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Wikipedia

Soybean

February 15, 2024

"Soy" redirects here. For other uses, see Soy (disambiguation).

The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (Glycine max)[3] is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.

Soybean
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Glycine
Species:
G. max
Binomial name
Glycine max
Synonyms[1]
  • Dolichos soja L.
  • Glycine angustifolia Miq.
  • Glycine gracilis Skvortsov
  • Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim.
  • Glycine soja sensu auct.
  • Phaseolus max L.
  • Soja angustifolia Miq.
  • Soja hispida Moench
  • Soja japonica Savi
  • Soja max (L.) Piper
  • Soja soja H. Karst.
  • Soja viridis Savi
Soybean
Chinese name
Chinese大豆
Literal meaning"large bean"
Southern Chinese name
Traditional Chinese黃豆
Simplified Chinese黄豆
Literal meaning"yellow bean"
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetđậu tương (or đỗ tương)
đậu nành
Chữ Hán豆漿
Chữ Nôm豆𥢃
Korean name
Hangul대두 (or 메주콩)
Hanja大豆
Transcriptions
Revised Romanizationdaedu (or mejukong)
Japanese name
Kanji大豆[2]
Kanaダイズ
Transcriptions
Romanizationdaizu
Beans for sale at a Supermarket in China

Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu and tofu skin are made. Fermented soy foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, nattō, and tempeh. Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals. For example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes.[4]

Soybeans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, dietary minerals and B vitamins. Soy vegetable oil, used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing the soybean crop. Soybean is the most important protein source for feed farm animals (that in turn yields animal protein for human consumption).[5]

Etymology

The word "soy" originated as a corruption of the Cantonese or Japanese names for soy sauce (Chinese: 豉油; Jyutping: si6jau4; Cantonese Yale: sihyàuh) (Japanese: 醤油, shōyu).[6]

The name of the genus, Glycine, comes from Linnaeus. When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root. Based on the sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, glykós, was Latinized.[6] The genus name is not related to the amino acid glycine.[citation needed]

Classification

 

The genus Glycine may be divided into two subgenera, Glycine and Soja. The subgenus Soja includes the cultivated soybean, G. max, and the wild soybean, treated either as a separate species G. soja,[7] or as the subspecies G. max subsp. soja.[8] The cultivated and wild soybeans are annuals. The wild soybean is native to China, Japan, Korea and Russia.[7] The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species: for example, G. canescens and G. tomentella, both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea.[9][10] Perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii) belongs to a different genus. It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics.[11][12][13]

Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty.[14] It is a cultigen with a very large number of cultivars.[15]

Description

Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant.

Germination

The first stage of growth is germination, a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's radicle emerges.[16] This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons, develop from the hypocotyl, the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days.[16]

 
 
Bhatmaas – Nepali fried soybeans

Maturation

The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades.[16] Subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between 6 and 15 cm (2+1⁄2 and 6 in) long and 2 and 7 cm (1 and 3 in) broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow 2 cm (3⁄4 in) per day. If rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by the time the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes.[16] The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, soil quality, and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between 50 and 125 cm (20 and 50 in) in height[17] and have rooting depths between 75 and 150 cm (30 and 60 in).[18]

Flowering

Flowering is triggered by day length, often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours.[16] This trait is highly variable however, with different varieties reacting differently to changing day length.[19] Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. Though they do not require pollination, they are attractive to bees, because they produce nectar that is high in sugar content.[20] Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed "indeterminates" and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons.[16] Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature.

 

The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is 3–8 cm (1–3 in) long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in a wide variety of sizes and hull colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green.[17] Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common.

Seed resilience

The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting.

Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation, yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability.[21] Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state.

Nitrogen-fixing ability

Like many legumes, soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen, due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria from the Rhizobia group.[22]

Chemical composition

Together, protein and soybean oil content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% fat, table). The remainder consists of 30% carbohydrates, 9% water and 5% ash (table). Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ.[23][page needed]

Nutrition

Further information: Soy protein
Soybean, mature seeds, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,866 kJ (446 kcal)
30.16 g
Sugars7.33 g
Dietary fiber9.3 g
19.94 g
Saturated2.884 g
Monounsaturated4.404 g
Polyunsaturated11.255 g
1.330 g
9.925 g
36.49 g
Tryptophan0.591 g
Threonine1.766 g
Isoleucine1.971 g
Leucine3.309 g
Lysine2.706 g
Methionine0.547 g
Cystine0.655 g
Phenylalanine2.122 g
Tyrosine1.539 g
Valine2.029 g
Arginine3.153 g
Histidine1.097 g
Alanine1.915 g
Aspartic acid5.112 g
Glutamic acid7.874 g
Glycine1.880 g
Proline2.379 g
Serine2.357 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
1 μg
Thiamine (B1)
76%
0.874 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
73%
0.87 mg
Niacin (B3)
11%
1.623 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
16%
0.793 mg
Vitamin B6
29%
0.377 mg
Folate (B9)
94%
375 μg
Choline
24%
115.9 mg
Vitamin C
7%
6.0 mg
Vitamin E
6%
0.85 mg
Vitamin K
45%
47 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
28%
277 mg
Copper
83%
1.658 mg
Iron
121%
15.7 mg
Magnesium
79%
280 mg
Manganese
120%
2.517 mg
Phosphorus
101%
704 mg
Potassium
60%
1797 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
51%
4.89 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water8.54 g
Cholesterol0 mg
Link to USDA FoodData Central Entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

A 100-gram reference quantity of raw soybeans supplies 1,866 kilojoules (446 kilocalories) of food energy and are 9% water, 30% carbohydrates, 20% total fat and 36% protein (table).

Soybeans are a rich source of essential nutrients, providing in a 100-gram serving (raw, for reference) high contents of the Daily Value (DV) especially for protein (36% DV), dietary fiber (37%), iron (121%), manganese (120%), phosphorus (101%) and several B vitamins, including folate (94%) (table). High contents also exist for vitamin K, magnesium, zinc and potassium (table).

For human consumption, soybeans must be processed prior to consumption–either by cooking, roasting, or fermenting–to destroy the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors).[24] Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to all monogastric animals.[25]

Protein

Further information: Complete protein, Protein quality, and Soy protein

Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made. Soy protein is essentially identical to the protein of other legume seeds and pulses.[26][27]

Soy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat, according to the US Food and Drug Administration:[28]

Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat, especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.

Although soybeans have high protein content, soybeans also contain high levels of protease inhibitors, which can prevent digestion.[29] Protease inhibitors are reduced by cooking soybeans, and are present in low levels in soy products such as tofu and soy milk.[29]

The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and casein for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.[30]

 
Graded seed

All spermatophytes, except for the family of grasses and cereals (Poaceae), contain 7S (vicilin) and 11S (legumin) soy protein-like globulin storage proteins; or only one of these globulin proteins. S denotes Svedberg, sedimentation coefficients. Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean-like protein.[31] Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma,[32][33][34] whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[35][36]

Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the cupin superfamily, a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants.[37]

2S albumins form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many dicot species and in some monocots but not in grasses (cereals).[38] Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein.[39][40][41] 2S albumin are grouped in the prolamin superfamily.[42] Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific plant lipid transfer proteins, alpha amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitors, and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses.[31]

Peanuts, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S.[38] It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein.

Carbohydrates

The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose.[citation needed] While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals, comparable to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane.

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber.

Fats

Raw soybeans are 20% fat, including saturated fat (3%), monounsaturated fat (4%) and polyunsaturated fat, mainly as linoleic acid (table).

Within soybean oil or the lipid portion of the seed is contained four phytosterols: stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, and brassicasterol accounting for about 2.5% of the lipid fraction; and which can be converted into steroid hormones.[citation needed] Additionally soybeans are a rich source of sphingolipids.[43]

Other constituents

Soy contains isoflavones—polyphenolic compounds, produced by legumes including peanuts and chickpeas. Isoflavones are closely related to flavonoids found in other plants, vegetables and flowers.[44]

Soy contains the phytoestrogen coumestans, also are found in beans and split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative, is the only coumestan in foods.[45][46]

Saponins, a class of natural surfactants (soaps), are sterols that are present in small amounts in various plant foods, including soybeans, other legumes, and cereals, such as oats.[47][48]

Comparison to other major staple foods

The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods, each in respective raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents. Raw soybeans, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the processing and the method of cooking: boiling, frying, roasting, baking, etc.

Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight[49]
Staple Maize (corn)[A] Rice, white[B] Wheat[C] Potatoes[D] Cassava[E] Soybeans, green[F] Sweet potatoes[G] Yams[Y] Sorghum[H] Plantain[Z] RDA
Water content (%) 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 70 9 65
Raw grams per 100 g dry weight 111 114 115 476 250 313 435 333 110 286
Nutrient
Energy (kJ) 1698 1736 1574 1533 1675 1922 1565 1647 1559 1460 8,368–10,460
Protein (g) 10.4 8.1 14.5 9.5 3.5 40.6 7.0 5.0 12.4 3.7 50
Fat (g) 5.3 0.8 1.8 0.4 0.7 21.6 0.2 0.6 3.6 1.1 44–77
Carbohydrates (g) 82 91 82 81 95 34 87 93 82 91 130
Fiber (g) 8.1 1.5 14.0 10.5 4.5 13.1 13.0 13.7 6.9 6.6 30
Sugar (g) 0.7 0.1 0.5 3.7 4.3 0.0 18.2 1.7 0.0 42.9 minimal
Minerals [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Calcium (mg) 8 32 33 57 40 616 130 57 31 9 1,000
Iron (mg) 3.01 0.91 3.67 3.71 0.68 11.09 2.65 1.80 4.84 1.71 8
Magnesium (mg) 141 28 145 110 53 203 109 70 0 106 400
Phosphorus (mg) 233 131 331 271 68 606 204 183 315 97 700
Potassium (mg) 319 131 417 2005 678 1938 1465 2720 385 1426 4700
Sodium (mg) 39 6 2 29 35 47 239 30 7 11 1,500
Zinc (mg) 2.46 1.24 3.05 1.38 0.85 3.09 1.30 0.80 0.00 0.40 11
Copper (mg) 0.34 0.25 0.49 0.52 0.25 0.41 0.65 0.60 - 0.23 0.9
Manganese (mg) 0.54 1.24 4.59 0.71 0.95 1.72 1.13 1.33 - - 2.3
Selenium (μg) 17.2 17.2 81.3 1.4 1.8 4.7 2.6 2.3 0.0 4.3 55
Vitamins [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 93.8 51.5 90.6 10.4 57.0 0.0 52.6 90
Thiamin (B1) (mg) 0.43 0.08 0.34 0.38 0.23 1.38 0.35 0.37 0.26 0.14 1.2
Riboflavin (B2) (mg) 0.22 0.06 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.56 0.26 0.10 0.15 0.14 1.3
Niacin (B3) (mg) 4.03 1.82 6.28 5.00 2.13 5.16 2.43 1.83 3.22 1.97 16
Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg) 0.47 1.15 1.09 1.43 0.28 0.47 3.48 1.03 - 0.74 5
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.69 0.18 0.34 1.43 0.23 0.22 0.91 0.97 - 0.86 1.3
Folate Total (B9) (μg) 21 9 44 76 68 516 48 77 0 63 400
Vitamin A (IU) 238 0 10 10 33 563 4178 460 0 3220 5000
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg) 0.54 0.13 1.16 0.05 0.48 0.00 1.13 1.30 0.00 0.40 15
Vitamin K1 (μg) 0.3 0.1 2.2 9.0 4.8 0.0 7.8 8.7 0.0 2.0 120
Beta-carotene (μg) 108 0 6 5 20 0 36996 277 0 1306 10500
Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg) 1506 0 253 38 0 0 0 0 0 86 6000
Fats [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Saturated fatty acids (g) 0.74 0.20 0.30 0.14 0.18 2.47 0.09 0.13 0.51 0.40 minimal
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) 1.39 0.24 0.23 0.00 0.20 4.00 0.00 0.03 1.09 0.09 22–55
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) 2.40 0.20 0.72 0.19 0.13 10.00 0.04 0.27 1.51 0.20 13–19
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA

A raw yellow dent corn
B raw unenriched long-grain white rice
C raw hard red winter wheat
D raw potato with flesh and skin
E raw cassava
F raw green soybeans
G raw sweet potato
H raw sorghum
Y raw yam
Z raw plantains
/* unofficial

Cultivation

 
United States

Uses

During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During the war, the soybean was discovered as fertilizer due to nitrogen fixation by the United States Department of Agriculture.

Conditions

 
Argentina

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (70 to 85 °F); temperatures of below 20 °C (70 °F) and over 40 °C (105 °F) stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen fertilizer use and increase yields when growing other crops in rotation with soy.[50] There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of organic material in soils where soy and other crops (for example, corn) are grown in rotation.[51] For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.

Soils

Soil scientists Edson Lobato (Brazil), Andrew McClung (U.S.), and Alysson Paolinelli (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 World Food Prize for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans.[52][53][54][55]

 
Soybean rust

Contamination concerns

Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals.[56][57]

Pests

Further information: List of soybean diseases

Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, viral diseases, and parasites.

Bacteria

The primary bacterial diseases include bacterial blight, bacterial pustule and downy mildew affecting the soybean plant.[58]

Animals

Nematodes

Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30%[59] or 40%[RM 1] are common even without symptoms.

Arthropods
Insects

The corn earworm moth and bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia.[60]

Vertebrates
Mammals

Soybeans are consumed by whitetail deer which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing crop yields by as much as 15%.[61] Groundhogs are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans.[62] Chemical repellents or firearms are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields.[61][62]

Fungi

Soybeans suffer from Pythium spinosum in Arkansas and Indiana (United States), and China.[63]

Cultivars

Disease resistant cultivars

Resistant varieties are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj et al. 2020 find that anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum truncatum is resisted by a combination of 2 major genes.[64]

PI 88788

The vast majority of cultivars in the US have soybean cyst nematode resistance (SCN resistance), but rely on only one breeding line (PI 88788) as their sole source of resistance.[RM 2] (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, Peking, and PI 90763 were characterized in 1997.)[65] As a result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the Iowa State University Extension had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788,[66][67] 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.)[67] That was speculated to be in 2012[RM 3]—and was clearly by 2020[66]—producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788.

Production

Main article: List of countries by soybean production
Soybean production – 2020
Country Production (millions of tonnes)
  Brazil 122
  United States 113
  Argentina 49
  China 20
  India 11
  Paraguay 11
World 353
Source: FAOSTAT[68]
 
[69]

In 2020, world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s.[70] The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in worldwide demand for meat products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports.[71]

Environmental issues

In spite of the Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in deforestation when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from pasture land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the Cerrado region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and palm oil, whereas the expansion of beef production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock.[72] Around 80% of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock.[73]

History

Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began.[74] The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. The closest living relative of the soybean is Glycine soja (previously called G. ussuriensis), a legume native to central China.[75] There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea.[76]

The first unambiguously domesticated, cultigen-sized soybean was discovered in Korea at the Mumun-period Daundong site.[76][77] Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans (douchi), jiang (Chinese miso), soy sauce, tempeh, nattō, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation, and it was eaten by itself, and as bean curd and soy milk.

Soybeans were introduced to Java in Malay Archipelago circa 13th century or probably earlier. By the 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period.[citation needed] By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent.

East Asia

 
Seikei Zusetsu (1804)

The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older.[78] The earliest documented evidence for the use of Glycine of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in Henan province China, a Neolithic site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago (cal bp).[76] An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region.[79]

According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet.[80] Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of Yangtze River delta and Southeast China.[81] The Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago.[82] Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC.[83] Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia.[76]

The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BC.[81][84] Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC.[84] Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC[76] are also significantly larger than wild varieties.[76][85]

Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soybean was unknown in South China before the Han period.[76] From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), which was completed in AD 712.

Southeast Asia

Soybeans were mentioned as kadêlê (modern Indonesian term: kedelai)[86] in an old Javanese manuscript, Serat Sri Tanjung, which dates to 12th- to 13th-century Java.[87] By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried by traders or merchants from Southern China.[88]

The earliest known reference to it as "tempeh" appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini manuscript.[89] The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java.

Indian subcontinent

By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the Dutch East India Company (VOC).

 
From a high-altitude area of Nepal
 
India

The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southwest into northern parts of Indian subcontinent by this period.[90]

Iberia

In 1603, "Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods—the first in any European language.

The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least the 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the Botanical Gardens at Coimbra (Crespi 1935).

In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville.[91]

North America

Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by Samuel Bowen, a former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint, the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese.[92] The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on Skidaway Island, Georgia, in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen.[93][94][95] Bowen grew soy near Savannah, Georgia, possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England.[96] Although soybean was introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for forage.[97]

In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College.[98]

It was not until Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from a farm animal feed to a human food.[99][100]

William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America. He and Charles Piper (Dr. C. V. Piper) took what was an unknown Oriental peasant crop in 1910 and transformed it into a "golden bean" for America, becoming one of America's largest farm crops and its most nutritious.[101][102][103]

 

Prior to the 1920s in the US, the soybean was mainly a forage crop, a source of oil, meal (for feed) and industrial products, with very little used as food. However, it took on an important role after World War I. During the Great Depression, the drought-stricken (Dust Bowl) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and Henry Ford became a promoter of soybeans.[104] In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath, which was given the name Azlon. It never reached the commercial market. Soybean oil was used by Ford in paint for the automobiles,[105] as well as a fluid for shock absorbers.

Prior to the 1970s, Asian-Americans and Seventh-Day Adventists were essentially the only users of soy foods in the United States.[106] "The soy foods movement began in small pockets of the counterculture, notably the Tennessee commune named simply The Farm, but by the mid-1970s a vegetarian revival helped it gain momentum and even popular awareness through books such as The Book of Tofu."[107]

Although practically unseen in 1900, by 2000 soybean plantings covered more than 70 million acres,[108] second only to corn, and it became America's largest cash crop.[citation needed] In 2021, 87,195 acres were planted, with the largest acreage in the states of Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota.[109]

Caribbean and West Indies

The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily.[110]

Mediterranean area

The soybean was first cultivated in Italy by 1760 in the Botanical Garden of Turin. During the 1780s, it was grown in at least three other botanical gardens in Italy.[111] The first soybean product, soy oil, arrived in Anatolia during 1909 under Ottoman Empire.[112] The first clear cultivation occurred in 1931.[112] This was also the first time that soybeans were cultivated in Middle East.[112] By 1939, soybeans were cultivated in Greece.[113][114]

Australia

Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department, Japan.[115]

Western Europe

The soybean was first cultivated in France by 1779 (and perhaps as early as 1740). The two key early people and organizations introducing the soybean to France were the Society of Acclimatization (starting in 1855) and Li Yu-ying (from 1910). Li started a large tofu factory, where the first commercial soyfoods in France were made.[116]

Africa

The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857.[117] Soya Meme (Baked Soya) is produced in the village called Bame Awudome near Ho, the capital of the Volta Region of Ghana, by the Ewe people of Southeastern Ghana and southern Togo.

Central Europe

In 1873, Professor Friedrich J. Haberlandt first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the Vienna World Exposition (Wiener Weltausstellung). He cultivated these seeds in Vienna, and soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe. In 1875, he first grew the soybeans in Vienna, then in early 1876 he sent samples of seeds to seven cooperators in central Europe, who planted and tested the seeds in the spring of 1876, with good or fairly good results in each case.[118] Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them, then reported their results. Starting in February 1876, he published these results first in various journal articles, and finally in his magnum opus, Die Sojabohne (The Soybean) in 1878.[118] In northern Europe, lupin (lupine) is known as the "soybean of the north".[119]

Central Asia

The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production.[120]

Central America

The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877.[121]

South America

The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882.[122]

Andrew McClung showed in the early 1950s that with soil amendments the Cerrado region of Brazil would grow soybeans.[123] In June 1973, when soybean futures markets mistakenly portended a major shortage, the Nixon administration imposed an embargo on soybean exports. It lasted only a week, but Japanese buyers felt that they could not rely on U.S. supplies, and the rival Brazilian soybean industry came into existence.[124][104] This led Brazil to become the world's largest producer of soybeans in 2020, with 131 million tons.[125]

Industrial soy production in South America is characterized by wealthy management who live far away from the production site which they manage remotely. In Brazil, these managers depend heavily on advanced technology and machinery, and agronomic practices such as zero tillage, high pesticide use, and intense fertilization. One contributing factor is the increased attention on the Brazilian Cerrado in Bahia, Brazil by US farmers in the early 2000s. This was due to rising values of scarce farmland and high production costs in the US Midwest. There were many promotions of the Brazilian Cerrado by US farm producer magazines and market consultants who portrayed it as having cheap land with ideal production conditions, with infrastructure being the only thing it was lacking. These same magazines also presented Brazilian soy as inevitably out-competing American soy. Another draw to investing was the insider information about the climate and market in Brazil. A few dozen American farmers purchased varying amounts of land by a variety of means including finding investors and selling off land holdings. Many followed the ethanol company model and formed an LLC with investments from neighboring farmers, friends, and family while some turned to investment companies. Some soy farmers either liquidated their Brazilian assets or switched to remote management from the US to return to farming there and implement new farming and business practices to make their US farms more productive. Others planned to sell their now expensive Bahia land to buy land cheaper land in the frontier regions of Piauí or Tocantins to create more soybean farms.[126]

Genetics

Chinese landraces were found to have a slightly higher genetic diversity than inbred lines by Li et al., 2010.[127] Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) has been used by Han et al., 2015 to study the genetic history of the domestication process, perform genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of agronomically relevant traits, and produce high-density linkage maps.[128] An SNP array was developed by Song et al., 2013 and has been used for research and breeding;[129] the same team applied their array in Song et al., 2015 against the USDA Soybean Germplasm Collection and obtained mapping data that are expected to yield association mapping data for such traits.[127]

Rpp1-R1 is a resistance gene against soybean rust.[130] Rpp1-R1 is an R gene (NB-LRR) providing resistance against the rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi.[130] Its synthesis product includes a ULP1 protease.[130]

Qijian et al., 2017 provides the SoySNP50K gene array.[131]

Genetic modification

Further information: Genetically modified soybean
 
Different varieties of soybeans being grown together

Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, Monsanto company introduced glyphosate-tolerant soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's glyphosate herbicides through substitution of the Agrobacterium sp. (strain CP4) gene EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate.[132]

In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%.[133] As with other glyphosate-tolerant crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity.[134] A 2003 study[135] concluded the "Roundup Ready" (RR) gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies".

The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union, where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.[136]

A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%).[137] The patent on glyphosate-tolerant soybeans expired in 2014,[138] so benefits can be expected to shift.[139]

Uses

 
 
Tofu and soy sauce

Among the legumes, the soybean is valued for its high (38–45%) protein content as well as its high (approximately 20%) oil content. Soybeans are the most valuable agricultural export of the United States.[140] Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and soybean oil, the remainder processed in other ways or eaten whole.[141]

Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, and better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and are lower in oil than field types. Tofu, soy milk, and soy sauce are among the top edible commodities made using soybeans. Producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity.

Soybean oil

Main article: Soybean oil

Soybean seed contains 18–19% oil.[142] To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes, and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane.[143] The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods.

Soybean meal

Main article: Soybean meal

Soybean meal, or soymeal, is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is 'toasted' (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Ninety-seven percent of soybean meal production globally is used as livestock feed.[142] Soybean meal is also used in some dog foods.[144]

Livestock feed

One of the major uses of soybeans globally is as livestock feed, predominantly in the form of soybean meal. In the European Union, for example, though it does not make up most of the weight of livestock feed, soybean meal provides around 60% of the protein fed to livestock.[145] In the United States, however, 70 percent of soybean production is used for animal feed, with poultry being the number one livestock sector of soybean consumption.[146] Spring grasses are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6. The soybean hulls, which mainly consist of the outer coats of the beans removed before oil extraction, can also be fed to livestock and whole soybean seeds after processing.[147][148]

Food for human consumption

 
Tempeh

In addition to their use in livestock feed, soybean products are widely used for human consumption. Common soybean products include soy sauce, soy milk, tofu, soy meal, soy flour, textured vegetable protein (TVP), soy curls, tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing, for example, in the Japanese food edamame (枝豆, edamame), in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with salt.

 
Soy chunks

In China, Japan, Vietnam and Korea, soybean and soybean products are a standard part of the diet.[149] Tofu (豆腐 dòufu) is thought to have originated in China, along with soy sauce and several varieties of soybean paste used as seasonings.[citation needed] Japanese foods made from soya include miso (味噌), nattō (納豆), kinako (黄粉) and edamame (枝豆), as well as products made with tofu such as atsuage and aburaage. In China, whole dried soybeans are sold in supermarkets and used to cook various dishes, usually after rehydration by soaking in water; they find their use in soup or as a savory dish. In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts (콩나물 kongnamul) are used in a variety of dishes, and soybeans are the base ingredient in doenjang, cheonggukjang and ganjang. In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste (tương) in the North with the most popular products are tương Bần, tương Nam Đàn, tương Cự Đà as a garnish for phở and gỏi cuốn dishes, as well as tofu (đậu hũ or đậu phụ or tàu hũ), soy sauce (nước tương), soy milk (nước đậu in the North or sữa đậu nành in the South), and đậu hũ nước đường (tofu sweet soup).

Flour

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soybean flour.
 
Japanese soybean meat

Soy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high protein dispersibility index, for uses such as food extrusion of textured vegetable protein.[150] It is the starting material for soy concentrate and protein isolate production.

Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat (hull), and grinding it into flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels.[151] Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step.

  • Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes and contains less than 1% oil.[151]
  • "Natural or full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans and contains about 18% to 20% oil."[151] Its high oil content requires the use of a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill to grind rather than the usual hammer mill. Full-fat soy flour has a lower protein concentration than defatted flour. Extruded full-fat soy flour, ground in an Alpine mill, can replace/extend eggs in baking and cooking.[152][153] Full-fat soy flour is a component of the famous Cornell bread recipe.[154][155][156]
  • Low-fat soy flour is made by adding some oil back into defatted soy flour. Fat levels range from 4.5% to 9%.[151]
  • High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, usually at 15%.[157]

Soy lecithin can be added (up to 15%) to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour. It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties.[151]

Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than wheat flour. It does not contain gluten.[151] As a result, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents staling in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture.[151]

Soy grits are similar to soy flour, except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces.

Kinako is a soy flour used in Japanese cuisine.

Section reference: Smith & Circle (1972, p. 442)

Soy-based infant formula

Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed; it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a vegan diet. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms.

Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants.[158] Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.[159][160][161] One of these studies, published in the Journal of Nutrition,[161] concludes that there are:

... no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.

Meat and dairy alternatives and extenders

 
Cream cheese alternative with chives

Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well.

Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute for meat and poultry products.[162][163] Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. The extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value.[4][164][165]

Soy nut butter

The soybean is used to make a product called soy nut butter which is similar in texture to peanut butter.[166]

Sweetened soybean

Sweet-boiled beans are popular in Japan and Korea, and the sweet-boiled soybeans are called "Daizu no Nimame [ja]" in Japan and Kongjorim (Korean: 콩조림) in Korea. Sweet-boiled beans are even used in sweetened buns, especially in Mame Pan [ja].

The boiled and pasted edamame, called Zunda [ja], is used as one of the Sweet bean pastes in Japanese confections.

Coffee substitute

Roasted and ground soybeans can be a caffeine-free substitute for coffee. After the soybeans are roasted and ground, they look similar to regular coffee beans or can be used as a powder similar to instant coffee, with the aroma and flavor of roasted soybeans.[167]

Other products

 
Texas

Soybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans, douchi, not to be confused with black turtle beans.

Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production.[168] Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of vodka.[169] In 1936, Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars, from the distributor cap to knobs on the dashboard. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres (20,000 km2) was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States.[170]

Health effects

Reducing risk of cancer

According to the American Cancer Society, "There is growing evidence that eating traditional soy foods such as tofu may lower the risk of cancers of the breast, prostate, or endometrium (lining of the uterus), and there is some evidence it may lower the risk of certain other cancers." There is insufficient research to indicate whether taking soy dietary supplements (e.g., as a pill or capsule) has any effect on health or cancer risk.[171]

As of 2018, rigorous dietary clinical research in people with cancer has proved inconclusive.[44][172][173][174][175]

Breast cancer

Although considerable research has examined the potential for soy consumption to lower the risk of breast cancer in women, as of 2016 there is insufficient evidence to reach a conclusion about a relationship between soy consumption and any effects on breast cancer.[44] A 2011 meta-analysis stated: "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations."[176]

Gastrointestinal and colorectal cancer

Reviews of preliminary clinical trials on people with colorectal or gastrointestinal cancer suggest that soy isoflavones may have a slight protective effect against such cancers.[172][173]

Prostate cancer

A 2016 review concluded that "current evidence from observational studies and small clinical trials is not robust enough to understand whether soy protein or isoflavone supplements may help prevent or inhibit the progression of prostate cancer."[44] A 2010 review showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men.[177] Soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of sperm.[178] Meta-analyses on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that dietary soy may lower the risk of prostate cancer.[179][175]

Cardiovascular health

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease."[28] One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein.

An American Heart Association (AHA) review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits did not recommend isoflavone supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post-menopausal "hot flashes" and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. AHA concluded that "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat".[180] Other studies found that soy protein consumption could lower LDL.[181][182]

Soy allergy

Main article: Soy allergy

Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions.[183] It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish.[184] An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance, a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and diarrhoea when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, anemia, weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. However, it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years.[185]

In the European Union, identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. The regulation (EC) 1169/2011 on food-labeling lists 14 allergens, including soy, in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctive typography (such as bold type or capital letters).[186]

Thyroid function

One review noted that soy-based foods may inhibit absorption of thyroid hormone medications required for treatment of hypothyroidism.[187] A 2015 scientific review by the European Food Safety Authority concluded that intake of isoflavones from supplements did not affect thyroid hormone levels in postmenopausal women.[188]

Research by constituent

Lignans

Plant lignans are associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight.[189]

Phytochemicals

See also: Phytochemicals

Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens (wet basis per 100 g), which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones, daidzein and genistein.[44][190] Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as selective estrogen receptor modulators, or SERMs, which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.[191][192] The major product of daidzein microbial metabolism is equol.[193] Only 33% of Western Europeans have a microbiome that produces equol, compared to 50–55% of Asians.[193]

Soy isoflavones—polyphenolic compounds that are also produced by other legumes like peanuts and chickpeas[44]—are under preliminary research. As of 2016, no cause-and-effect relationship has been shown in clinical research to indicate that soy isoflavones lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases.[44][180][194]

Phytic acid

Soybeans contain phytic acid, which may act as a chelating agent and inhibit mineral absorption, especially for diets already low in minerals.[195]

In culture

Although observations of soy consumption having a feminization effect on men[196] are not conclusive,[197] a pejorative term, "soy boy", has emerged to describe perceived emasculated young men with feminine traits.[198]

Futures

Soybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X).

They are also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications:

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Soybean.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soybean.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Soy bean.

See also

Further reading

  • da Silva, Claiton Marcio; de Majo, Claudio, eds. The Age of the Soybean: An Environmental History of Soy during the Great Acceleration (White Horse Press, 2022) online review

References

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  1. ^ "You can literally have 40% yield loss with no symptoms," says Greg Tylka, Iowa State University (ISU) Extension nematologist.
  2. ^ Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties. Out of 807 resistant varieties listed by ISU this year, just 18 had a genetic background outside of PI 88788. "We have lots of varieties to pick from, but the genetic background is not as diverse as we would like it to be," says Tylka.
  3. ^ There have been cases where SCN has clipped yields of SCN-resistant varieties. Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties.

February 15, 2024
soybean, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, soybean, bean, soya, bean, glycine, species, legume, native, east, asia, widely, grown, edible, bean, which, numerous, uses, scientific, classificationkingdom, plantaeclade, tracheophytesclade, angiosperms. Soy redirects here For other uses see Soy disambiguation The soybean soy bean or soya bean Glycine max 3 is a species of legume native to East Asia widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses SoybeanScientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade AngiospermsClade EudicotsClade RosidsOrder FabalesFamily FabaceaeSubfamily FaboideaeGenus GlycineSpecies G maxBinomial nameGlycine max L Merr Synonyms 1 Dolichos soja L Glycine angustifolia Miq Glycine gracilis Skvortsov Glycine hispida Moench Maxim Glycine soja sensu auct Phaseolus max L Soja angustifolia Miq Soja hispida Moench Soja japonica Savi Soja max L Piper Soja soja H Karst Soja viridis SaviSoybeanChinese nameChinese大豆Literal meaning large bean TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyindadouIPA ta to ʊ Southern Chinese nameTraditional Chinese黃豆Simplified Chinese黄豆Literal meaning yellow bean TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinhuangdouHakkaRomanizationvong theuYue CantoneseYale Romanizationwohng dauhJyutpingwong4 dau6IPA wɔːŋ tɐu Southern MinHokkien POJn g tauVietnamese nameVietnamese alphabetđậu tương or đỗ tương đậu nanhChữ Han豆漿Chữ Nom豆𥢃Korean nameHangul대두 or 메주콩 Hanja大豆TranscriptionsRevised Romanizationdaedu or mejukong Japanese nameKanji大豆 2 KanaダイズTranscriptionsRomanizationdaizuBeans for sale at a Supermarket in ChinaTraditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk from which tofu and tofu skin are made Fermented soy foods include soy sauce fermented bean paste nattō and tempeh Fat free defatted soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals For example soybean products such as textured vegetable protein TVP are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes 4 Soybeans contain significant amounts of phytic acid dietary minerals and B vitamins Soy vegetable oil used in food and industrial applications is another product of processing the soybean crop Soybean is the most important protein source for feed farm animals that in turn yields animal protein for human consumption 5 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Classification 3 Description 3 1 Germination 3 2 Maturation 3 3 Flowering 3 4 Seed resilience 3 5 Nitrogen fixing ability 4 Chemical composition 4 1 Nutrition 4 1 1 Protein 4 1 2 Carbohydrates 4 1 3 Fats 4 1 4 Other constituents 4 2 Comparison to other major staple foods 5 Cultivation 5 1 Uses 5 2 Conditions 5 3 Soils 5 4 Contamination concerns 5 5 Pests 5 5 1 Bacteria 5 5 2 Animals 5 5 2 1 Nematodes 5 5 2 2 Arthropods 5 5 2 2 1 Insects 5 5 2 3 Vertebrates 5 5 2 3 1 Mammals 5 5 3 Fungi 5 6 Cultivars 5 6 1 Disease resistant cultivars 5 6 1 1 PI 88788 6 Production 6 1 Environmental issues 7 History 7 1 East Asia 7 2 Southeast Asia 7 3 Indian subcontinent 7 4 Iberia 7 5 North America 7 6 Caribbean and West Indies 7 7 Mediterranean area 7 8 Australia 7 9 Western Europe 7 10 Africa 7 11 Central Europe 7 12 Central Asia 7 13 Central America 7 14 South America 8 Genetics 8 1 Genetic modification 9 Uses 9 1 Soybean oil 9 2 Soybean meal 9 3 Livestock feed 9 4 Food for human consumption 9 4 1 Flour 9 4 2 Soy based infant formula 9 4 3 Meat and dairy alternatives and extenders 9 4 4 Soy nut butter 9 4 5 Sweetened soybean 9 4 6 Coffee substitute 9 5 Other products 10 Health effects 10 1 Reducing risk of cancer 10 1 1 Breast cancer 10 1 2 Gastrointestinal and colorectal cancer 10 1 3 Prostate cancer 10 2 Cardiovascular health 10 3 Soy allergy 10 4 Thyroid function 10 5 Research by constituent 10 5 1 Lignans 10 5 2 Phytochemicals 10 5 3 Phytic acid 11 In culture 12 Futures 13 See also 14 Further reading 15 ReferencesEtymologyThe word soy originated as a corruption of the Cantonese or Japanese names for soy sauce Chinese 豉油 Jyutping si6jau4 Cantonese Yale sihyauh Japanese 醤油 shōyu 6 The name of the genus Glycine comes from Linnaeus When naming the genus Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root Based on the sweetness the Greek word for sweet glykos was Latinized 6 The genus name is not related to the amino acid glycine citation needed Classification nbsp The genus Glycine may be divided into two subgenera Glycine and Soja The subgenus Soja includes the cultivated soybean G max and the wild soybean treated either as a separate species G soja 7 or as the subspecies G max subsp soja 8 The cultivated and wild soybeans are annuals The wild soybean is native to China Japan Korea and Russia 7 The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species for example G canescens and G tomentella both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea 9 10 Perennial soybean Neonotonia wightii belongs to a different genus It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics 11 12 13 Like some other crops of long domestication the relationship of the modern soybean to wild growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty 14 It is a cultigen with a very large number of cultivars 15 DescriptionThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Like most plants soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant Germination The first stage of growth is germination a method which first becomes apparent as a seed s radicle emerges 16 This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions The first photosynthetic structures the cotyledons develop from the hypocotyl the first plant structure to emerge from the soil These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days 16 nbsp nbsp Bhatmaas Nepali fried soybeansMaturation The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades 16 Subsequent to this first pair mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades Mature trifoliolate leaves having three to four leaflets per leaf are often between 6 and 15 cm 2 1 2 and 6 in long and 2 and 7 cm 1 and 3 in broad Under ideal conditions stem growth continues producing new nodes every four days Before flowering roots can grow 2 cm 3 4 in per day If rhizobia are present root nodulation begins by the time the third node appears Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes 16 The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable with factors such as genetics soil quality and climate affecting its form however fully mature soybean plants are generally between 50 and 125 cm 20 and 50 in in height 17 and have rooting depths between 75 and 150 cm 30 and 60 in 18 Flowering Flowering is triggered by day length often beginning once days become shorter than 12 8 hours 16 This trait is highly variable however with different varieties reacting differently to changing day length 19 Soybeans form inconspicuous self fertile flowers which are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white pink or purple Though they do not require pollination they are attractive to bees because they produce nectar that is high in sugar content 20 Depending on the soybean variety node growth may cease once flowering begins Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed indeterminates and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons 16 Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature nbsp The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five each pod is 3 8 cm 1 3 in long and usually contains two to four rarely more seeds 5 11 mm in diameter Soybean seeds come in a wide variety of sizes and hull colors such as black brown yellow and green 17 Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common Seed resilience The hull of the mature bean is hard water resistant and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl or germ from damage If the seed coat is cracked the seed will not germinate The scar visible on the seed coat is called the hilum colors include black brown buff gray and yellow and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation yet survive and revive after water absorption A Carl Leopold began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid 1980s He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed s cell viability 21 Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state Nitrogen fixing ability Like many legumes soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria from the Rhizobia group 22 Chemical compositionThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Together protein and soybean oil content account for 56 of dry soybeans by weight 36 protein and 20 fat table The remainder consists of 30 carbohydrates 9 water and 5 ash table Soybeans comprise approximately 8 seed coat or hull 90 cotyledons and 2 hypocotyl axis or germ 23 page needed Nutrition Further information Soy protein Soybean mature seeds rawNutritional value per 100 g 3 5 oz Energy1 866 kJ 446 kcal Carbohydrates30 16 gSugars7 33 gDietary fiber9 3 gFat19 94 gSaturated2 884 gMonounsaturated4 404 gPolyunsaturatedomega 3omega 611 255 g1 330 g9 925 gProtein36 49 gTryptophan0 591 gThreonine1 766 gIsoleucine1 971 gLeucine3 309 gLysine2 706 gMethionine0 547 gCystine0 655 gPhenylalanine2 122 gTyrosine1 539 gValine2 029 gArginine3 153 gHistidine1 097 gAlanine1 915 gAspartic acid5 112 gGlutamic acid7 874 gGlycine1 880 gProline2 379 gSerine2 357 gVitaminsQuantity DV Vitamin A equiv 0 1 mgThiamine B1 76 0 874 mgRiboflavin B2 73 0 87 mgNiacin B3 11 1 623 mgPantothenic acid B5 16 0 793 mgVitamin B629 0 377 mgFolate B9 94 375 mgCholine24 115 9 mgVitamin C7 6 0 mgVitamin E6 0 85 mgVitamin K45 47 mgMineralsQuantity DV Calcium28 277 mgCopper83 1 658 mgIron121 15 7 mgMagnesium79 280 mgManganese120 2 517 mgPhosphorus101 704 mgPotassium60 1797 mgSodium0 2 mgZinc51 4 89 mgOther constituentsQuantityWater8 54 gCholesterol0 mgLink to USDA FoodData Central EntryUnits mg micrograms mg milligrams IU International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults A 100 gram reference quantity of raw soybeans supplies 1 866 kilojoules 446 kilocalories of food energy and are 9 water 30 carbohydrates 20 total fat and 36 protein table Soybeans are a rich source of essential nutrients providing in a 100 gram serving raw for reference high contents of the Daily Value DV especially for protein 36 DV dietary fiber 37 iron 121 manganese 120 phosphorus 101 and several B vitamins including folate 94 table High contents also exist for vitamin K magnesium zinc and potassium table For human consumption soybeans must be processed prior to consumption either by cooking roasting or fermenting to destroy the trypsin inhibitors serine protease inhibitors 24 Raw soybeans including the immature green form are toxic to all monogastric animals 25 Protein Further information Complete protein Protein quality and Soy protein Most soy protein is a relatively heat stable storage protein This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking such as tofu soy milk and textured vegetable protein soy flour to be made Soy protein is essentially identical to the protein of other legume seeds and pulses 26 27 Soy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat according to the US Food and Drug Administration 28 Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because unlike some other beans soy offers a complete protein profile Soy protein products can replace animal based foods which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat especially saturated fat without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet Although soybeans have high protein content soybeans also contain high levels of protease inhibitors which can prevent digestion 29 Protease inhibitors are reduced by cooking soybeans and are present in low levels in soy products such as tofu and soy milk 29 The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score PDCAAS of soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat eggs and casein for human growth and health Soybean protein isolate has a biological value of 74 whole soybeans 96 soybean milk 91 and eggs 97 30 nbsp Graded seedAll spermatophytes except for the family of grasses and cereals Poaceae contain 7S vicilin and 11S legumin soy protein like globulin storage proteins or only one of these globulin proteins S denotes Svedberg sedimentation coefficients Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean like protein 31 Cocoa for example contains the 7S globulin which contributes to cocoa chocolate taste and aroma 32 33 34 whereas coffee beans coffee grounds contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee s aroma and flavor 35 36 Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the cupin superfamily a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants 37 2S albumins form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many dicot species and in some monocots but not in grasses cereals 38 Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein 39 40 41 2S albumin are grouped in the prolamin superfamily 42 Other allergenic proteins included in this superfamily are the non specific plant lipid transfer proteins alpha amylase inhibitor trypsin inhibitors and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses 31 Peanuts for instance contain 20 2S albumin but only 6 7S globulin and 74 11S 38 It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein Carbohydrates The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose range 2 5 8 2 the trisaccharide raffinose 0 1 1 0 composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose and the tetrasaccharide stachyose 1 4 to 4 1 composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose citation needed While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation see above section on physical characteristics they are not digestible sugars so contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals comparable to the disaccharide trehalose Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide hydrogen and methane Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation soy concentrate soy protein isolates tofu soy sauce and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity On the other hand there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose namely encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose hemicellulose and pectin The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber Fats Raw soybeans are 20 fat including saturated fat 3 monounsaturated fat 4 and polyunsaturated fat mainly as linoleic acid table Within soybean oil or the lipid portion of the seed is contained four phytosterols stigmasterol sitosterol campesterol and brassicasterol accounting for about 2 5 of the lipid fraction and which can be converted into steroid hormones citation needed Additionally soybeans are a rich source of sphingolipids 43 Other constituents Soy contains isoflavones polyphenolic compounds produced by legumes including peanuts and chickpeas Isoflavones are closely related to flavonoids found in other plants vegetables and flowers 44 Soy contains the phytoestrogen coumestans also are found in beans and split peas with the best sources being alfalfa clover and soybean sprouts Coumestrol an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods 45 46 Saponins a class of natural surfactants soaps are sterols that are present in small amounts in various plant foods including soybeans other legumes and cereals such as oats 47 48 Comparison to other major staple foods The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods each in respective raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents Raw soybeans however are not edible and cannot be digested These must be sprouted or prepared and cooked for human consumption In sprouted and cooked form the relative nutritional and anti nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the processing and the method of cooking boiling frying roasting baking etc Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight 49 Staple Maize corn A Rice white B Wheat C Potatoes D Cassava E Soybeans green F Sweet potatoes G Yams Y Sorghum H Plantain Z RDAWater content 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 70 9 65Raw grams per 100 g dry weight 111 114 115 476 250 313 435 333 110 286NutrientEnergy kJ 1698 1736 1574 1533 1675 1922 1565 1647 1559 1460 8 368 10 460Protein g 10 4 8 1 14 5 9 5 3 5 40 6 7 0 5 0 12 4 3 7 50Fat g 5 3 0 8 1 8 0 4 0 7 21 6 0 2 0 6 3 6 1 1 44 77Carbohydrates g 82 91 82 81 95 34 87 93 82 91 130Fiber g 8 1 1 5 14 0 10 5 4 5 13 1 13 0 13 7 6 9 6 6 30Sugar g 0 7 0 1 0 5 3 7 4 3 0 0 18 2 1 7 0 0 42 9 minimalMinerals A B C D E F G Y H Z RDACalcium mg 8 32 33 57 40 616 130 57 31 9 1 000Iron mg 3 01 0 91 3 67 3 71 0 68 11 09 2 65 1 80 4 84 1 71 8Magnesium mg 141 28 145 110 53 203 109 70 0 106 400Phosphorus mg 233 131 331 271 68 606 204 183 315 97 700Potassium mg 319 131 417 2005 678 1938 1465 2720 385 1426 4700Sodium mg 39 6 2 29 35 47 239 30 7 11 1 500Zinc mg 2 46 1 24 3 05 1 38 0 85 3 09 1 30 0 80 0 00 0 40 11Copper mg 0 34 0 25 0 49 0 52 0 25 0 41 0 65 0 60 0 23 0 9Manganese mg 0 54 1 24 4 59 0 71 0 95 1 72 1 13 1 33 2 3Selenium mg 17 2 17 2 81 3 1 4 1 8 4 7 2 6 2 3 0 0 4 3 55Vitamins A B C D E F G Y H Z RDAVitamin C mg 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 8 51 5 90 6 10 4 57 0 0 0 52 6 90Thiamin B1 mg 0 43 0 08 0 34 0 38 0 23 1 38 0 35 0 37 0 26 0 14 1 2Riboflavin B2 mg 0 22 0 06 0 14 0 14 0 13 0 56 0 26 0 10 0 15 0 14 1 3Niacin B3 mg 4 03 1 82 6 28 5 00 2 13 5 16 2 43 1 83 3 22 1 97 16Pantothenic acid B5 mg 0 47 1 15 1 09 1 43 0 28 0 47 3 48 1 03 0 74 5Vitamin B6 mg 0 69 0 18 0 34 1 43 0 23 0 22 0 91 0 97 0 86 1 3Folate Total B9 mg 21 9 44 76 68 516 48 77 0 63 400Vitamin A IU 238 0 10 10 33 563 4178 460 0 3220 5000Vitamin E alpha tocopherol mg 0 54 0 13 1 16 0 05 0 48 0 00 1 13 1 30 0 00 0 40 15Vitamin K1 mg 0 3 0 1 2 2 9 0 4 8 0 0 7 8 8 7 0 0 2 0 120Beta carotene mg 108 0 6 5 20 0 36996 277 0 1306 10500Lutein zeaxanthin mg 1506 0 253 38 0 0 0 0 0 86 6000Fats A B C D E F G Y H Z RDASaturated fatty acids g 0 74 0 20 0 30 0 14 0 18 2 47 0 09 0 13 0 51 0 40 minimalMonounsaturated fatty acids g 1 39 0 24 0 23 0 00 0 20 4 00 0 00 0 03 1 09 0 09 22 55Polyunsaturated fatty acids g 2 40 0 20 0 72 0 19 0 13 10 00 0 04 0 27 1 51 0 20 13 19 A B C D E F G Y H Z RDAA raw yellow dent cornB raw unenriched long grain white riceC raw hard red winter wheatD raw potato with flesh and skinE raw cassavaF raw green soybeansG raw sweet potatoH raw sorghumY raw yamZ raw plantains unofficialCultivation nbsp United StatesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Uses During World War II soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil During the war the soybean was discovered as fertilizer due to nitrogen fixation by the United States Department of Agriculture Conditions nbsp ArgentinaCultivation is successful in climates with hot summers with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 C 70 to 85 F temperatures of below 20 C 70 F and over 40 C 105 F stunt growth significantly They can grow in a wide range of soils with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with good organic content Soybeans like most legumes perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum syn Rhizobium japonicum Jordan 1982 This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen fertilizer use and increase yields when growing other crops in rotation with soy 50 There may be some trade offs however in the long term abundance of organic material in soils where soy and other crops for example corn are grown in rotation 51 For best results though an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean or any legume seed before planting Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m 3 ft and take 80 120 days from sowing to harvesting Soils Soil scientists Edson Lobato Brazil Andrew McClung U S and Alysson Paolinelli Brazil were awarded the 2006 World Food Prize for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans 52 53 54 55 nbsp Soybean rustContamination concerns Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals 56 57 Pests Further information List of soybean diseases Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases fungal diseases viral diseases and parasites Bacteria The primary bacterial diseases include bacterial blight bacterial pustule and downy mildew affecting the soybean plant 58 Animals Nematodes Soybean cyst nematode SCN is the worst pest of soybean in the US Losses of 30 59 or 40 RM 1 are common even without symptoms Arthropods Insects The corn earworm moth and bollworm Helicoverpa zea is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia 60 Vertebrates Mammals Soybeans are consumed by whitetail deer which may damage soybean plants through feeding trampling and bedding reducing crop yields by as much as 15 61 Groundhogs are also a common pest in soybean fields living in burrows underground and feeding nearby One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans 62 Chemical repellents or firearms are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields 61 62 Fungi Soybeans suffer from Pythium spinosum in Arkansas and Indiana United States and China 63 Cultivars Disease resistant cultivars Resistant varieties are available In Indian cultivars Nataraj et al 2020 find that anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum truncatum is resisted by a combination of 2 major genes 64 PI 88788 The vast majority of cultivars in the US have soybean cyst nematode resistance SCN resistance but rely on only one breeding line PI 88788 as their sole source of resistance RM 2 The resistance genes provided by PI 88788 Peking and PI 90763 were characterized in 1997 65 As a result for example in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the Iowa State University Extension had any ancestry outside of PI 88788 By 2020 the situation was still about the same Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788 66 67 35 from Peking and only 2 from PI 89772 On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry that number was not available for 2020 67 That was speculated to be in 2012 RM 3 and was clearly by 2020 66 producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788 ProductionMain article List of countries by soybean production Soybean production 2020Country Production millions of tonnes nbsp Brazil 122 nbsp United States 113 nbsp Argentina 49 nbsp China 20 nbsp India 11 nbsp Paraguay 11World 353Source FAOSTAT 68 nbsp 69 In 2020 world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66 of the total table Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s 70 The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in worldwide demand for meat products particularly in developing countries like China which alone accounts for more than 60 of imports 71 Environmental issues In spite of the Amazon Soy Moratorium soy production continues to play a significant role in deforestation when its indirect impacts are taken into account as land used to grow soy continues to increase This land either comes from pasture land which increasingly supplants forested areas or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium such as the Cerrado region Roughly one fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds primarily for soy and palm oil whereas the expansion of beef production accounts for 41 The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock 72 Around 80 of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock 73 HistoryThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began 74 The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated The closest living relative of the soybean is Glycine soja previously called G ussuriensis a legume native to central China 75 There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea 76 The first unambiguously domesticated cultigen sized soybean was discovered in Korea at the Mumun period Daundong site 76 77 Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans douchi jiang Chinese miso soy sauce tempeh nattō and miso soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation and it was eaten by itself and as bean curd and soy milk Soybeans were introduced to Java in Malay Archipelago circa 13th century or probably earlier By the 17th century through their trade with Far East soybeans and its products were traded by European traders Portuguese Spanish and Dutch in Asia and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period citation needed By the 18th century soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century and is now widespread across the continent East Asia nbsp Seikei Zusetsu 1804 The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC but is almost certainly much older 78 The earliest documented evidence for the use of Glycine of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in Henan province China a Neolithic site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago cal bp 76 An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region 79 According to the ancient Chinese myth in 2853 BC the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred soybeans rice wheat barley and millet 80 Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of Yangtze River delta and Southeast China 81 The Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago 82 Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC 83 Recent research however indicates that seeding of wild forms started early before 5000 BC in multiple locations throughout East Asia 76 The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BC 81 84 Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000 900 BC 84 Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC 76 are also significantly larger than wild varieties 76 85 Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou dynasty c 1046 256 BC in China However the details of where when and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood Soybean was unknown in South China before the Han period 76 From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery 15 16th centuries soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki Records of Ancient Matters which was completed in AD 712 Southeast Asia Soybeans were mentioned as kadele modern Indonesian term kedelai 86 in an old Javanese manuscript Serat Sri Tanjung which dates to 12th to 13th century Java 87 By the 13th century the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia it probably arrived much earlier however carried by traders or merchants from Southern China 88 The earliest known reference to it as tempeh appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini manuscript 89 The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier circa 17th century in Java Indian subcontinent By the 1600s soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the Dutch East India Company VOC nbsp From a high altitude area of Nepal nbsp IndiaThe soybean probably arrived from southern China moving southwest into northern parts of Indian subcontinent by this period 90 Iberia In 1603 Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam a famous Japanese Portuguese dictionary was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods the first in any European language The Luso Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least the 17th century However it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken In 1880 the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the Botanical Gardens at Coimbra Crespi 1935 In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo in southwest Spain about 48 miles east northeast of Seville 91 North America Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765 by Samuel Bowen a former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese 92 The first New World soybean crop was grown on Skidaway Island Georgia in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen 93 94 95 Bowen grew soy near Savannah Georgia possibly using funds from Flint and made soy sauce for sale to England 96 Although soybean was introduced into North America in 1765 for the next 155 years the crop was grown primarily for forage 97 In 1831 the first soy product a few dozen India Soy sauce arrived in Canada Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855 and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College 98 It was not until Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking moisture or heat that soy went from a farm animal feed to a human food 99 100 William Morse is considered the father of modern soybean agriculture in America He and Charles Piper Dr C V Piper took what was an unknown Oriental peasant crop in 1910 and transformed it into a golden bean for America becoming one of America s largest farm crops and its most nutritious 101 102 103 nbsp Prior to the 1920s in the US the soybean was mainly a forage crop a source of oil meal for feed and industrial products with very little used as food However it took on an important role after World War I During the Great Depression the drought stricken Dust Bowl regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen fixing properties Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands and Henry Ford became a promoter of soybeans 104 In 1931 Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath which was given the name Azlon It never reached the commercial market Soybean oil was used by Ford in paint for the automobiles 105 as well as a fluid for shock absorbers Prior to the 1970s Asian Americans and Seventh Day Adventists were essentially the only users of soy foods in the United States 106 The soy foods movement began in small pockets of the counterculture notably the Tennessee commune named simply The Farm but by the mid 1970s a vegetarian revival helped it gain momentum and even popular awareness through books such as The Book of Tofu 107 Although practically unseen in 1900 by 2000 soybean plantings covered more than 70 million acres 108 second only to corn and it became America s largest cash crop citation needed In 2021 87 195 acres were planted with the largest acreage in the states of Illinois Iowa and Minnesota 109 Caribbean and West Indies The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah Georgia in 1767 It remains only a minor crop there but its uses for human food are growing steadily 110 Mediterranean area The soybean was first cultivated in Italy by 1760 in the Botanical Garden of Turin During the 1780s it was grown in at least three other botanical gardens in Italy 111 The first soybean product soy oil arrived in Anatolia during 1909 under Ottoman Empire 112 The first clear cultivation occurred in 1931 112 This was also the first time that soybeans were cultivated in Middle East 112 By 1939 soybeans were cultivated in Greece 113 114 Australia Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander In 1804 the first soyfood product Fine India Soy sauce was sold in Sydney In 1879 the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department Japan 115 Western Europe The soybean was first cultivated in France by 1779 and perhaps as early as 1740 The two key early people and organizations introducing the soybean to France were the Society of Acclimatization starting in 1855 and Li Yu ying from 1910 Li started a large tofu factory where the first commercial soyfoods in France were made 116 Africa The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857 117 Soya Meme Baked Soya is produced in the village called Bame Awudome near Ho the capital of the Volta Region of Ghana by the Ewe people of Southeastern Ghana and southern Togo Central Europe In 1873 Professor Friedrich J Haberlandt first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the Vienna World Exposition Wiener Weltausstellung He cultivated these seeds in Vienna and soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe In 1875 he first grew the soybeans in Vienna then in early 1876 he sent samples of seeds to seven cooperators in central Europe who planted and tested the seeds in the spring of 1876 with good or fairly good results in each case 118 Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them then reported their results Starting in February 1876 he published these results first in various journal articles and finally in his magnum opus Die Sojabohne The Soybean in 1878 118 In northern Europe lupin lupine is known as the soybean of the north 119 Central Asia The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876 by the Dungans This region has never been important for soybean production 120 Central America The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877 121 South America The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882 122 Andrew McClung showed in the early 1950s that with soil amendments the Cerrado region of Brazil would grow soybeans 123 In June 1973 when soybean futures markets mistakenly portended a major shortage the Nixon administration imposed an embargo on soybean exports It lasted only a week but Japanese buyers felt that they could not rely on U S supplies and the rival Brazilian soybean industry came into existence 124 104 This led Brazil to become the world s largest producer of soybeans in 2020 with 131 million tons 125 Industrial soy production in South America is characterized by wealthy management who live far away from the production site which they manage remotely In Brazil these managers depend heavily on advanced technology and machinery and agronomic practices such as zero tillage high pesticide use and intense fertilization One contributing factor is the increased attention on the Brazilian Cerrado in Bahia Brazil by US farmers in the early 2000s This was due to rising values of scarce farmland and high production costs in the US Midwest There were many promotions of the Brazilian Cerrado by US farm producer magazines and market consultants who portrayed it as having cheap land with ideal production conditions with infrastructure being the only thing it was lacking These same magazines also presented Brazilian soy as inevitably out competing American soy Another draw to investing was the insider information about the climate and market in Brazil A few dozen American farmers purchased varying amounts of land by a variety of means including finding investors and selling off land holdings Many followed the ethanol company model and formed an LLC with investments from neighboring farmers friends and family while some turned to investment companies Some soy farmers either liquidated their Brazilian assets or switched to remote management from the US to return to farming there and implement new farming and business practices to make their US farms more productive Others planned to sell their now expensive Bahia land to buy land cheaper land in the frontier regions of Piaui or Tocantins to create more soybean farms 126 GeneticsChinese landraces were found to have a slightly higher genetic diversity than inbred lines by Li et al 2010 127 Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing SLAF seq has been used by Han et al 2015 to study the genetic history of the domestication process perform genome wide association studies GWAS of agronomically relevant traits and produce high density linkage maps 128 An SNP array was developed by Song et al 2013 and has been used for research and breeding 129 the same team applied their array in Song et al 2015 against the USDA Soybean Germplasm Collection and obtained mapping data that are expected to yield association mapping data for such traits 127 Rpp1 R1 is a resistance gene against soybean rust 130 Rpp1 R1 is an R gene NB LRR providing resistance against the rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi 130 Its synthesis product includes a ULP1 protease 130 Qijian et al 2017 provides the SoySNP50K gene array 131 Genetic modification Further information Genetically modified soybean nbsp Different varieties of soybeans being grown togetherSoybeans are one of the biotech food crops that have been genetically modified and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products In 1995 Monsanto company introduced glyphosate tolerant soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto s glyphosate herbicides through substitution of the Agrobacterium sp strain CP4 gene EPSP 5 enolpyruvyl shikimic acid 3 phosphate synthase The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate 132 In 1997 about 8 of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified In 2010 the figure was 93 133 As with other glyphosate tolerant crops concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity 134 A 2003 study 135 concluded the Roundup Ready RR gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars there had been little decline in genetic diversity but diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross contamination of non GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non GM soy 136 A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered GE soy corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage indirectly leading to better soil conservation as well as increased income from off farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was 310 million the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds 40 followed by biotechnology firms 28 and farmers 20 137 The patent on glyphosate tolerant soybeans expired in 2014 138 so benefits can be expected to shift 139 Uses nbsp nbsp Tofu and soy sauceAmong the legumes the soybean is valued for its high 38 45 protein content as well as its high approximately 20 oil content Soybeans are the most valuable agricultural export of the United States 140 Approximately 85 of the world s soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and soybean oil the remainder processed in other ways or eaten whole 141 Soybeans can be broadly classified as vegetable garden or field oil types Vegetable types cook more easily have a mild nutty flavor and better texture are larger in size higher in protein and are lower in oil than field types Tofu soy milk and soy sauce are among the top edible commodities made using soybeans Producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s The garden cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity Soybean oil Main article Soybean oil Soybean seed contains 18 19 oil 142 To extract soybean oil from seed the soybeans are cracked adjusted for moisture content rolled into flakes and solvent extracted with commercial hexane 143 The oil is then refined blended for different applications and sometimes hydrogenated Soybean oils both liquid and partially hydrogenated are exported abroad sold as vegetable oil or end up in a wide variety of processed foods Soybean meal Main article Soybean meal Soybean meal or soymeal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes with a 50 soy protein content The meal is toasted a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam and ground in a hammer mill Ninety seven percent of soybean meal production globally is used as livestock feed 142 Soybean meal is also used in some dog foods 144 Livestock feed One of the major uses of soybeans globally is as livestock feed predominantly in the form of soybean meal In the European Union for example though it does not make up most of the weight of livestock feed soybean meal provides around 60 of the protein fed to livestock 145 In the United States however 70 percent of soybean production is used for animal feed with poultry being the number one livestock sector of soybean consumption 146 Spring grasses are rich in omega 3 fatty acids whereas soy is predominantly omega 6 The soybean hulls which mainly consist of the outer coats of the beans removed before oil extraction can also be fed to livestock and whole soybean seeds after processing 147 148 Food for human consumption nbsp TempehIn addition to their use in livestock feed soybean products are widely used for human consumption Common soybean products include soy sauce soy milk tofu soy meal soy flour textured vegetable protein TVP soy curls tempeh soy lecithin and soybean oil Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing for example in the Japanese food edamame 枝豆 edamame in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with salt nbsp Soy chunksIn China Japan Vietnam and Korea soybean and soybean products are a standard part of the diet 149 Tofu 豆腐 doufu is thought to have originated in China along with soy sauce and several varieties of soybean paste used as seasonings citation needed Japanese foods made from soya include miso 味噌 nattō 納豆 kinako 黄粉 and edamame 枝豆 as well as products made with tofu such as atsuage and aburaage In China whole dried soybeans are sold in supermarkets and used to cook various dishes usually after rehydration by soaking in water they find their use in soup or as a savory dish In Korean cuisine soybean sprouts 콩나물 kongnamul are used in a variety of dishes and soybeans are the base ingredient in doenjang cheonggukjang and ganjang In Vietnam soybeans are used to make soybean paste tương in the North with the most popular products are tương Bần tương Nam Đan tương Cự Đa as a garnish for phở and gỏi cuốn dishes as well as tofu đậu hũ or đậu phụ or tau hũ soy sauce nước tương soy milk nước đậu in the North or sữa đậu nanh in the South and đậu hũ nước đường tofu sweet soup Flour nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soybean flour nbsp Japanese soybean meatSoy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100 mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing not toasted to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high protein dispersibility index for uses such as food extrusion of textured vegetable protein 150 It is the starting material for soy concentrate and protein isolate production Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean removing the coat hull and grinding it into flour Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels 151 Alternatively raw soy flour omits the roasting step Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes and contains less than 1 oil 151 Natural or full fat soy flour is made from unextracted dehulled beans and contains about 18 to 20 oil 151 Its high oil content requires the use of a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill to grind rather than the usual hammer mill Full fat soy flour has a lower protein concentration than defatted flour Extruded full fat soy flour ground in an Alpine mill can replace extend eggs in baking and cooking 152 153 Full fat soy flour is a component of the famous Cornell bread recipe 154 155 156 Low fat soy flour is made by adding some oil back into defatted soy flour Fat levels range from 4 5 to 9 151 High fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour usually at 15 157 Soy lecithin can be added up to 15 to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties 151 Soy flour has 50 protein and 5 fiber It has higher levels of protein thiamine riboflavin phosphorus calcium and iron than wheat flour It does not contain gluten 151 As a result yeast raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture Among many uses soy flour thickens sauces prevents staling in baked food and reduces oil absorption during frying Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness moistness a rich color and a fine texture 151 Soy grits are similar to soy flour except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces Kinako is a soy flour used in Japanese cuisine Section reference Smith amp Circle 1972 p 442 harvtxt error no target CITEREFSmithCircle1972 help Soy based infant formula Soy based infant formula SBIF is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a vegan diet It is sold in powdered ready to feed and concentrated liquid forms Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants 158 Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth development or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy based infant formula 159 160 161 One of these studies published in the Journal of Nutrition 161 concludes that there are no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy sexual development neurobehavioral development immune development or thyroid disease SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition Meat and dairy alternatives and extenders nbsp Cream cheese alternative with chivesSoybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods For example soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes e g soy milk margarine soy ice cream soy yogurt soy cheese and soy cream cheese and meat alternatives e g veggie burgers These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium enriched products as well Soy products also are used as a low cost substitute for meat and poultry products 162 163 Food service retail and institutional primarily school lunch and correctional facilities regularly use such extended products The extension may result in diminished flavor but fat and cholesterol are reduced Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein the protein quality is already roughly equivalent The soy based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value 4 164 165 Soy nut butter The soybean is used to make a product called soy nut butter which is similar in texture to peanut butter 166 Sweetened soybean Sweet boiled beans are popular in Japan and Korea and the sweet boiled soybeans are called Daizu no Nimame ja in Japan and Kongjorim Korean 콩조림 in Korea Sweet boiled beans are even used in sweetened buns especially in Mame Pan ja The boiled and pasted edamame called Zunda ja is used as one of the Sweet bean pastes in Japanese confections Coffee substitute Roasted and ground soybeans can be a caffeine free substitute for coffee After the soybeans are roasted and ground they look similar to regular coffee beans or can be used as a powder similar to instant coffee with the aroma and flavor of roasted soybeans 167 Other products nbsp TexasSoybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans douchi not to be confused with black turtle beans Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils soap cosmetics resins plastics inks crayons solvents and clothing Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States accounting for 80 of domestic biodiesel production 168 Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of vodka 169 In 1936 Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars from the distributor cap to knobs on the dashboard Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres 20 000 km2 was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States 170 Health effectsReducing risk of cancer According to the American Cancer Society There is growing evidence that eating traditional soy foods such as tofu may lower the risk of cancers of the breast prostate or endometrium lining of the uterus and there is some evidence it may lower the risk of certain other cancers There is insufficient research to indicate whether taking soy dietary supplements e g as a pill or capsule has any effect on health or cancer risk 171 As of 2018 rigorous dietary clinical research in people with cancer has proved inconclusive 44 172 173 174 175 Breast cancer Although considerable research has examined the potential for soy consumption to lower the risk of breast cancer in women as of 2016 there is insufficient evidence to reach a conclusion about a relationship between soy consumption and any effects on breast cancer 44 A 2011 meta analysis stated Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations but not in Western populations 176 Gastrointestinal and colorectal cancer Reviews of preliminary clinical trials on people with colorectal or gastrointestinal cancer suggest that soy isoflavones may have a slight protective effect against such cancers 172 173 Prostate cancer A 2016 review concluded that current evidence from observational studies and small clinical trials is not robust enough to understand whether soy protein or isoflavone supplements may help prevent or inhibit the progression of prostate cancer 44 A 2010 review showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men 177 Soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of sperm 178 Meta analyses on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that dietary soy may lower the risk of prostate cancer 179 175 Cardiovascular health The Food and Drug Administration FDA granted the following health claim for soy 25 grams of soy protein a day as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease 28 One serving 1 cup or 240 mL of soy milk for instance contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein An American Heart Association AHA review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits did not recommend isoflavone supplementation The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopausal hot flashes and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast uterus or prostate is in question AHA concluded that many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats fiber vitamins and minerals and low content of saturated fat 180 Other studies found that soy protein consumption could lower LDL 181 182 Soy allergy Main article Soy allergy Allergy to soy is common and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy such as milk eggs peanuts tree nuts shellfish The problem has been reported among younger children and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions 183 It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population To the extent that it does exist soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema usually within minutes to hours of ingestion In rare cases true anaphylaxis may also occur The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins the causative factor in allergy are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish 184 An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins However this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and diarrhoea when fed soy based formula which resolves when the formula is withdrawn Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting diarrhoea that may be bloody anemia weight loss and failure to thrive The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow s milk but soy formulas can also be the trigger The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic although not through the IgE type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis However it is also self limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years 185 In the European Union identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory The regulation EC 1169 2011 on food labeling lists 14 allergens including soy in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients using a distinctive typography such as bold type or capital letters 186 Thyroid function One review noted that soy based foods may inhibit absorption of thyroid hormone medications required for treatment of hypothyroidism 187 A 2015 scientific review by the European Food Safety Authority concluded that intake of isoflavones from supplements did not affect thyroid hormone levels in postmenopausal women 188 Research by constituent Lignans Plant lignans are associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13 273 µg 100 g dry weight 189 Phytochemicals See also Phytochemicals Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens wet basis per 100 g which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein and genistein 44 190 Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as selective estrogen receptor modulators or SERMs which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans 191 192 The major product of daidzein microbial metabolism is equol 193 Only 33 of Western Europeans have a microbiome that produces equol compared to 50 55 of Asians 193 Soy isoflavones polyphenolic compounds that are also produced by other legumes like peanuts and chickpeas 44 are under preliminary research As of 2016 no cause and effect relationship has been shown in clinical research to indicate that soy isoflavones lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases 44 180 194 Phytic acid Soybeans contain phytic acid which may act as a chelating agent and inhibit mineral absorption especially for diets already low in minerals 195 In cultureAlthough observations of soy consumption having a feminization effect on men 196 are not conclusive 197 a pejorative term soy boy has emerged to describe perceived emasculated young men with feminine traits 198 FuturesSoybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in January F March H May K July N August Q September U November X They are also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications SAFEX The South African Futures Exchange 199 DC Dalian Commodity Exchange 200 ODE Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange formerly Kansai Commodities Exchange KEX in Japan 201 NCDEX National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange India ROFEX Rosario Grain Exchange in Argentina nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Soybean nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soybean nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Soy bean See also nbsp Food portalAlternative fodders Cash crop List of soy based foods Organic infant formula Soy molasses Soybean in Paraguay Soybean management practices Soybean agglutinin a lectinFurther readingda Silva Claiton Marcio de Majo Claudio eds The Age of the Soybean An Environmental History of Soy during the Great Acceleration White Horse Press 2022 online reviewReferences Glycine max Encyclopedia of Life EoL Retrieved February 16 2012 Generally written in katakana not kanji Glycine max Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database Retrieved February 16 2012 a b Riaz Mian N 2006 Soy Applications in Food Boca Raton FL CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 2981 4 Soybean meal Retrieved April 16 2019 a b Hymowitz T Newell C A July 1 1981 Taxonomy of the genus Glycine domestication and uses of soybeans Economic Botany 35 3 272 88 doi 10 1007 BF02859119 S2CID 21509807 a b Singh Ram J Nelson Randall L Chung Gyuhwa November 2 2006 Genetic Resources Chromosome Engineering and Crop Improvement Oilseed Crops Volume 4 London Taylor amp Francis p 15 ISBN 978 0 8493 3639 3 Glycine max subsp soja Siebold amp Zucc H Ohashi Plants of the World Online Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Retrieved January 28 2023 Hymowitz Theodore August 9 1995 Evaluation of Wild Perennial Glycine Species and Crosses For Resistance to Phakopsora In Sinclair J B Hartman G L eds Proceedings of the Soybean Rust Workshop Urbana IL US National Soybean Research Laboratory pp 33 37 Newell C A Hymowitz T March 1983 Hybridization in the Genus Glycine Subgenus Glycine Willd Leguminosae Papilionoideae American Journal of Botany 70 3 334 48 doi 10 2307 2443241 JSTOR 2443241 Heuze V Tran G Giger Reverdin S Lebas F 2015 Perennial soybean Neonotonia wightii Feedipedia a programme by INRA CIRAD Association Francaise de Zootechnie and FAO https www feedipedia org node 293 Last updated on September 30 2015 15 09 Neonotonia wightii in Global Plants on JSTOR Global Plants on JSTOR Factsheet Neonotonia wightii 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January 16 2018 Retrieved May 9 2019 a b Brant Jesse D September 9 2016 Soybean Farmers Warranted in Waging War on Groundhogs Lancaster Farming Retrieved May 9 2019 U S National Fungus Collections Database results Fungal Databases U S National Fungus Collections December 8 2020 Retrieved December 8 2020 permanent dead link Boufleur Thais R Ciampi Guillardi Maisa Tikami Isis Rogerio Flavia Thon Michael R Sukno Serenella A Massola Junior Nelson S Baroncelli Riccardo 2021 Soybean anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum species Current status and future prospects Molecular Plant Pathology 22 4 393 409 doi 10 1111 mpp 13036 PMC 7938629 PMID 33609073 S2CID 231969160 This review cites this research Nataraj Vennampally Maranna Shivakumar Kumawat Giriraj Gupta Sanjay Rajput Laxman Singh Kumar Sanjeev Sharma Amar Nath Bhatia Virender Singh 2020 Genetic inheritance and identification of germplasm sources for anthracnose resistance in soybean Glycine max L Merr Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 67 6 1449 1456 doi 10 1007 s10722 020 00917 4 S2CID 211730576 Concibido Vergel C Lange Douglas A Denny Roxanne L Orf James H Young Nevin D 1997 Genome Mapping of Soybean Cyst Nematode Resistance Genes in Peking PI 90763 and PI 88788 Using DNA Markers Crop Science 37 1 258 264 doi 10 2135 cropsci1997 0011183x003700010046x a b Soybean varieties with SCN resistance other than PI 88788 Integrated Crop Management Iowa State University Extension Retrieved March 12 2021 a b SCN resistant Soybean Varieties for Iowa By the Numbers Integrated Crop Management Iowa State University Extension Retrieved March 12 2021 Soybean production in 2019 Crops World regions Production quantity from pick lists United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics Division FAOSTAT 2019 Retrieved February 8 2021 a b World Food and Agriculture Statistical Yearbook 2020 Rome FAO 2020 doi 10 4060 cb1329en ISBN 978 92 5 133394 5 S2CID 242794287 Cattelan Alexandre Jose Dall Agnol Amelio January 1 2018 The rapid 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2633 5 OCLC 1012618664 Roth Matthew 2018 Magic Bean The Rise of Soy in America Lawrence KS University Press of Kansas p 8 ISBN 978 0 7006 2633 5 OCLC 1012618664 2021 Soybean Planted Area 000 Acres and Percent Change from Previous Year PDF USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service USDA January 12 2022 Retrieved February 4 2022 Shurtleff William Aoyagi Akiko History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Caribbean West Indies 1767 2008 Soy Info Center Retrieved February 18 2012 Shurtleff W Aoyagi A 2015 History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Italy 1597 2015 Lafayette California Soyinfo Center 618 pp 1 381 references 93 photos and illustrations Free online a b c Shurtleff William Aoyagi Akiko 2008 History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Middle East Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook Soyinfo Center ISBN 978 1 928914 15 0 Matagrin 1939 Le Soja et les Industries du Soja p 47 48 Shurtleff W Aoyagi A 2015 History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Greece the European Union and Small Western 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INRA CIRAD AFZ and FAO https www feedipedia org node 42 Last updated on July 4 2017 10 37 Lindsay Shirley Lora G Considering soy Nursing for Women s Health 2 1 41 44 Shao Suquin 2009 Tracking isoflavones From soybean to soy flour soy protein isolates to functional soy bread Journal of Functional Foods 1 1 119 127 doi 10 1016 j jff 2008 09 013 a b c d e f g Lim 2012 p 637 sfn error no target CITEREFLim2012 help Mustakas G C 1964 Production and nutritional evaluation of extrusion cooked full fat soybean flour Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 41 9 607 14 doi 10 1007 BF02664977 S2CID 84967811 Mustakas GUS C Griffin Edward L Sohns Virgil E 1966 Full Fat Soybean Flours by Continuous Extrusion Cooking World Protein Resources Advances in Chemistry Vol 57 pp 101 11 doi 10 1021 ba 1966 0057 ch008 ISBN 978 0 8412 0058 6 Cornell University May 9 2015 Archived from the original on May 9 2015 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL 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systematic review and meta analysis European Journal of Nutrition 55 1 63 73 doi 10 1007 s00394 014 0824 7 PMID 25547973 S2CID 32112249 Soy How Your Diet May Affect Your Risk of Breast Cancer American Cancer Society October 1 2018 Retrieved May 9 2019 a b van Die MD Bone KM Williams SG Pirotta MV 2014 Soy and soy isoflavones in prostate cancer a systematic review and meta analysis of randomized controlled trials BJU International 113 5b E119 30 doi 10 1111 bju 12435 PMID 24053483 S2CID 39315041 Dong Jia Yi Qin Li Qiang January 2011 Soy Isoflavones Consumption and Risk of Breast Cancer Incidence or Recurrence A Meta analysis of Prospective Studies Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 125 2 315 323 doi 10 1007 s10549 010 1270 8 PMID 21113655 S2CID 13647788 Hamilton Reeves Jill M Vazquez Gabriela Duval Sue J Phipps William R Kurzer Mindy S Messina Mark J 2010 Clinical studies show no effects of soy protein or isoflavones on reproductive hormones in men Results of a meta analysis Fertility and Sterility 94 3 997 1007 doi 10 1016 j fertnstert 2009 04 038 PMID 19524224 Messina Mark 2010 Soybean isoflavone exposure does not have feminizing effects on men A critical examination of the clinical evidence Fertility and Sterility 93 7 2095 2104 doi 10 1016 j fertnstert 2010 03 002 PMID 20378106 Yan Lin Spitznagel Edward L 2009 Soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men a revisit of a meta analysis The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89 4 1155 63 doi 10 3945 ajcn 2008 27029 PMID 19211820 a b Sacks F M Lichtenstein A Van Horn L Harris W Kris Etherton P Winston M American Heart Association Nutrition Committee February 21 2006 Soy Protein Isoflavones and Cardiovascular Health An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals from the Nutrition Committee Circulation 113 7 1034 44 doi 10 1161 CIRCULATIONAHA 106 171052 PMID 16418439 Jenkins David J A Mirrahimi Arash Srichaikul Korbua Berryman Claire E Wang Li Carleton Amanda Abdulnour Shahad Sievenpiper John L et al December 2010 Soy Protein Reduces Serum Cholesterol by Both Intrinsic and Food Displacement Mechanisms The Journal of Nutrition 140 12 2302S 11S doi 10 3945 jn 110 124958 PMID 20943954 Harland J I Haffner T A September 2008 Systematic Review Meta analysis and Regression of Randomised Controlled Trials Reporting an Association Between an Intake of Circa 25 g Soya Protein Per Day and Blood Cholesterol Atherosclerosis 200 1 13 27 doi 10 1016 j atherosclerosis 2008 04 006 PMID 18534601 Cantani A Lucenti P August 1997 Natural History of Soy Allergy and or Intolerance in Children and Clinical Use of Soy protein Formulas Pediatric Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 8 2 59 74 doi 10 1111 j 1399 3038 1997 tb00146 x PMID 9617775 S2CID 35264190 Cordle C T May 2004 Soy Protein Allergy Incidence and Relative Severity Journal of Nutrition 134 5 1213S 19S doi 10 1093 jn 134 5 1213S PMID 15113974 Sampson H A May 1999 Food Allergy Part 1 Immunopathogenesis and Clinical Disorders The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 103 5 717 728 doi 10 1016 S0091 6749 99 70411 2 PMID 10329801 Regulation EG 1169 2011 Eur Lex European Union Law European Union October 25 2011 Retrieved October 7 2020 Messina M Redmond G 2006 Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients A review of the relevant literature Thyroid 16 3 249 58 doi 10 1089 thy 2006 16 249 PMID 16571087 Risk assessment for peri and postmenopausal women taking food supplements containing isolated isoflavones EFSA Journal 13 10 4246 2015 doi 10 2903 j efsa 2015 4246 Adlercreutz H Mazur W Bartels P Elomaa V Watanabe S Wahala K Landstrom M Lundin E et al March 2000 Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease The Journal of Nutrition 130 3 658S 59S doi 10 1093 jn 130 3 658S PMID 10702603 Thompson Lilian U Boucher Beatrice A Liu Zhen Cotterchio Michelle Kreiger Nancy 2006 Phytoestrogen Content of Foods Consumed in Canada Including Isoflavones Lignans and Coumestan Nutrition and Cancer 54 2 184 201 doi 10 1207 s15327914nc5402 5 PMID 16898863 S2CID 60328 Mitchell Julie H Cawood Elizabeth Kinniburgh David Provan Anne Collins Andrew R Irvine D Stewart June 2001 Effect of a Phytoestrogen Food Supplement on Reproductive Health in Normal Males Clinical Science 100 6 613 18 doi 10 1042 CS20000212 PMID 11352776 Oseni T Patel R Pyle J Jordan VC 2008 Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators and Phytoestrogens Planta Med 74 13 1656 65 doi 10 1055 s 0028 1088304 PMC 2587438 PMID 18843590 a b Luca SV Macovei I Bujor A Trifan A 2020 Bioactivity of dietary polyphenols The role of metabolites Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 60 4 626 659 doi 10 1080 10408398 2018 1546669 PMID 30614249 S2CID 58651581 Qin Y Niu K Zeng Y Liu P Yi L Zhang T Zhang QY Zhu JD Mi MT 2013 Isoflavones for hypercholesterolaemia in adults Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013 6 CD009518 doi 10 1002 14651858 CD009518 pub2 PMC 10163823 PMID 23744562 Committee on Food Protection Food and Nutrition Board National Research Council 1973 Phytates Toxicants Occurring Naturally in Foods Washington DC National Academy of Sciences pp 363 71 ISBN 978 0 309 02117 3 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Jorge Martinez Jack E Lewi 2008 An unusual case of gynecomastia associated with soy product consumption Endocrine Practice 14 4 415 418 doi 10 4158 EP 14 4 415 PMID 18558591 Glenn D Braunstein James R Klinenberg May 1 2008 Environmental Gynecomastia Endocrine Practice 14 4 409 411 doi 10 4158 EP 14 4 409 PMID 18558589 Hosie Rachel September 30 2020 Soy Boy What is this new online insult used by the far right The Independent Archived from the original on May 24 2022 SAFEX Commodity Derivatives Market Johannesburg Stock Exchange Archived from the original on March 9 2012 Retrieved February 19 2012 交易所动态 Dalian Commodity Exchange Archived from the original on February 20 2012 Retrieved February 19 2012 Exchange Introduction Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange Archived from the original on March 3 2021 Retrieved November 18 2020 You can literally have 40 yield loss with no symptoms says Greg Tylka Iowa State University ISU Extension nematologist Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance PI 88788 may be helping SCN to overcome SCN resistant varieties Out of 807 resistant varieties listed by ISU this year just 18 had a genetic background outside of PI 88788 We have lots of varieties to pick from but the genetic background is not as diverse as we would like it to be says Tylka There have been cases where SCN has clipped yields of SCN resistant varieties Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance PI 88788 may be helping SCN to overcome SCN resistant varieties Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Soybean amp oldid 1202011478, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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