usually considered Hispanic cuisine in the United States is mostly Mexican and Central American cuisine. Mexican cuisine is composed of mainly indigenous—Aztec and Mayan—and Spanish influences.^{[citation needed]}

Mexican cuisine is considered intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO and can be found all over the United States.

In the United States, with its growing Hispanic population, food staples from Mexican cuisine and the cuisine from other Hispanic countries have become widely available. Over the years, the blending of these cuisines has produced unique American forms such as Tex-Mex cuisine. This cuisine, which originated in Texas, is based on maize products, heavily spiced ground beef, cheese and tomato sauces with chilies. This cuisine is widely available not just in the United States but across other countries, where American exports are found. In Florida, Cuban food is widely available. All of these Hispanic foods in the United States have evolved in character as they have been commercially americanized by large restaurant chains and food companies.

The cuisine of Spain has many regional varieties, with Mediterranean flavors based on olive oil, garlic, and tomatoes and due to its long Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, has been graced with a great variety and availability of seafood. In the inland communities of Spain, there is a long tradition of cured meat of different kinds, in addition to an abundance of dishes such as roasts and stews, based on beef, pork, lamb, and poultry. The European and Arab heritage of Spain is reflected in its food, along with cosmopolitan influences beginning in the many new ingredients brought in from the New World since the 16th century, e.g. tomatoes, potatoes, or chocolate, and the more modern tastes introduced from Europe since the 19th century, especially through French and Italian dishes. It is only in the last ten years^[when?] that Hispanic American dishes have been introduced in Spain. In the United States and Canada, the number of Hispanic restaurants has become a growing trend, following the tapas-style restaurants fashion that first appeared in North America in the 1990s.

Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican cuisines, on the other hand, tend to use a lot of pork and can depend heavily on starchy root vegetables, plantain, and rice. The most prominent influences on their Spanish culinary traditions were introduced by African slaves, and to a lesser degree, French influence from Haiti and later Chinese immigrants. The use of spicy chile peppers of varying degrees of strength used as flavour enhancers in Mexican tradition is practically unknown in traditional Spanish–Caribbean dishes. The cuisine of Haiti, a country with a Francophone majority, is very similar to its regional neighbors in terms of influences and ingredients used.

The Argentine diet is heavily influenced by the country's position as one of the world's largest beef and wine producers, and by the impact that European immigration had on its national culture. Grilled meats are a staple of most meals as are pastas, potatoes, rice, paella and a variety of vegetables (Argentina is a huge exporter of agricultural products). Italian influence is also seen in the form of pizza and ice cream, both of which are integral components of national cuisine.

Uruguayan cuisine is similar to that of Argentina, though seafood is much more dominant in this coastal nation. As another one of the world's largest producers, wine is as much a staple drink to Uruguayans as beer is to Germans.

In Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile, potato dishes are typical since the potato is originally from this region. Beef and chicken are common sources of meat. In the Highlands is the cuy, a South American name for guinea pig, a common meat. Given the coastal location, both countries have extensive fishing fleets, which provide a wealth of seafood options, including the signature South American dish, ceviche. While potato is an important ingredient in the Highlands, Rice is the main side dish on the coast.

This diversity in staples and cuisine is also evident in the differing regional cuisines within the national borders of the individual countries.

Symbols

Flag

 

Flag of Hispanic Heritage. Motto: Justicia, Paz, Unión y Fraternidad ("Justice, Peace, Union and Fraternity").^[28]

While relatively unknown, there is a flag representing the countries of Spanish America, its people, history and shared cultural legacy.

It was created in October 1933 by Ángel Camblor, captain of the Uruguayan army. It was adopted by all the states of Spanish America during the Pan-American Conference of the same year in Montevideo, Uruguay.^[28]

The white background stands for peace, the Inti sun god of Inca mythology symbolizes the light shining on the Americas, and the three crosses represent Christopher Columbus' caravels, the Niña, Pinta, and Santa María, used in his first voyage from Spain to the New World in 1492. The deep lilac color of the crosses evokes the color of the lion on the coat of arms of the medieval Crown of Castile.^[29]

Religion

The Spanish and the Portuguese took the Roman Catholic faith to their colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia; Roman Catholicism remains the predominant religion amongst most Hispanic Americans.^[30] Membership in Protestant denominations is increasing, particularly in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico and other countries.^[31] In particular, Pentecostalism has experienced massive growth.^[32][33] This movement is increasingly attracting Latin America's middle classes.^[34] Anglicanism also has a long and growing presence in Latin America.

Countries	Population Total	Christians %	Christian Population	Unaffiliated %	Unaffiliated Population	Other religions %	Other religions Population	Source
Argentina	43,830,000	85.4%	37,420,000	12.1%	5,320,000	2.5%	1,090,000	^[35]
Bolivia	11,830,000	94.0%	11,120,000	4.1%	480,000	1.9%	230,000	^[35]
Chile	18,540,000	88.3%	16,380,000	9.7%	1,800,000	2.0%	360,000	^[35]
Colombia	52,160,000	92.3%	48,150,000	6.7%	3,510,000	1.0%	500,000	^[35]
Costa Rica	5,270,000	90.8%	4,780,000	8.0%	420,000	1.2%	70,000	^[35]
Cuba	11,230,000	58.9%	6,610,000	23.2%	2,600,000	17.9%	2,020,000	^[35]
Dominican Republic	11,280,000	88.0%	9,930,000	10.9%	1,230,000	1.1%	120,000	^[35]
Ecuador	16,480,000	94.0%	15,490,000	5.6%	920,000	0.4%	70,000	^[35]
El Salvador	6,670,000	88.0%	5,870,000	11.2%	740,000	0.8%	60,000	^[35]
Guatemala	18,210,000	95.3%	17,360,000	3.9%	720,000	0.8%	130,000	^[35]
Honduras	9,090,000	87.5%	7,950,000	10.5%	950,000	2.0%	190,000	^[35]
Mexico	126,010,000	94.1%	118,570,000	5.7%	7,240,000	0.2%	200,000	^[35]
Nicaragua	6,690,000	85.3%	5,710,000	13.0%	870,000	1.7%	110,000	^[35]
Panama	4,020,000	92.7%	3,720,000	5.0%	200,000	2.3%	100,000	^[35]
Paraguay	7,630,000	96.9%	7,390,000	1.1%	90,000	2.0%	150,000	^[35]
Peru	32,920,000	95.4%	31,420,000	3.1%	1,010,000	1.5%	490,000	^[35]
Puerto Rico^[sn 1]	3,790,000	90.5%	3,660,000	7.3%	80,000	2.2%	40,000	^[35]
Uruguay	3,490,000	57.0%	1,990,000	41.5%	1,450,000	1.5%	50,000	^[35]
Venezuela	33,010,000	89.5%	29,540,000	9.7%	3,220,000	0.8%	250,000	^[35]

1. Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the   United States.

See also

• Hispanic
• Hispanic and Latino Americans (Hispanic, Latino)
• Hispanidad
• Hispanism and Pan-Hispanism
• Hispanophone
• Ibero-America
• Latin America (Latin Americans)
• Spanish language
• Spanish language in the Americas
• Spanish language in the Philippines
• Philippines
• Equatorial Guinea
• Spanish-language literature
• Pan-Hispanism

References

1. All of the following dictionaries only list "Spanish America" as the name for this cultural region. None list "Hispanic America." All list the demonym for the people of the region discussed in this article as the sole definition, or one of the definitions, for "Spanish American". Some list "Hispanic," "Hispanic American" and "Hispano-American" as synonyms for "Spanish American." (All also include as a secondary definition for these last three terms, persons residing in the United States of Hispanic ancestry.) The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.) (1992). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-44895-6. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.) (2003). Springfield: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0-87779-807-9. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.) (1987). New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50050-4. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (2007). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2. Webster's New Dictionary and Thesaurus (2002). Cleveland: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-471-79932-0
2. "Hispanic America" is used in some older works such as Charles Edward Chapman's 1933 Colonial Hispanic America: A History and 1937 Republican Hispanic America: A History (both New York: The Macmillan Co.); or translated titles that faithfully reproduce Hispanoamérica, such as Edmund Stephen Urbanski (1978), Hispanic America and its Civilization: Spanish Americans and Anglo-Americans, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. The Cambridge University Press textbook by two distinguished historians of early Latin America, James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz is entitled, Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil 1983.
3. . Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
4. . Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
5. The adjective "Ibero-American" usually refers only to countries of the Western Hemisphere, but in the title of the Organization of Ibero-American States it refers to Iberian and (Ibero-)American countries, plus Equatorial Guinea.
6. "Latin America" The Free Online Dictionary (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000, 4th ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003.)
7. Christopher Conway, Nineteenth-Century Spanish America: A Cultural History (Vanderbilt University Press 2015).
8. "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
9. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
10. "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
11. "Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2010 :: Welcome". censo2010.one.gob.do.
12. (in Spanish). Santo Domingo: Oficina Nacional de Estadística. 1 May 2015. ISBN 978-9945-8984-3-9. Archived from the original on 14 July 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
13. Martínez Marignac, Verónica L.; Bianchi Néstor O.; Bertoni Bernardo; Parra Esteban J. (2004). "Characterization of Admixture in an Urban Sample from Buenos Aires, Argentina, Using Uniparentally and Biparentally Inherited Genetic Markers". Human Biology. 76 (4): 543–57. doi:10.1353/hub.2004.0058. PMID 15754971. S2CID 13708018.
14. Gonçalves, V. F.; Prosdocimi F.; Santos L. S.; Ortega J. M.; Pena S. D. J. (9 May 2007). "Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians". Genetics and Molecular Research. 6 (2): 256–61. ISSN 1676-5680. PMID 17573655. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
15. Alves-Silva, Juliana; da Silva Santos, Magda; Guimarães, Pedro E. M.; Ferreira, Alessandro C. S.; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Pena, Sérgio D. J.; et al. (2000). "The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (2): 444–461. doi:10.1086/303004. PMC 1287189. PMID 10873790.
16. Salzano, Francisco M.; Cátira Bortolini, Maria (2002). The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. Vol. 28. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-521-65275-9.
17. Ferbel, Dr. P. J. "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic". 29 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Kacikie: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. . Retrieved 24 September 2009.
18. Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. 22 June 2004 at the Wayback Machine Kacike: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Lynne Guitar, Ed. (Retrieved 25 September 2006)
19. Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (May–August 2005). (PDF). Convergencia (in Spanish). Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades. 38: 185–232, table on p. 218. ISSN 1405-1435. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-20.
20. "World Population Prospects 2022". population.un.org. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
21. "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX). population.un.org ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
22. "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Bbc.co.uk. 2008-07-22. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
23. "The Welsh Immigration to Argentina". 1stclassargentina.com.
24. Jeremy Howat. "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Argbrit.org. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
25. "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Patagonline.com. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
26. . Andesceltig.com. 2009-09-29. Archived from the original on 2017-09-17. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
27. . Glaniad.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-08. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
28. Raeside, Rob, ed. (1999-10-11). "Flag of the Race". Flags of the World. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
29. Image of the standard of the Crown of Castile
30. "Christians". December 18, 2012.
31. Wormald, Benjamin (November 13, 2014). "Religion in Latin America".
32. Allan., Anderson (2004). An introduction to Pentecostalism : global charismatic Christianity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521825733. OCLC 53919445.
33. Pierre., Bastian, Jean (1997). La mutación religiosa de América Latina : para una sociología del cambio social en la modernidad periférica (1st ed.). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 9681650212. OCLC 38448929.
34. Koehrsen, Jens (2017-09-01). "When Sects Become Middle Class: Impression Management among Middle-Class Pentecostals in Argentina". Sociology of Religion. 78 (3): 318–339. doi:10.1093/socrel/srx030. ISSN 1069-4404.
35. . www.pewforum.org. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2020-10-18.