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Wikipedia

Glyphosate

February 15, 2024

This article is about the chemical alone. For herbicides based on it, see Glyphosate-based herbicides. For the brand-name formulation developed by Monsanto, see Roundup (herbicide).
Not to be confused with Glufosinate.

Glyphosate (IUPAC name: N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP). It is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. Its herbicidal effectiveness was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E. Franz in 1970. Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup. Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000.

Glyphosate


Names
Pronunciation /ˈɡlɪfəseɪt, ˈɡlaɪfə-/,[3] /ɡlaɪˈfɒseɪt/[4][5]
IUPAC name
N-(Phosphonomethyl)glycine
Systematic IUPAC name
[(Phosphonomethyl)amino]acetic acid
Identifiers
  • 1071-83-6 Y
  • 38641-94-0 (isopropylammonium salt) N
  • 70393-85-0 (sesquisodium salt) N
  • 81591-81-3 (trimethylsulfonium salt) N
3D model (JSmol)
  • Interactive image
2045054
ChEBI
  • CHEBI:27744 Y
ChEMBL
  • ChEMBL95764 Y
ChemSpider
  • 3376 Y
DrugBank
  • DB04539
ECHA InfoCard 100.012.726
EC Number
  • 213-997-4
279222
KEGG
  • C01705 Y
  • 3496
RTECS number
  • MC1075000
UNII
  • 4632WW1X5A Y
UN number 3077 2783
  • DTXSID1024122
  • InChI=1S/C3H8NO5P/c5-3(6)1-4-2-10(7,8)9/h4H,1-2H2,(H,5,6)(H2,7,8,9) Y
    Key: XDDAORKBJWWYJS-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
  • InChI=1/C3H8NO5P/c5-3(6)1-4-2-10(7,8)9/h4H,1-2H2,(H,5,6)(H2,7,8,9)
    Key: XDDAORKBJWWYJS-UHFFFAOYAE
  • O=C(O)CNCP(=O)(O)O
Properties[6]
C3H8NO5P
Molar mass 169.073 g·mol−1
Appearance white crystalline powder
Density 1.704 (20 °C)
Melting point 184.5 °C (364.1 °F; 457.6 K)
Boiling point 187 °C (369 °F; 460 K) decomposes
1.01 g/100 mL (20 °C)
log P −2.8
Acidity (pKa) <2, 2.6, 5.6, 10.6
Hazards[6][7]
GHS labelling:
Danger
H318, H411
P273, P280, P305+P351+P338, P310, P501
Flash point Non-flammable
Safety data sheet (SDS) InChem MSDS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is YN ?)

Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control, especially after Monsanto introduced glyphosate-resistant Roundup Ready crops, enabling farmers to kill weeds without killing their crops. In 2007, glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States' agricultural sector and the second-most used (after 2,4-D) in home and garden, government and industry, and commercial applications.[8] From the late 1970s to 2016, there was a 100-fold increase in the frequency and volume of application of glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) worldwide, with further increases expected in the future.

Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage, and minimally through roots, and from there translocated to growing points. It inhibits EPSP synthase, a plant enzyme involved in the synthesis of three aromatic amino acids: tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine. It is therefore effective only on actively growing plants and is not effective as a pre-emergence herbicide. Crops have been genetically engineered to be tolerant of glyphosate (e.g. Roundup Ready soybean, the first Roundup Ready crop, also created by Monsanto), which allows farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against weeds.

While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide, concerns about their effects on humans and the environment have persisted.[9][10] A number of regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide. The WHO and FAO Joint committee on pesticide residues issued a report in 2016 stating the use of glyphosate formulations does not necessarily constitute a health risk, and giving an acceptable daily intake limit of 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per day for chronic toxicity.[11]

The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.[12] In March 2015, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies.[10][13][14][15] In contrast, the European Food Safety Authority concluded in November 2015 that "the substance is unlikely to be genotoxic (i.e. damaging to DNA) or to pose a carcinogenic threat to humans", later clarifying that while carcinogenic glyphosate-containing formulations may exist, studies "that look solely at the active substance glyphosate do not show this effect."[16][17] In 2017, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage and as toxic to aquatic life, but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs.[18]

Discovery

Glyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company Cilag. The work was never published.[19]: 1  Stauffer Chemical patented the agent as a chemical chelator[20] in 1964 as it binds and removes minerals such as calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, and zinc.[21]

Somewhat later, glyphosate was independently discovered in the United States at Monsanto in 1970. Monsanto chemists had synthesized about 100 derivatives of aminomethylphosphonic acid as potential water-softening agents. Two were found to have weak herbicidal activity, and John E. Franz, a chemist at Monsanto, was asked to try to make analogs with stronger herbicidal activity. Glyphosate was the third analog he made.[19]: 1–2 [22][23] Franz received the National Medal of Technology of the United States in 1987 and the Perkin Medal for Applied Chemistry in 1990 for his discoveries.[24][25][26]

Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the early 1970s and first brought it to market in 1974, under the Roundup brandname.[27][28] While its initial patent[29] expired in 1991, Monsanto retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent[30] on the isopropylamine salt expired in September 2000.[31]

In 2008, United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) scientist Stephen O. Duke and Stephen B. Powles – an Australian weed expert – described glyphosate as a "virtually ideal" herbicide.[27] In 2010 Powles stated: "glyphosate is a one in a 100-year discovery that is as important for reliable global food production as penicillin is for battling disease."[32]

As of April 2017, the Canadian government stated that glyphosate was "the most widely used herbicide in Canada",[33] at which date the product labels were revised to ensure a limit of 20% POEA by weight.[33][failed verification] Health Canada's Pest Management Regulatory Agency found no risk to humans or the environment at that 20% limit, and that all products registered in Canada at that time were at or below that limit.

Chemistry

 
Ionic states

Glyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine and, like all amino acids, exists in different ionic states depending on pH. Both the phosphonic acid and carboxylic acid moieties can be ionised and the amine group can be protonated and the substance exists as a series of zwitterions. Glyphosate is soluble in water to 12 g/L at room temperature. The original synthetic approach to glyphosate involved the reaction of phosphorus trichloride with formaldehyde followed by hydrolysis to yield a phosphonate. Glycine is then reacted with this phosphonate to yield glyphosate, and its name is taken as a contraction of the compounds used in this synthesis step, namely glycine and a phosphonate.[34]

  • PCl3 + H2CO → Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl
  • Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 H2O → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 HCl
  • (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + H2N−CH2−COOH → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2−NH−CH2−COOH + HCl

The main deactivation path for glyphosate is hydrolysis to aminomethylphosphonic acid.[35]

Synthesis

Two main approaches are used to synthesize glyphosate industrially, both of which proceed via the Kabachnik–Fields reaction. The first is to react iminodiacetic acid and formaldehyde with phosphorous acid (sometimes formed in situ from phosphorus trichloride using the water generated by the Mannich reaction of the first two reagents). Decarboxylation of the hydrophosphonylation product gives the desired glyphosate product. Iminodiacetic acid is usually prepared on-site by various methods depending on reagent availability.[19]

 

The second uses glycine in place of iminodiacetic acid. This avoids the need for decarboxylation but requires more careful control of stoichiometry, as the primary amine can react with any excess formaldehyde to form bishydroxymethylglycine, which must be hydrolysed during the work-up to give the desired product.[19]

 

This synthetic approach is responsible for a substantial portion of the production of glyphosate in China, with considerable work having gone into recycling the triethylamine and methanol solvents.[19] Progress has also been made in attempting to eliminate the need for triethylamine altogether.[36]

Impurities

Technical grade glyphosate is a white powder which, according to FAO specification, should contain not less than 95% glyphosate. Formaldehyde, classified as a known human carcinogen, [37][38] and N-nitrosoglyphosate, have been identified as toxicologically relevant impurities.[39] The FAO specification limits the formaldehyde concentration to a maximum of 1.3 g/kg glyphosate. N-Nitrosoglyphosate, "belonging to a group of impurities of particular concern as they can be activated to genotoxic carcinogens",[40] should not exceed 1 ppm.[39]

Formulations

Main article: Glyphosate-based herbicides
 
Monsanto's Roundup is the earliest formulation

Glyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many agrochemical companies, in different solution strengths and with various adjuvants, under dozens of tradenames.[41][42][43][44] As of 2010, more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market.[45] In 2012, about half of the total global consumption of glyphosate by volume was for agricultural crops,[46] with forestry comprising another important market.[47] Asia and the Pacific was the largest and fastest growing regional market.[46] As of 2014, Chinese manufacturers collectively are the world's largest producers of glyphosate and its precursors[48] and account for about 30% of global exports.[46] Key manufacturers include Anhui Huaxing Chemical Industry Company, BASF, Bayer CropScience (which also acquired the maker of glyphosate, Monsanto), Dow AgroSciences, DuPont, Jiangsu Good Harvest-Weien Agrochemical Company, Nantong Jiangshan Agrochemical & Chemicals Co., Nufarm, SinoHarvest, Syngenta, and Zhejiang Xinan Chemical Industrial Group Company.[46]

Glyphosate is an acid molecule, so it is formulated as a salt for packaging and handling. Various salt formulations include isopropylamine, diammonium, monoammonium, or potassium as the counterion. The active ingredient of the Monsanto herbicides is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient in some formulations is the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA). Some brands include more than one salt. Some companies report their product as acid equivalent (ae) of glyphosate acid, or some report it as active ingredient (ai) of glyphosate plus the salt, and others report both. To compare performance of different formulations, knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed. Given that different salts have different weights, the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations.

Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant[49][50] already added to the glyphosate product. Fully loaded products contain all the necessary adjuvants, including surfactant; some contain no adjuvant system, while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant (minimal or partial loading) and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application.[51]

Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120, 240, 360, 480, and 680 g/L of active ingredient. The most common formulation in agriculture is 360 g/L, either alone or with added cationic surfactants.[42]

For 360 grams per litre (0.013 lb/cu in) formulations, European regulations allow applications of up to 12 litres per hectare (1.1 imp gal/acre) for control of perennial weeds such as couch grass. More commonly, rates of 3 litres per hectare (0.27 imp gal/acre) are practiced for control of annual weeds between crops.[52]

Mode of action

Glyphosate interferes with the shikimate pathway, which produces the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan in plants and microorganisms[53] – but does not exist in the genome of animals, including humans.[54][20] It blocks this pathway by inhibiting the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes the reaction of shikimate-3-phosphate (S3P) and phosphoenolpyruvate to form 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP).[55] Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots, meaning that it is only effective on actively growing plants and cannot prevent seeds from germinating.[56][57] After application, glyphosate is readily transported around the plant to growing roots and leaves and this systemic activity is important for its effectiveness.[27][19] Inhibiting the enzyme causes shikimate to accumulate in plant tissues and diverts energy and resources away from other processes, eventually killing the plant. While growth stops within hours of application, it takes several days for the leaves to begin turning yellow.[58] Glyphosate may chelate Co2+ which contributes to its mode of action.[59][60][61]

 

Under normal circumstances, EPSP is dephosphorylated to chorismate, an essential precursor for the amino acids mentioned above.[62] These amino acids are used in protein synthesis and to produce secondary metabolites such as folates, ubiquinones, and naphthoquinone.

X-ray crystallographic studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying the binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate, mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme–substrate complex.[63][64] Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates.[65][66]

Uses

 
Second graph is global

Glyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants, including grasses and broadleaf and woody plants. By volume, it is one of the most widely used herbicides.[56] In 2007, glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector, with 180 to 185 million pounds (82,000 to 84,000 tonnes) applied, the second-most used in home and garden with 5 to 8 million pounds (2,300 to 3,600 tonnes) and 13 to 15 million pounds (5,900 to 6,800 tonnes) in non-agricultural settings.[8] It is commonly used for agriculture, horticulture, viticulture, and silviculture purposes, as well as garden maintenance (including home use). It has a relatively small effect on some clover species and morning glory.[67]

 
Glyphosate used as an alternative to mowing in an apple orchard in Ciardes, Italy

Glyphosate and related herbicides are often used in invasive species eradication and habitat restoration, especially to enhance native plant establishment in prairie ecosystems. The controlled application is usually combined with a selective herbicide and traditional methods of weed eradication such as mulching to achieve an optimal effect.[68]

In many cities, glyphosate is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.[69] Glyphosate contamination of surface water is attributed to urban and agricultural use.[70] Glyphosate is used to clear railroad tracks and get rid of unwanted aquatic vegetation.[57] Since 1994, glyphosate has been used in aerial spraying in Colombia in coca eradication programs; Colombia announced in May 2015 that by October, it would cease using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of the chemical.[71]

Glyphosate is also used for crop desiccation to increase harvest yield and uniformity.[57] Glyphosate itself is not a chemical desiccant; rather crop desiccants are so named because application just before harvest kills the crop plants so that the food crop dries from normal environmental conditions ("dry-down") more quickly and evenly.[72][74] Because glyphosate is systemic, excess residue levels can persist in plants due to incorrect application and this may render the crop unfit for sale.[75] When applied appropriately, it can promote useful effects. In sugarcane, for example, glyphosate application increases sucrose concentration before harvest.[76] In grain crops (wheat, barley, oats), uniformly dried crops do not have to be windrowed (swathed and dried) prior to harvest, but can easily be straight-cut and harvested. This saves the farmer time and money, which is important in northern regions where the growing season is short, and it enhances grain storage when the grain has a lower and more uniform moisture content.[57][77][78]

Genetically modified crops

Main articles: Genetically modified crops, Genetically modified organism, Genetically modified food, and Genetically modified food controversies

Some micro-organisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvoyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthetase (EPSPS) resistant to glyphosate inhibition. A version of the enzyme that was both resistant to glyphosate and that was still efficient enough to drive adequate plant growth was identified by Monsanto scientists after much trial and error in an Agrobacterium strain called CP4, which was found surviving in a waste-fed column at a glyphosate production facility.[66][79][80]: 56  This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans. In 1996, genetically modified soybeans were made commercially available.[81] Current glyphosate-resistant crops include soy, maize (corn), canola, alfalfa, sugar beets, and cotton, with wheat still under development.

In 2015, 89% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 89% of cotton produced in the United States were from strains that were genetically modified to be herbicide-tolerant - including but not limited to glyphosate.[82]

Environmental fate

 
Landscaping company in Oklahoma applying a weed control product that contains glyphosate

Glyphosate has four ionizable sites, with pKa values of 2.0, 2.6, 5.6 and 10.6.[83] Therefore, it is a zwitterion in aqueous solutions and is expected to exist almost entirely in zwitterionic forms in the environment. Zwitterions generally adsorb more strongly to soils containing organic carbon and clay than their neutral counterparts.[84] Glyphosate strongly sorbs onto soil minerals, and, with the exception of colloid-facilitated transport, its soluble residues are expected to be poorly mobile in the free porewater of soils. The spatial extent of ground and surface water pollution is therefore considered to be relatively limited.[85] Glyphosate is readily degraded by soil microbes to aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA, which like glyphosate strongly adsorbs to soil solids and is thus unlikely to leach to groundwater). Though both glyphosate and AMPA are commonly detected in water bodies, a portion of the AMPA detected may actually be the result of degradation of detergents rather than from glyphosate.[86] Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters due to its aquatic use patterns and through erosion, as it adsorbs to colloidal soil particles suspended in runoff. Detection in surface waters (particularly downstream from agricultural uses) has been reported as both broad and frequent by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) researchers,[87] although other similar research found equal frequencies of detection in urban-dominated small streams.[88] Rain events can trigger dissolved glyphosate loss in transport-prone soils.[89] The mechanism of glyphosate sorption to soil is similar to that of phosphate fertilizers, the presence of which can reduce glyphosate sorption.[90] Phosphate fertilizers are subject to release from sediments into water bodies under anaerobic conditions, and similar release can also occur with glyphosate, though significant impact of glyphosate release from sediments has not been established.[91] Limited leaching can occur after high rainfall after application. If glyphosate reaches surface water, it is not broken down readily by water or sunlight.[92][85]

The half-life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days; a typical field half-life of 47 days has been suggested. Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate's persistence in soil. The median half-life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days.[56] At a site in Texas, half-life was as little as three days. A site in Iowa had a half-life of 141.9 days.[93] The glyphosate metabolite AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application. In this case, the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year.[94] Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the kind of soil.[95][96] Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12- to 60-day persistence observed in Canadian ponds, although persistence of over a year has been recorded in the sediments of American ponds.[92] The half-life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days and 10 weeks.[97]

Residues in food products

According to the National Pesticide Information Center fact sheet, glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration's Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program, nor in the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program.[56] The U.S. has determined the acceptable daily intake of glyphosate at 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg/bw/day) while the European Union has set it at 0.5.[98]

Pesticide residue controls carried out by EU Member States in 2016 analysed 6,761 samples of food products for glyphosate residues. 3.6% of the samples contained quantifiable glyphosate residue levels with 19 samples (0.28%) exceeding the European maximum residue levels (MRLs), which included six samples of honey and other apicultural products (MRL = 0.05 mg/kg) and eleven samples of buckwheat and other pseudo‐cereals (MRL = 0.1 mg/kg). Glyphosate residues below the European MRLs were most frequently found in dry lentils, linseeds, soya beans, dry peas, tea, buckwheat, barley, wheat and rye.[99] In Canada, a survey of 7,955 samples of food found that 42.3% contained detectable quantities of glyphosate and only 0.6% contained a level higher than the Canadian MRL of 0.1 mg/kg for most foods and 4 mg/kg for beans and chickpeas. Of the products that exceeded MRLs, one third were organic products. Health Canada concluded based on the analysis "that there was no long-term health risk to Canadian consumers from exposure to the levels of glyphosate".[100]

Toxicity

Glyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives (known as adjuvants) such as surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. Surfactants such as polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) are added to glyphosate to enable it to wet the leaves and penetrate the cuticle of the plants.

Glyphosate alone

Humans

The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,[101] but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated formulations.[102] The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.[103][104] In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.[105] Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[103]

Cancer

The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.[12] The Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR),[106] the European Commission, the Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority[107] and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment[108] have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has classified glyphosate as "not likely to be carcinogenic to humans."[109][110] One international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, classified glyphosate in Group 2A, "probably carcinogenic to humans" in 2015.[15][13]

As of 2020, the evidence for long-term exposure to glyphosate increasing the risk of human cancer remains inconclusive.[111] There is weak evidence human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.[112][113]

Although some small studies have suggested an association between glyphosate and non-hodgkin lymphoma, subsequent work confirmed the likelihood this work suffered from bias, and the association could not be demonstrated in more robust studies.[114][115][116]

Other mammals

Amongst mammals, glyphosate is considered to have "low to very low toxicity". The LD50 of glyphosate is 5,000 mg/kg for rats, 10,000 mg/kg in mice and 3,530 mg/kg in goats. The acute dermal LD50 in rabbits is greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Indications of glyphosate toxicity in animals typically appear within 30 to 120 minutes following ingestion of a large enough dose, and include initial excitability and tachycardia, ataxia, depression, and bradycardia, although severe toxicity can develop into collapse and convulsions.[56]

A review of unpublished short-term rabbit-feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg/kg/day and "no observed adverse effect level" doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg/kg/day.[117] Glyphosate can have carcinogenic effects in nonhuman mammals. These include the induction of positive trends in the incidence of renal tubule carcinoma and haemangiosarcoma in male mice, and increased pancreatic islet-cell adenoma in male rats.[13] In reproductive toxicity studies performed in rats and rabbits, no adverse maternal or offspring effects were seen at doses below 175–293 mg/kg/day.[56]

Glyphosate-based herbicides may cause life-threatening arrhythmias in mammals. Evidence also shows that such herbicides cause direct electrophysiological changes in the cardiovascular systems of rats and rabbits.[118]

Aquatic fauna

In many freshwater invertebrates, glyphosate has a 48-hour LC50 ranging from 55 to 780 ppm. The 96-hour LC50 is 281 ppm for grass shrimp (Palaemonetas vulgaris) and 934 ppm for fiddler crabs (Uca pagilator). These values make glyphosate "slightly toxic to practically non-toxic".[56]

Antimicrobial activity

The antimicrobial activity of glyphosate has been described in the microbiology literature since its discovery in 1970 and the description of glyphosate's mechanism of action in 1972. Efficacy was described for numerous bacteria and fungi.[119] Glyphosate can control the growth of apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum (malaria), and Cryptosporidium parvum, and has been considered an antimicrobial agent in mammals.[120] Inhibition can occur with some Rhizobium species important for soybean nitrogen fixation, especially under moisture stress.[121]

Soil biota

 
Degradation pathway of glyphosate in the ground[93]

When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be bound to soil particles, thereby slowing its degradation.[92][122] Glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid are considered to be much more benign toxicologically and environmentally than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate.[123] A 2016 meta-analysis concluded that at typical application rates glyphosate had no effect on soil microbial biomass or respiration.[124] A 2016 review noted that contrasting effects of glyphosate on earthworms have been found in different experiments with some species unaffected, but others losing weight or avoiding treated soil. Further research is required to determine the impact of glyphosate on earthworms in complex ecosystems.[125]

Endocrine disruption

In 2007, the EPA selected glyphosate for further screening through its Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). Selection for this program is based on a compound's prevalence of use and does not imply particular suspicion of endocrine activity.[126] On June 29, 2015, the EPA released the Weight of Evidence Conclusions of the EDSP Tier 1 screening for glyphosate, recommending that glyphosate not be considered for Tier 2 testing. The Weight of Evidence conclusion stated "...there was no convincing evidence of potential interaction with the estrogen, androgen or thyroid pathways."[127] A review of the evidence by the European Food Safety Authority published in September 2017 showed conclusions similar to those of the EPA report.[128]

Effect on plant health

Some studies have found causal relationships between glyphosate and increased or decreased disease resistance.[129] Exposure to glyphosate has been shown to change the species composition of endophytic bacteria in plant hosts, which is highly variable.[130]

Glyphosate-based formulations

Glyphosate-based formulations may contain a number of adjuvants, the identities of which may be proprietary.[131] Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as wetting agents, to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As agricultural spray adjuvants, surfactants may be pre-mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site.[132]

Polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015.[133] Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%.[134] Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone, POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations.[135][134][136] A 2000 review of the ecotoxicological data on Roundup shows at least 58 studies exist on the effects of Roundup on a range of organisms.[93] This review concluded that "...for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed non-target organisms".[137]

Human

Overall, there is no conclusive evidence on glyphosate's effect on human health.[138][139]

Acute toxicity and chronic toxicity are dose-related. Skin exposure to ready-to-use concentrated glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photocontact dermatitis has been occasionally reported. These effects are probably due to the preservative benzisothiazolin-3-one. Severe skin burns are very rare.[103] Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[103] Death has been reported after deliberate overdose.[103][102] Ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.[140] Adult consumption of more than 85 ml of concentrated product can lead to corrosive esophageal burns and kidney or liver damage. More severe cases cause "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary edema, infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias.[103] While the surfactants in formulations generally do not increase the toxicity of glyphosate itself, it is likely that they contribute to its acute toxicity.[103]

Aquatic fauna

Glyphosate products for aquatic use generally do not use surfactants, and aquatic formulations do not use POEA due to aquatic organism toxicity.[135] Due to the presence of POEA, such glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.[135][134][136] The half-life of POEA (21–42 days) is longer than that for glyphosate (7–14 days) in aquatic environments.[141] Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets where concentrations would be much lower than label rates.[135]

Some researchers have suggested the toxicity effects of pesticides on amphibians may be different from those of other aquatic fauna because of their lifestyle; amphibians may be more susceptible to the toxic effects of pesticides because they often prefer to breed in shallow, lentic, or ephemeral pools. These habitats do not necessarily constitute formal water-bodies and can contain higher concentrations of pesticide compared to larger water-bodies.[136][142] Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of GBFs containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at metamorphosis, developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress.[136] Glyphosate-based formulations can cause oxidative stress in bullfrog tadpoles.[15]

A 2003 study of various formulations of glyphosate found, "[the] risk assessments based on estimated and measured concentrations of glyphosate that would result from its use for the control of undesirable plants in wetlands and over-water situations showed that the risk to aquatic organisms is negligible or small at application rates less than 4 kg/ha and only slightly greater at application rates of 8 kg/ha."[143]

A 2013 meta-analysis reviewed the available data related to potential impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians. According to the authors, the use of glyphosate-based pesticides cannot be considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to the widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure. The authors recommended further study of per-species and per-development-stage chronic toxicity, of environmental glyphosate levels, and ongoing analysis of data relevant to determining what if any role glyphosate might be playing in worldwide amphibian decline, and suggest including amphibians in standardized test batteries.[144]

Genetic damage

Several studies have not found mutagenic effects,[145] so glyphosate has not been listed in the United States Environmental Protection Agency or the International Agency for Research on Cancer databases.[citation needed] Various other studies suggest glyphosate may be mutagenic.[citation needed] The IARC monograph noted that glyphosate-based formulations can cause DNA strand breaks in various taxa of animals in vitro.[15]

Government and organization positions

European Food Safety Authority

A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) examined more than 1000[146] epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. It found that "no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted" and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B.[147]: 34–37, 139  It provided the review to EFSA in January 2014 which published it in December 2014.[147][148][149] In November 2015, EFSA published its conclusion in the Renewal Assessment Report (RAR), stating it was "unlikely to pose a carcinogenic hazard to humans".[150] The EU was largely informed by this report when it made its decision on the use of glyphosate in November 2017.[151]

EFSA's decision and the BfR report were criticized in an open letter published by 96 scientists in November 2015 saying that the BfR report failed to adhere to accepted scientific principles of open and transparent procedures.[152][153] The BfR report included unpublished data, lacked authorship, omitted references, and did not disclose conflict-of-interest information.[153]

In July 2023, EFSA re-evaluated after three years of assessment the putative impact of glyphosate on the health of humans, animals and the environment. As a result, no critical areas of concern were identified that would otherwise prevent glyphosate's registration renewal in the EU.[154][155][156]

International Agency for Research on Cancer

In March 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations, published a summary of their forthcoming monograph on glyphosate, and classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. It noted that there was "limited evidence" of carcinogenicity in humans for non-Hodgkin lymphoma.[10][13][14][15][157] The IARC classifies substances for their carcinogenic potential, and "a few positive findings can be enough to declare a hazard, even if there are negative studies, as well." Unlike the BfR, it does not conduct a risk assessment, weighing benefits against risk.[158]

The BfR responded that IARC reviewed only a selection of what they[who?] had reviewed earlier, and argued that other studies, including a cohort study called Agricultural Health Study, do not support the classification.[159] The IARC report did not include unpublished studies, including one completed by the IARC panel leader.[160] The agency's international protocol dictates that only published studies be used in classifications of carcinogenicity,[161] since national regulatory agencies including the EPA have allowed agrochemical corporations to conduct their own unpublished research, which may be biased in support of their profit motives.[162]

Reviews of the EFSA and IARC reports

A 2017 review done by personnel from EFSA and BfR argued that the differences between the IARC's and EFSA's conclusions regarding glyphosate and cancer were due to differences in their evaluation of the available evidence. The review concluded that "Two complementary exposure assessments ... suggests that actual exposure levels are below" the reference values identified by the EFSA "and do not represent a public concern."[12]

In contrast, a 2016 analysis by Christopher Portier, a scientist advising the IARC in the assessment of glyphosate and advocate for its classification as possibly carcinogenic, concluded that in the EFSA's Renewal Assessment Report, "almost no weight is given to studies from the published literature and there is an over-reliance on non-publicly available industry-provided studies using a limited set of assays that define the minimum data necessary for the marketing of a pesticide", arguing that the IARC's evaluation of probably carcinogenic to humans "accurately reflects the results of published scientific literature on glyphosate".[163]

In October 2017, an article in The Times revealed that Portier had received consulting contracts with two law firm associations representing alleged glyphosate cancer victims that included a payment of US$160,000 to Portier.[164][165] The IARC final report was also found to have changed compared to an interim report, through the removal of text saying certain studies had found glyphosate was not carcinogenic in that study's context, and through strengthening a conclusion of "limited evidence of animal carcinogenicity," to "sufficient evidence of animal carcinogenicity".[166]

US Environmental Protection Agency

In a 1993 review, the EPA, considered glyphosate to be noncarcinogenic and relatively low in dermal and oral acute toxicity.[92] The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food derived entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields with residues at their maximum levels. This model indicated that no adverse health effects would be expected under such conditions.[92] In 2015, the EPA initiated a review of glyphosate's toxicity and in 2016 reported that glyphosate is likely not carcinogenic.[10][167] In August 2019, the EPA announced that it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen, as those claims would "not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act" and misinform the public.[168]

In 2017, evidence collected in a lawsuit brought against Monsanto by cancer patients revealed company emails which appeared to show a friendly relationship with a senior EPA official.[169]

Monsanto response and campaign

Monsanto called the IARC report biased and said it wanted the report to be retracted.[170] In 2017, internal documents from Monsanto were made public by lawyers pursuing litigation against the company,[171] who used the term "Monsanto papers" to describe the documents.[172] This term was later used also by Leemon McHenry[173] and others.[174] The documents indicated Monsanto had planned a public relations effort to discredit the IARC report, and had engaged Henry Miller to write a 2015 opinion piece in Forbes Magazine challenging the report. Miller did not reveal the connection to Forbes, and according to the New York Times, when Monsanto asked him if he was interested in writing such an article, he replied "I would be if I could start from a high-quality draft" provided by the company.[175] Once this became public, Forbes removed his blog from their site.

Two journalists from Le Monde won the 2018 European Press Prize for a series of articles on the documents, also titled Monsanto Papers. Their reporting described, among other things, Monsanto's lawyers' letters demanding that IARC scientists turn over documents relating to Monograph 112, which contained the IARC finding that glyphosate was a "probable carcinogen"; several of the scientists condemned these letters as intimidating.[176]

California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment

In March 2015, the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) announced plans to have glyphosate listed as a known carcinogen based on the IARC assessment. In 2016, Monsanto started a case against OEHHA and its acting director, Lauren Zeise,[177] but lost the suit in March 2017.[178]

Glyphosate was listed as "known to the State of California to cause cancer" in 2017, requiring warning labels under Proposition 65.[179] In February 2018, as part of an ongoing case, an injunction was issued prohibiting California from enforcing carcinogenicity labeling requirements for glyphosate until the case was resolved. The injunction stated that arguments by a US District Court Judge for the Eastern District of California "[do] not change the fact that the overwhelming majority of agencies that that have examined glyphosate have determined it is not a cancer risk."[180] In August 2019, the EPA also said it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen, as those claims would "not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act" and misinform the public.[168]

European Chemicals Agency

On March 15, 2017 the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) announced recommendations proceeding from a risk assessment of glyphosate performed by ECHA's Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC). Their recommendations maintained the current classification of glyphosate as a substance causing serious eye damage and as a substance toxic to aquatic life. However, the RAC did not find evidence implicating glyphosate to be a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs.[181] In 2022, the agency reiterated these findings in a later review and stated on cancer risk that, "Based on a wide-ranging review of scientific evidence, the committee again concludes that classifying glyphosate as a carcinogen is not justified."[182]

Effects of use

Emergence of resistant weeds

In the 1990s, no glyphosate-resistant weeds were known to exist.[183] In 2005 a slow upward trend began, resistant weeds appearing rarely around the world.[184] Another inflection point occurred in 2011 and resistance accelerated globally.[184] By 2014, glyphosate-resistant weeds dominated herbicide-resistance research. At that time, 23 glyphosate-resistant species were found in 18 countries.[185] "Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide."[183][186]

According to Ian Heap, a weed specialist, who completed his PhD on resistance to multiple herbicides in annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in 1988[187] – the first case of an herbicide-resistant weed in Australia[188] – by 2014 Lolium rigidum was the "world’s worst herbicide-resistant weed" with instances in "12 countries, 11 sites of action, 9 cropping regimens" and affecting "over 2 million hectares."[185] Annual ryegrass has been known to be resistant to herbicides since 1982. The first documented case of glyphosate-resistant L. rigidum was reported in Australia in 1996 near Orange, New South Wales.[189][190][191] In 2006, farmers associations were reporting 107 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.[192] In 2009, Canada identified its first resistant weed, giant ragweed, and at that time 15 weed species had been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.[186][193] As of 2010, in the United States 7 to 10 million acres (2.8 to 4.0 million hectares) of soil were afflicted by herbicide-resistant weeds, or about 5% of the 170 million acres planted with corn, soybeans, and cotton, the crops most affected, in 22 states.[194] In 2012, Charles Benbrook reported that the Weed Science Society of America listed 22 herbicide-resistant species in the U.S., with over 5.7×10^6 ha (14×10^6 acres) infested by GR weeds and that Dow AgroSciences had carried out a survey and reported a figure of around 40×10^6 ha (100×10^6 acres).[195] The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds database lists species that are resistant to glyphosate.[193]

In response to resistant weeds, farmers are hand-weeding, using tractors to turn over soil between crops, and using other herbicides in addition to glyphosate.

Monsanto scientists have found that some resistant weeds have as many as 160 extra copies of a gene called EPSPS, the enzyme glyphosate disrupts.[196]

Palmer amaranth

 
Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri)

In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of Palmer amaranth was found in the U.S. state of Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.[197] In 2005, resistance was also found in North Carolina.[198] The species can quickly become resistant to multiple herbicides and has developed multiple mechanisms for glyphosate resistance due to selection pressure.[199][198] The glyphosate-resistant weed variant is now widespread in the southeastern United States.[197][200] Cases have also been reported in Texas[200] and Virginia.[201]

Conyza species

 
Horseweed

Conyza bonariensis (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and C. canadensis (known as horseweed or marestail) are other weed species that have lately developed glyphosate resistance.[202][203][204] A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the use of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increases in glyphosate use.[205] In the 2015 growing season, glyphosate-resistant marestail proved to be especially problematic to control in Nebraska production fields.[206]

Ryegrass

 
Ryegrass

Glyphosate-resistant ryegrass (Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural areas and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate resistant ryegrass does not compete well against nonresistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.[207]

Johnson grass

Glyphosate-resistant Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) has been found in Argentina as well as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi.[208]

Monarch butterfly populations

Use of glyphosate and other herbicides like 2,4-D to clear milkweed along roads and fields may have contributed to a decline in monarch butterfly populations in the Midwestern United States.[209] Along with deforestation and adverse weather conditions,[210] the decrease in milkweed contributed to an 81% decline in monarchs.[211][212] The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) filed a suit against the EPA in 2015, in which it argued that the agency ignored warnings about the potentially dangerous impacts of glyphosate usage on monarchs.[213]

Legal status

Glyphosate was first approved for use in the 1970s, and as of 2010 was labelled for use in 130 countries.[19]: 2 

In 2017 Vandenberg et al. cited a 100-fold increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicides from 1974 to 2014, the possibility that herbicide mixtures likely have effects that are not predicted by studying glyphosate alone, and reliance of current safety assessments on studies done over 30 years ago. They recommended that current safety standards be updated, writing that the current standards "may fail to protect public health or the environment."[214]

Europe

In April 2014, the legislature of the Netherlands passed legislation prohibiting sale of glyphosate to individuals for use at home; commercial sales were not affected.[215]

In June 2015, the French Ecology Minister asked nurseries and garden centers to halt over-the-counter sales of glyphosate in the form of Monsanto's Roundup. This was a nonbinding request and all sales of glyphosate remain legal in France until 2022, when it was planned to ban the substance for home gardening.[216] However, more recently the French parliament decided to not to impose a definitive date for such a ban.[217] In January 2019, "the sale, distribution, and use of Roundup 360 [wa]s banned" in France. Exemptions for many farmers were later implemented, and a curb of its use by 80% for 2021 is projected.[218][219]

A vote on the relicensing of glyphosate in the EU stalled in March 2016. Member states France, Sweden, and the Netherlands objected to the renewal.[220] A vote to reauthorize on a temporary basis failed in June 2016[221] but at the last minute the license was extended for 18 months until the end of 2017.[222]

On 27 November 2017, in the EU Council a majority of eighteen member states voted in favor of permitting the use of glyphosate for five more years. A qualified majority of sixteen states representing 65% of EU citizens was required to pass the law.[223] The German Minister of Agriculture, Christian Schmidt, unexpectedly voted in favor while the German coalition government was internally divided on the issue which usually results in Germany abstaining.[224]

In December 2018, attempts were made to reopen the decision to license the weed-killer. These were condemned by Conservative MEPs, who said the proposal was politically motivated and flew in the face of scientific evidence.[225]

In March 2019, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ordered the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to release all carcinogenicity and toxicity pesticide industry studies on glyphosate to the general public.[226]

In March 2019, the Austrian state of Carinthia outlawed the private use of glyphosate in residential areas while the commercial application of the herbicide is still permitted for farmers. The use of glyphosate by public authorities and road maintenance crews was already halted a number of years prior to the current ban by local authorities.[227]

In June 2019, Deutsche Bahn and Swiss Federal Railways announced that glyphosate and other commonly used herbicides for weed eradication along railway tracks will be phased out by 2025, while more environmentally sound methods for vegetation control are implemented.[228][229]

In July 2019, the Austrian parliament voted to ban glyphosate in Austria.[230]

In September 2019, the German Environment Ministry announced that the use of glyphosate will be banned from the end of 2023. The use of glyphosate-based herbicides will be reduced starting from 2020.[231]

The assessment process for an approval of glyphosate in the European Union will begin in December 2019. France, Hungary, the Netherlands and Sweden will jointly assess the application dossiers of the producers. The draft report of the assessment group will then be peer-reviewed by the EFSA before the current approval expires in December 2022.[232]

The date has since been pushed back, partially due to very high interest and input in the participation process, with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) even calling it an “unprecedented number”.[233] Because the EFSA has to review all these 2400 comments and almost 400 responses, the process is expected to take longer. The created document is under extra review by the specially formed Glyphosate Renewal Group (GRG) and the Assessment Group on Glyphosate (AGG), the panel consisting of the four mentioned member states. With their responses now being scheduled for September 2022, the consultations with member states are supposed to be held by the very end of 2022.[234][235] This would allow to finish the final assessment by mid-2023 and pass it on to further legislature to decide.

In November 2023, glyphosate received 10 year renewed authorization for use in the EU.[236]

Other countries

In September 2013, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador approved legislation to ban 53 agrochemicals, including glyphosate; the ban on glyphosate was set to begin in 2015.[237][238][239]

In the United States, the state of Minnesota preempts local laws that attempt to ban glyphosate. In 2015 there was an attempt to pass legislation at the state level that would repeal that preemption.[240]

In May 2015, the President of Sri Lanka banned the use and import of glyphosate, effective immediately.[241][242] However, in May 2018 the Sri Lankan government decided to re-authorize its use in the plantation sector.[243]

In May 2015, Bermuda blocked importation on all new orders of glyphosate-based herbicides for a temporary suspension awaiting outcomes of research.[244]

In May 2015, Colombia announced that it would stop using glyphosate by October 2015 in the destruction of illegal plantations of coca, the raw ingredient for cocaine. Farmers have complained that the aerial fumigation has destroyed entire fields of coffee and other legal produce.[71]

In April 2019, Vietnam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development banned the use of glyphosate throughout the country.[245]

In August 2020, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that glyphosate will be gradually phased out of use in Mexico by late 2024.[246]

Thailand's National Hazardous Substances Committee decided to ban the use of glyphosate in October 2019[247] but reversed the decision in November 2019.[248]

After a court-ruling in 2018, glyphosate was temporarily banned in Brazil. This decision was later overturned, causing major criticism by the federal agency of health (Anvisa). This comes, as the latest evaluations declared glyphosate as noncarcinogenic. Since all carcinogenic agrichemicals are automatically banned in the country, this allowed the continuous use.[249]

In New Zealand, glyphosate is an approved herbicide for killing weeds,[250] with the most popular brand being Roundup.[250][251] Genetically modified crops designed to resist glyphosate are absent in New Zealand.[250] Crops applied with glyphosate must be regulated under the HSNO Act 1996 and ACVM Act 1997.[250][252] Legal status for glyphosate use in New Zealand is approved for commercial and personal use.[251] In 2021, exports of New Zealand honey were found to contain traces of glyphosate, causing some concern to Japanese importers.[253][254]

Legal cases

See also: Monsanto legal cases § Roundup

Lawsuits claiming liability for cancer

Since 2018, in a number of court cases in the United States, plaintiffs have argued that their cancer was caused by exposure to glyphosate in glyphosate-based herbicides produced by Monsanto/Bayer. Defendant Bayer has paid out over $9.6 billion in judgements and settlements in these cases. Bayer has also won at least 10 cases, successfully arguing that their glyphosate-based herbicides were not responsible for the plaintiff's cancer.[255]

Advertising controversies

In 2016, a lawsuit was filed against Quaker Oats in the Federal district courts of both New York and California after trace amounts of glyphosate were found in oatmeal. The lawsuit alleged that the claim of "100% natural" was false advertising.[256] That same year General Mills dropped the label "Made with 100% Natural Whole Grain Oats" from their Nature Valley granola bars after a lawsuit was filed that claimed the oats contained trace amounts of glyphosate.[257]

Trade dumping allegations

United States companies have cited trade issues with glyphosate being dumped into western world market areas by Chinese companies, and a formal dispute was filed in 2010.[258][259]

Society and culture

Glyphosate has become a locus of campaigning and misinformation by anti-GMO activists because of its association with genetically-modified glyphosate-resistant crops.[260]

The US politician Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has incorporated glyphosate into his anti-vaccination rhetoric, falsely claiming that both glyphosate and vaccines are responsible for the American obesity epidemic.[260] Stephanie Seneff has spread misinformation about glyphosate, including claims that it causes autism and worsens concussion.[261]

See also

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glyphosate.
  • Glyphosate in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
  • Glyphosate trimesium in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
  • Glyphosate, isopropylamine salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
  • Glyphosate, potassium salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)

February 15, 2024
glyphosate, been, suggested, that, based, herbicides, merged, into, this, article, discuss, proposed, since, december, 2023, this, article, about, chemical, alone, herbicides, based, based, herbicides, brand, name, formulation, developed, monsanto, roundup, he. It has been suggested that Glyphosate based herbicides be merged into this article Discuss Proposed since December 2023 This article is about the chemical alone For herbicides based on it see Glyphosate based herbicides For the brand name formulation developed by Monsanto see Roundup herbicide Not to be confused with Glufosinate Glyphosate IUPAC name N phosphonomethyl glycine is a broad spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant It is an organophosphorus compound specifically a phosphonate which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5 enolpyruvylshikimate 3 phosphate synthase EPSP It is used to kill weeds especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops Its herbicidal effectiveness was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E Franz in 1970 Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup Monsanto s last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000 Glyphosate Idealised skeletal formulaBall and stick model of the zwitterion based on the crystal structure 1 2 NamesPronunciation ˈ ɡ l ɪ f e s eɪ t ˈ ɡ l aɪ f e 3 ɡ l aɪ ˈ f ɒ s eɪ t 4 5 IUPAC name N Phosphonomethyl glycineSystematic IUPAC name Phosphonomethyl amino acetic acidIdentifiersCAS Number 1071 83 6 Y38641 94 0 isopropylammonium salt N70393 85 0 sesquisodium salt N81591 81 3 trimethylsulfonium salt N3D model JSmol Interactive imageBeilstein Reference 2045054ChEBI CHEBI 27744 YChEMBL ChEMBL95764 YChemSpider 3376 YDrugBank DB04539ECHA InfoCard 100 012 726EC Number 213 997 4Gmelin Reference 279222KEGG C01705 YPubChem CID 3496RTECS number MC1075000UNII 4632WW1X5A YUN number 3077 2783CompTox Dashboard EPA DTXSID1024122InChI InChI 1S C3H8NO5P c5 3 6 1 4 2 10 7 8 9 h4H 1 2H2 H 5 6 H2 7 8 9 YKey XDDAORKBJWWYJS UHFFFAOYSA N YInChI 1 C3H8NO5P c5 3 6 1 4 2 10 7 8 9 h4H 1 2H2 H 5 6 H2 7 8 9 Key XDDAORKBJWWYJS UHFFFAOYAESMILES O C O CNCP O O OProperties 6 Chemical formula C 3H 8N O 5PMolar mass 169 073 g mol 1Appearance white crystalline powderDensity 1 704 20 C Melting point 184 5 C 364 1 F 457 6 K Boiling point 187 C 369 F 460 K decomposesSolubility in water 1 01 g 100 mL 20 C log P 2 8Acidity pKa lt 2 2 6 5 6 10 6Hazards 6 7 GHS labelling PictogramsSignal word DangerHazard statements H318 H411Precautionary statements P273 P280 P305 P351 P338 P310 P501Flash point Non flammableSafety data sheet SDS InChem MSDSExcept where otherwise noted data are given for materials in their standard state at 25 C 77 F 100 kPa N verify what is Y N Infobox references Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control especially after Monsanto introduced glyphosate resistant Roundup Ready crops enabling farmers to kill weeds without killing their crops In 2007 glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector and the second most used after 2 4 D in home and garden government and industry and commercial applications 8 From the late 1970s to 2016 there was a 100 fold increase in the frequency and volume of application of glyphosate based herbicides GBHs worldwide with further increases expected in the future Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots and from there translocated to growing points It inhibits EPSP synthase a plant enzyme involved in the synthesis of three aromatic amino acids tyrosine tryptophan and phenylalanine It is therefore effective only on actively growing plants and is not effective as a pre emergence herbicide Crops have been genetically engineered to be tolerant of glyphosate e g Roundup Ready soybean the first Roundup Ready crop also created by Monsanto which allows farmers to use glyphosate as a post emergence herbicide against weeds While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide concerns about their effects on humans and the environment have persisted 9 10 A number of regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide The WHO and FAO Joint committee on pesticide residues issued a report in 2016 stating the use of glyphosate formulations does not necessarily constitute a health risk and giving an acceptable daily intake limit of 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per day for chronic toxicity 11 The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity 12 In March 2015 the World Health Organization s International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC classified glyphosate as probably carcinogenic in humans category 2A based on epidemiological studies animal studies and in vitro studies 10 13 14 15 In contrast the European Food Safety Authority concluded in November 2015 that the substance is unlikely to be genotoxic i e damaging to DNA or to pose a carcinogenic threat to humans later clarifying that while carcinogenic glyphosate containing formulations may exist studies that look solely at the active substance glyphosate do not show this effect 16 17 In 2017 the European Chemicals Agency ECHA classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage and as toxic to aquatic life but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen a mutagen toxic to reproduction nor toxic to specific organs 18 Contents 1 Discovery 2 Chemistry 2 1 Synthesis 2 2 Impurities 3 Formulations 4 Mode of action 5 Uses 5 1 Genetically modified crops 6 Environmental fate 6 1 Residues in food products 7 Toxicity 7 1 Glyphosate alone 7 1 1 Humans 7 1 2 Cancer 7 1 3 Other mammals 7 1 4 Aquatic fauna 7 1 5 Antimicrobial activity 7 1 6 Soil biota 7 1 7 Endocrine disruption 7 1 8 Effect on plant health 7 2 Glyphosate based formulations 7 2 1 Human 7 2 2 Aquatic fauna 7 2 3 Genetic damage 7 3 Government and organization positions 7 3 1 European Food Safety Authority 7 3 2 International Agency for Research on Cancer 7 3 2 1 Reviews of the EFSA and IARC reports 7 3 3 US Environmental Protection Agency 7 3 3 1 Monsanto response and campaign 7 3 4 California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment 7 3 5 European Chemicals Agency 8 Effects of use 8 1 Emergence of resistant weeds 8 1 1 Palmer amaranth 8 1 2 Conyza species 8 1 3 Ryegrass 8 1 4 Johnson grass 8 2 Monarch butterfly populations 9 Legal status 9 1 Europe 9 2 Other countries 10 Legal cases 10 1 Lawsuits claiming liability for cancer 10 2 Advertising controversies 10 3 Trade dumping allegations 11 Society and culture 12 See also 13 References 14 External linksDiscoveryGlyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin who worked for the Swiss company Cilag The work was never published 19 1 Stauffer Chemical patented the agent as a chemical chelator 20 in 1964 as it binds and removes minerals such as calcium magnesium manganese copper and zinc 21 Somewhat later glyphosate was independently discovered in the United States at Monsanto in 1970 Monsanto chemists had synthesized about 100 derivatives of aminomethylphosphonic acid as potential water softening agents Two were found to have weak herbicidal activity and John E Franz a chemist at Monsanto was asked to try to make analogs with stronger herbicidal activity Glyphosate was the third analog he made 19 1 2 22 23 Franz received the National Medal of Technology of the United States in 1987 and the Perkin Medal for Applied Chemistry in 1990 for his discoveries 24 25 26 Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the early 1970s and first brought it to market in 1974 under the Roundup brandname 27 28 While its initial patent 29 expired in 1991 Monsanto retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent 30 on the isopropylamine salt expired in September 2000 31 In 2008 United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service USDA ARS scientist Stephen O Duke and Stephen B Powles an Australian weed expert described glyphosate as a virtually ideal herbicide 27 In 2010 Powles stated glyphosate is a one in a 100 year discovery that is as important for reliable global food production as penicillin is for battling disease 32 As of April 2017 the Canadian government stated that glyphosate was the most widely used herbicide in Canada 33 at which date the product labels were revised to ensure a limit of 20 POEA by weight 33 failed verification Health Canada s Pest Management Regulatory Agency found no risk to humans or the environment at that 20 limit and that all products registered in Canada at that time were at or below that limit Chemistry nbsp Ionic statesGlyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine and like all amino acids exists in different ionic states depending on pH Both the phosphonic acid and carboxylic acid moieties can be ionised and the amine group can be protonated and the substance exists as a series of zwitterions Glyphosate is soluble in water to 12 g L at room temperature The original synthetic approach to glyphosate involved the reaction of phosphorus trichloride with formaldehyde followed by hydrolysis to yield a phosphonate Glycine is then reacted with this phosphonate to yield glyphosate and its name is taken as a contraction of the compounds used in this synthesis step namely glycine and a phosphonate 34 PCl3 H2CO Cl2P O CH2Cl Cl2P O CH2Cl 2 H2O HO 2P O CH2Cl 2 HCl HO 2P O CH2Cl H2N CH2 COOH HO 2P O CH2 NH CH2 COOH HClThe main deactivation path for glyphosate is hydrolysis to aminomethylphosphonic acid 35 Synthesis Two main approaches are used to synthesize glyphosate industrially both of which proceed via the Kabachnik Fields reaction The first is to react iminodiacetic acid and formaldehyde with phosphorous acid sometimes formed in situ from phosphorus trichloride using the water generated by the Mannich reaction of the first two reagents Decarboxylation of the hydrophosphonylation product gives the desired glyphosate product Iminodiacetic acid is usually prepared on site by various methods depending on reagent availability 19 nbsp The second uses glycine in place of iminodiacetic acid This avoids the need for decarboxylation but requires more careful control of stoichiometry as the primary amine can react with any excess formaldehyde to form bishydroxymethylglycine which must be hydrolysed during the work up to give the desired product 19 nbsp This synthetic approach is responsible for a substantial portion of the production of glyphosate in China with considerable work having gone into recycling the triethylamine and methanol solvents 19 Progress has also been made in attempting to eliminate the need for triethylamine altogether 36 Impurities Technical grade glyphosate is a white powder which according to FAO specification should contain not less than 95 glyphosate Formaldehyde classified as a known human carcinogen 37 38 and N nitrosoglyphosate have been identified as toxicologically relevant impurities 39 The FAO specification limits the formaldehyde concentration to a maximum of 1 3 g kg glyphosate N Nitrosoglyphosate belonging to a group of impurities of particular concern as they can be activated to genotoxic carcinogens 40 should not exceed 1 ppm 39 FormulationsMain article Glyphosate based herbicides nbsp Monsanto s Roundup is the earliest formulationGlyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many agrochemical companies in different solution strengths and with various adjuvants under dozens of tradenames 41 42 43 44 As of 2010 more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market 45 In 2012 about half of the total global consumption of glyphosate by volume was for agricultural crops 46 with forestry comprising another important market 47 Asia and the Pacific was the largest and fastest growing regional market 46 As of 2014 Chinese manufacturers collectively are the world s largest producers of glyphosate and its precursors 48 and account for about 30 of global exports 46 Key manufacturers include Anhui Huaxing Chemical Industry Company BASF Bayer CropScience which also acquired the maker of glyphosate Monsanto Dow AgroSciences DuPont Jiangsu Good Harvest Weien Agrochemical Company Nantong Jiangshan Agrochemical amp Chemicals Co Nufarm SinoHarvest Syngenta and Zhejiang Xinan Chemical Industrial Group Company 46 Glyphosate is an acid molecule so it is formulated as a salt for packaging and handling Various salt formulations include isopropylamine diammonium monoammonium or potassium as the counterion The active ingredient of the Monsanto herbicides is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate Another important ingredient in some formulations is the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine POEA Some brands include more than one salt Some companies report their product as acid equivalent ae of glyphosate acid or some report it as active ingredient ai of glyphosate plus the salt and others report both To compare performance of different formulations knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed Given that different salts have different weights the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant 49 50 already added to the glyphosate product Fully loaded products contain all the necessary adjuvants including surfactant some contain no adjuvant system while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant minimal or partial loading and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application 51 Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120 240 360 480 and 680 g L of active ingredient The most common formulation in agriculture is 360 g L either alone or with added cationic surfactants 42 For 360 grams per litre 0 013 lb cu in formulations European regulations allow applications of up to 12 litres per hectare 1 1 imp gal acre for control of perennial weeds such as couch grass More commonly rates of 3 litres per hectare 0 27 imp gal acre are practiced for control of annual weeds between crops 52 Mode of actionGlyphosate interferes with the shikimate pathway which produces the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine tyrosine and tryptophan in plants and microorganisms 53 but does not exist in the genome of animals including humans 54 20 It blocks this pathway by inhibiting the enzyme 5 enolpyruvylshikimate 3 phosphate synthase EPSPS which catalyzes the reaction of shikimate 3 phosphate S3P and phosphoenolpyruvate to form 5 enolpyruvyl shikimate 3 phosphate EPSP 55 Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots meaning that it is only effective on actively growing plants and cannot prevent seeds from germinating 56 57 After application glyphosate is readily transported around the plant to growing roots and leaves and this systemic activity is important for its effectiveness 27 19 Inhibiting the enzyme causes shikimate to accumulate in plant tissues and diverts energy and resources away from other processes eventually killing the plant While growth stops within hours of application it takes several days for the leaves to begin turning yellow 58 Glyphosate may chelate Co2 which contributes to its mode of action 59 60 61 nbsp Under normal circumstances EPSP is dephosphorylated to chorismate an essential precursor for the amino acids mentioned above 62 These amino acids are used in protein synthesis and to produce secondary metabolites such as folates ubiquinones and naphthoquinone X ray crystallographic studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying the binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme substrate complex 63 64 Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates 65 66 Uses nbsp Second graph is globalGlyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants including grasses and broadleaf and woody plants By volume it is one of the most widely used herbicides 56 In 2007 glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector with 180 to 185 million pounds 82 000 to 84 000 tonnes applied the second most used in home and garden with 5 to 8 million pounds 2 300 to 3 600 tonnes and 13 to 15 million pounds 5 900 to 6 800 tonnes in non agricultural settings 8 It is commonly used for agriculture horticulture viticulture and silviculture purposes as well as garden maintenance including home use It has a relatively small effect on some clover species and morning glory 67 nbsp Glyphosate used as an alternative to mowing in an apple orchard in Ciardes ItalyGlyphosate and related herbicides are often used in invasive species eradication and habitat restoration especially to enhance native plant establishment in prairie ecosystems The controlled application is usually combined with a selective herbicide and traditional methods of weed eradication such as mulching to achieve an optimal effect 68 In many cities glyphosate is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow However up to 24 of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water 69 Glyphosate contamination of surface water is attributed to urban and agricultural use 70 Glyphosate is used to clear railroad tracks and get rid of unwanted aquatic vegetation 57 Since 1994 glyphosate has been used in aerial spraying in Colombia in coca eradication programs Colombia announced in May 2015 that by October it would cease using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of the chemical 71 Glyphosate is also used for crop desiccation to increase harvest yield and uniformity 57 Glyphosate itself is not a chemical desiccant rather crop desiccants are so named because application just before harvest kills the crop plants so that the food crop dries from normal environmental conditions dry down more quickly and evenly 72 74 Because glyphosate is systemic excess residue levels can persist in plants due to incorrect application and this may render the crop unfit for sale 75 When applied appropriately it can promote useful effects In sugarcane for example glyphosate application increases sucrose concentration before harvest 76 In grain crops wheat barley oats uniformly dried crops do not have to be windrowed swathed and dried prior to harvest but can easily be straight cut and harvested This saves the farmer time and money which is important in northern regions where the growing season is short and it enhances grain storage when the grain has a lower and more uniform moisture content 57 77 78 Genetically modified crops Main articles Genetically modified crops Genetically modified organism Genetically modified food and Genetically modified food controversies Some micro organisms have a version of 5 enolpyruvoyl shikimate 3 phosphate synthetase EPSPS resistant to glyphosate inhibition A version of the enzyme that was both resistant to glyphosate and that was still efficient enough to drive adequate plant growth was identified by Monsanto scientists after much trial and error in an Agrobacterium strain called CP4 which was found surviving in a waste fed column at a glyphosate production facility 66 79 80 56 This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans In 1996 genetically modified soybeans were made commercially available 81 Current glyphosate resistant crops include soy maize corn canola alfalfa sugar beets and cotton with wheat still under development In 2015 89 of corn 94 of soybeans and 89 of cotton produced in the United States were from strains that were genetically modified to be herbicide tolerant including but not limited to glyphosate 82 Environmental fate nbsp Landscaping company in Oklahoma applying a weed control product that contains glyphosateGlyphosate has four ionizable sites with pKa values of 2 0 2 6 5 6 and 10 6 83 Therefore it is a zwitterion in aqueous solutions and is expected to exist almost entirely in zwitterionic forms in the environment Zwitterions generally adsorb more strongly to soils containing organic carbon and clay than their neutral counterparts 84 Glyphosate strongly sorbs onto soil minerals and with the exception of colloid facilitated transport its soluble residues are expected to be poorly mobile in the free porewater of soils The spatial extent of ground and surface water pollution is therefore considered to be relatively limited 85 Glyphosate is readily degraded by soil microbes to aminomethylphosphonic acid AMPA which like glyphosate strongly adsorbs to soil solids and is thus unlikely to leach to groundwater Though both glyphosate and AMPA are commonly detected in water bodies a portion of the AMPA detected may actually be the result of degradation of detergents rather than from glyphosate 86 Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters due to its aquatic use patterns and through erosion as it adsorbs to colloidal soil particles suspended in runoff Detection in surface waters particularly downstream from agricultural uses has been reported as both broad and frequent by the United States Geological Survey USGS researchers 87 although other similar research found equal frequencies of detection in urban dominated small streams 88 Rain events can trigger dissolved glyphosate loss in transport prone soils 89 The mechanism of glyphosate sorption to soil is similar to that of phosphate fertilizers the presence of which can reduce glyphosate sorption 90 Phosphate fertilizers are subject to release from sediments into water bodies under anaerobic conditions and similar release can also occur with glyphosate though significant impact of glyphosate release from sediments has not been established 91 Limited leaching can occur after high rainfall after application If glyphosate reaches surface water it is not broken down readily by water or sunlight 92 85 The half life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days a typical field half life of 47 days has been suggested Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate s persistence in soil The median half life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days 56 At a site in Texas half life was as little as three days A site in Iowa had a half life of 141 9 days 93 The glyphosate metabolite AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application In this case the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year 94 Glyphosate adsorption to soil and later release from soil varies depending on the kind of soil 95 96 Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian ponds although persistence of over a year has been recorded in the sediments of American ponds 92 The half life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days and 10 weeks 97 Residues in food products According to the National Pesticide Information Center fact sheet glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration s Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program nor in the United States Department of Agriculture s Pesticide Data Program 56 The U S has determined the acceptable daily intake of glyphosate at 1 75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day mg kg bw day while the European Union has set it at 0 5 98 Pesticide residue controls carried out by EU Member States in 2016 analysed 6 761 samples of food products for glyphosate residues 3 6 of the samples contained quantifiable glyphosate residue levels with 19 samples 0 28 exceeding the European maximum residue levels MRLs which included six samples of honey and other apicultural products MRL 0 05 mg kg and eleven samples of buckwheat and other pseudo cereals MRL 0 1 mg kg Glyphosate residues below the European MRLs were most frequently found in dry lentils linseeds soya beans dry peas tea buckwheat barley wheat and rye 99 In Canada a survey of 7 955 samples of food found that 42 3 contained detectable quantities of glyphosate and only 0 6 contained a level higher than the Canadian MRL of 0 1 mg kg for most foods and 4 mg kg for beans and chickpeas Of the products that exceeded MRLs one third were organic products Health Canada concluded based on the analysis that there was no long term health risk to Canadian consumers from exposure to the levels of glyphosate 100 ToxicityGlyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it However in addition to glyphosate salts commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives known as adjuvants such as surfactants which vary in nature and concentration Surfactants such as polyethoxylated tallow amine POEA are added to glyphosate to enable it to wet the leaves and penetrate the cuticle of the plants Glyphosate alone Humans The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low 101 but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated formulations 102 The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation 103 104 In a 2017 risk assessment the European Chemicals Agency ECHA wrote There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans Where skin irritation has been reported it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co formulants in glyphosate containing herbicide formulations The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation 105 Inhalation is a minor route of exposure but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort an unpleasant taste in the mouth or tingling and irritation in the throat Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate 103 Cancer The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity 12 The Joint FAO WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues JMPR 106 the European Commission the Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority 107 and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment 108 have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans The United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA has classified glyphosate as not likely to be carcinogenic to humans 109 110 One international scientific organization the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified glyphosate in Group 2A probably carcinogenic to humans in 2015 15 13 As of 2020 update the evidence for long term exposure to glyphosate increasing the risk of human cancer remains inconclusive 111 There is weak evidence human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate such as in agricultural work but no good evidence of such a risk from home use such as in domestic gardening 112 113 Although some small studies have suggested an association between glyphosate and non hodgkin lymphoma subsequent work confirmed the likelihood this work suffered from bias and the association could not be demonstrated in more robust studies 114 115 116 Other mammals Amongst mammals glyphosate is considered to have low to very low toxicity The LD50 of glyphosate is 5 000 mg kg for rats 10 000 mg kg in mice and 3 530 mg kg in goats The acute dermal LD50 in rabbits is greater than 2 000 mg kg Indications of glyphosate toxicity in animals typically appear within 30 to 120 minutes following ingestion of a large enough dose and include initial excitability and tachycardia ataxia depression and bradycardia although severe toxicity can develop into collapse and convulsions 56 A review of unpublished short term rabbit feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg kg day and no observed adverse effect level doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg kg day 117 Glyphosate can have carcinogenic effects in nonhuman mammals These include the induction of positive trends in the incidence of renal tubule carcinoma and haemangiosarcoma in male mice and increased pancreatic islet cell adenoma in male rats 13 In reproductive toxicity studies performed in rats and rabbits no adverse maternal or offspring effects were seen at doses below 175 293 mg kg day 56 Glyphosate based herbicides may cause life threatening arrhythmias in mammals Evidence also shows that such herbicides cause direct electrophysiological changes in the cardiovascular systems of rats and rabbits 118 Aquatic fauna In many freshwater invertebrates glyphosate has a 48 hour LC50 ranging from 55 to 780 ppm The 96 hour LC50 is 281 ppm for grass shrimp Palaemonetas vulgaris and 934 ppm for fiddler crabs Uca pagilator These values make glyphosate slightly toxic to practically non toxic 56 Antimicrobial activity The antimicrobial activity of glyphosate has been described in the microbiology literature since its discovery in 1970 and the description of glyphosate s mechanism of action in 1972 Efficacy was described for numerous bacteria and fungi 119 Glyphosate can control the growth of apicomplexan parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii Plasmodium falciparum malaria and Cryptosporidium parvum and has been considered an antimicrobial agent in mammals 120 Inhibition can occur with some Rhizobium species important for soybean nitrogen fixation especially under moisture stress 121 Soil biota nbsp Degradation pathway of glyphosate in the ground 93 When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil it can be bound to soil particles thereby slowing its degradation 92 122 Glyphosate and its degradation product aminomethylphosphonic acid are considered to be much more benign toxicologically and environmentally than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate 123 A 2016 meta analysis concluded that at typical application rates glyphosate had no effect on soil microbial biomass or respiration 124 A 2016 review noted that contrasting effects of glyphosate on earthworms have been found in different experiments with some species unaffected but others losing weight or avoiding treated soil Further research is required to determine the impact of glyphosate on earthworms in complex ecosystems 125 Endocrine disruption In 2007 the EPA selected glyphosate for further screening through its Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program EDSP Selection for this program is based on a compound s prevalence of use and does not imply particular suspicion of endocrine activity 126 On June 29 2015 the EPA released the Weight of Evidence Conclusions of the EDSP Tier 1 screening for glyphosate recommending that glyphosate not be considered for Tier 2 testing The Weight of Evidence conclusion stated there was no convincing evidence of potential interaction with the estrogen androgen or thyroid pathways 127 A review of the evidence by the European Food Safety Authority published in September 2017 showed conclusions similar to those of the EPA report 128 Effect on plant health Some studies have found causal relationships between glyphosate and increased or decreased disease resistance 129 Exposure to glyphosate has been shown to change the species composition of endophytic bacteria in plant hosts which is highly variable 130 Glyphosate based formulations Glyphosate based formulations may contain a number of adjuvants the identities of which may be proprietary 131 Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as wetting agents to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide s through plant leaves As agricultural spray adjuvants surfactants may be pre mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on site 132 Polyethoxylated tallow amine POEA is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015 133 Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15 POEA while Roundup Pro is 14 5 134 Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations 135 134 136 A 2000 review of the ecotoxicological data on Roundup shows at least 58 studies exist on the effects of Roundup on a range of organisms 93 This review concluded that for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed non target organisms 137 Human Overall there is no conclusive evidence on glyphosate s effect on human health 138 139 Acute toxicity and chronic toxicity are dose related Skin exposure to ready to use concentrated glyphosate formulations can cause irritation and photocontact dermatitis has been occasionally reported These effects are probably due to the preservative benzisothiazolin 3 one Severe skin burns are very rare 103 Inhalation is a minor route of exposure but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort an unpleasant taste in the mouth or tingling and irritation in the throat Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate 103 Death has been reported after deliberate overdose 103 102 Ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml of 41 solution has resulted in death within hours of ingestion although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms 140 Adult consumption of more than 85 ml of concentrated product can lead to corrosive esophageal burns and kidney or liver damage More severe cases cause respiratory distress impaired consciousness pulmonary edema infiltration on chest X ray shock arrhythmias renal failure requiring haemodialysis metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia and death is often preceded by bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias 103 While the surfactants in formulations generally do not increase the toxicity of glyphosate itself it is likely that they contribute to its acute toxicity 103 Aquatic fauna Glyphosate products for aquatic use generally do not use surfactants and aquatic formulations do not use POEA due to aquatic organism toxicity 135 Due to the presence of POEA such glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone 135 134 136 The half life of POEA 21 42 days is longer than that for glyphosate 7 14 days in aquatic environments 141 Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets where concentrations would be much lower than label rates 135 Some researchers have suggested the toxicity effects of pesticides on amphibians may be different from those of other aquatic fauna because of their lifestyle amphibians may be more susceptible to the toxic effects of pesticides because they often prefer to breed in shallow lentic or ephemeral pools These habitats do not necessarily constitute formal water bodies and can contain higher concentrations of pesticide compared to larger water bodies 136 142 Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of GBFs containing POEA to amphibian larvae These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation At sub lethal concentrations exposure to POEA or glyphosate POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development accelerated development reduced size at metamorphosis developmental malformations of the tail mouth eye and head histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress 136 Glyphosate based formulations can cause oxidative stress in bullfrog tadpoles 15 A 2003 study of various formulations of glyphosate found the risk assessments based on estimated and measured concentrations of glyphosate that would result from its use for the control of undesirable plants in wetlands and over water situations showed that the risk to aquatic organisms is negligible or small at application rates less than 4 kg ha and only slightly greater at application rates of 8 kg ha 143 A 2013 meta analysis reviewed the available data related to potential impacts of glyphosate based herbicides on amphibians According to the authors the use of glyphosate based pesticides cannot be considered the major cause of amphibian decline the bulk of which occurred prior to the widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure The authors recommended further study of per species and per development stage chronic toxicity of environmental glyphosate levels and ongoing analysis of data relevant to determining what if any role glyphosate might be playing in worldwide amphibian decline and suggest including amphibians in standardized test batteries 144 Genetic damage Several studies have not found mutagenic effects 145 so glyphosate has not been listed in the United States Environmental Protection Agency or the International Agency for Research on Cancer databases citation needed Various other studies suggest glyphosate may be mutagenic citation needed The IARC monograph noted that glyphosate based formulations can cause DNA strand breaks in various taxa of animals in vitro 15 Government and organization positions European Food Safety Authority A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment BfR examined more than 1000 146 epidemiological studies animal studies and in vitro studies It found that no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B 147 34 37 139 It provided the review to EFSA in January 2014 which published it in December 2014 147 148 149 In November 2015 EFSA published its conclusion in the Renewal Assessment Report RAR stating it was unlikely to pose a carcinogenic hazard to humans 150 The EU was largely informed by this report when it made its decision on the use of glyphosate in November 2017 151 EFSA s decision and the BfR report were criticized in an open letter published by 96 scientists in November 2015 saying that the BfR report failed to adhere to accepted scientific principles of open and transparent procedures 152 153 The BfR report included unpublished data lacked authorship omitted references and did not disclose conflict of interest information 153 In July 2023 EFSA re evaluated after three years of assessment the putative impact of glyphosate on the health of humans animals and the environment As a result no critical areas of concern were identified that would otherwise prevent glyphosate s registration renewal in the EU 154 155 156 International Agency for Research on Cancer In March 2015 the International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations published a summary of their forthcoming monograph on glyphosate and classified glyphosate as probably carcinogenic in humans category 2A based on epidemiological studies animal studies and in vitro studies It noted that there was limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans for non Hodgkin lymphoma 10 13 14 15 157 The IARC classifies substances for their carcinogenic potential and a few positive findings can be enough to declare a hazard even if there are negative studies as well Unlike the BfR it does not conduct a risk assessment weighing benefits against risk 158 The BfR responded that IARC reviewed only a selection of what they who had reviewed earlier and argued that other studies including a cohort study called Agricultural Health Study do not support the classification 159 The IARC report did not include unpublished studies including one completed by the IARC panel leader 160 The agency s international protocol dictates that only published studies be used in classifications of carcinogenicity 161 since national regulatory agencies including the EPA have allowed agrochemical corporations to conduct their own unpublished research which may be biased in support of their profit motives 162 Reviews of the EFSA and IARC reports A 2017 review done by personnel from EFSA and BfR argued that the differences between the IARC s and EFSA s conclusions regarding glyphosate and cancer were due to differences in their evaluation of the available evidence The review concluded that Two complementary exposure assessments suggests that actual exposure levels are below the reference values identified by the EFSA and do not represent a public concern 12 In contrast a 2016 analysis by Christopher Portier a scientist advising the IARC in the assessment of glyphosate and advocate for its classification as possibly carcinogenic concluded that in the EFSA s Renewal Assessment Report almost no weight is given to studies from the published literature and there is an over reliance on non publicly available industry provided studies using a limited set of assays that define the minimum data necessary for the marketing of a pesticide arguing that the IARC s evaluation of probably carcinogenic to humans accurately reflects the results of published scientific literature on glyphosate 163 In October 2017 an article in The Times revealed that Portier had received consulting contracts with two law firm associations representing alleged glyphosate cancer victims that included a payment of US 160 000 to Portier 164 165 The IARC final report was also found to have changed compared to an interim report through the removal of text saying certain studies had found glyphosate was not carcinogenic in that study s context and through strengthening a conclusion of limited evidence of animal carcinogenicity to sufficient evidence of animal carcinogenicity 166 US Environmental Protection Agency In a 1993 review the EPA considered glyphosate to be noncarcinogenic and relatively low in dermal and oral acute toxicity 92 The EPA considered a worst case dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food derived entirely from glyphosate sprayed fields with residues at their maximum levels This model indicated that no adverse health effects would be expected under such conditions 92 In 2015 the EPA initiated a review of glyphosate s toxicity and in 2016 reported that glyphosate is likely not carcinogenic 10 167 In August 2019 the EPA announced that it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen as those claims would not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act and misinform the public 168 In 2017 evidence collected in a lawsuit brought against Monsanto by cancer patients revealed company emails which appeared to show a friendly relationship with a senior EPA official 169 Monsanto response and campaign Monsanto called the IARC report biased and said it wanted the report to be retracted 170 In 2017 internal documents from Monsanto were made public by lawyers pursuing litigation against the company 171 who used the term Monsanto papers to describe the documents 172 This term was later used also by Leemon McHenry 173 and others 174 The documents indicated Monsanto had planned a public relations effort to discredit the IARC report and had engaged Henry Miller to write a 2015 opinion piece in Forbes Magazine challenging the report Miller did not reveal the connection to Forbes and according to the New York Times when Monsanto asked him if he was interested in writing such an article he replied I would be if I could start from a high quality draft provided by the company 175 Once this became public Forbes removed his blog from their site Two journalists from Le Monde won the 2018 European Press Prize for a series of articles on the documents also titled Monsanto Papers Their reporting described among other things Monsanto s lawyers letters demanding that IARC scientists turn over documents relating to Monograph 112 which contained the IARC finding that glyphosate was a probable carcinogen several of the scientists condemned these letters as intimidating 176 California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment In March 2015 the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment OEHHA announced plans to have glyphosate listed as a known carcinogen based on the IARC assessment In 2016 Monsanto started a case against OEHHA and its acting director Lauren Zeise 177 but lost the suit in March 2017 178 Glyphosate was listed as known to the State of California to cause cancer in 2017 requiring warning labels under Proposition 65 179 In February 2018 as part of an ongoing case an injunction was issued prohibiting California from enforcing carcinogenicity labeling requirements for glyphosate until the case was resolved The injunction stated that arguments by a US District Court Judge for the Eastern District of California do not change the fact that the overwhelming majority of agencies that that have examined glyphosate have determined it is not a cancer risk 180 In August 2019 the EPA also said it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen as those claims would not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act and misinform the public 168 European Chemicals Agency On March 15 2017 the European Chemicals Agency ECHA announced recommendations proceeding from a risk assessment of glyphosate performed by ECHA s Committee for Risk Assessment RAC Their recommendations maintained the current classification of glyphosate as a substance causing serious eye damage and as a substance toxic to aquatic life However the RAC did not find evidence implicating glyphosate to be a carcinogen a mutagen toxic to reproduction nor toxic to specific organs 181 In 2022 the agency reiterated these findings in a later review and stated on cancer risk that Based on a wide ranging review of scientific evidence the committee again concludes that classifying glyphosate as a carcinogen is not justified 182 Effects of useEmergence of resistant weeds In the 1990s no glyphosate resistant weeds were known to exist 183 In 2005 a slow upward trend began resistant weeds appearing rarely around the world 184 Another inflection point occurred in 2011 and resistance accelerated globally 184 By 2014 glyphosate resistant weeds dominated herbicide resistance research At that time 23 glyphosate resistant species were found in 18 countries 185 Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide 183 186 According to Ian Heap a weed specialist who completed his PhD on resistance to multiple herbicides in annual ryegrass Lolium rigidum in 1988 187 the first case of an herbicide resistant weed in Australia 188 by 2014 Lolium rigidum was the world s worst herbicide resistant weed with instances in 12 countries 11 sites of action 9 cropping regimens and affecting over 2 million hectares 185 Annual ryegrass has been known to be resistant to herbicides since 1982 The first documented case of glyphosate resistant L rigidum was reported in Australia in 1996 near Orange New South Wales 189 190 191 In 2006 farmers associations were reporting 107 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance 192 In 2009 Canada identified its first resistant weed giant ragweed and at that time 15 weed species had been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate 186 193 As of 2010 in the United States 7 to 10 million acres 2 8 to 4 0 million hectares of soil were afflicted by herbicide resistant weeds or about 5 of the 170 million acres planted with corn soybeans and cotton the crops most affected in 22 states 194 In 2012 Charles Benbrook reported that the Weed Science Society of America listed 22 herbicide resistant species in the U S with over 5 7 10 6 ha 14 10 6 acres infested by GR weeds and that Dow AgroSciences had carried out a survey and reported a figure of around 40 10 6 ha 100 10 6 acres 195 The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds database lists species that are resistant to glyphosate 193 In response to resistant weeds farmers are hand weeding using tractors to turn over soil between crops and using other herbicides in addition to glyphosate Monsanto scientists have found that some resistant weeds have as many as 160 extra copies of a gene called EPSPS the enzyme glyphosate disrupts 196 Palmer amaranth nbsp Palmer amaranth Amaranthus palmeri In 2004 a glyphosate resistant variation of Palmer amaranth was found in the U S state of Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study 197 In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina 198 The species can quickly become resistant to multiple herbicides and has developed multiple mechanisms for glyphosate resistance due to selection pressure 199 198 The glyphosate resistant weed variant is now widespread in the southeastern United States 197 200 Cases have also been reported in Texas 200 and Virginia 201 Conyza species nbsp HorseweedConyza bonariensis also known as hairy fleabane and buva and C canadensis known as horseweed or marestail are other weed species that have lately developed glyphosate resistance 202 203 204 A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use and the use of glyphosate resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increases in glyphosate use 205 In the 2015 growing season glyphosate resistant marestail proved to be especially problematic to control in Nebraska production fields 206 Ryegrass nbsp RyegrassGlyphosate resistant ryegrass Lolium has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural areas and other areas of the world All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used Studies indicate resistant ryegrass does not compete well against nonresistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application 207 Johnson grass Glyphosate resistant Johnson grass Sorghum halepense has been found in Argentina as well as Arkansas Louisiana and Mississippi 208 Monarch butterfly populations Use of glyphosate and other herbicides like 2 4 D to clear milkweed along roads and fields may have contributed to a decline in monarch butterfly populations in the Midwestern United States 209 Along with deforestation and adverse weather conditions 210 the decrease in milkweed contributed to an 81 decline in monarchs 211 212 The Natural Resources Defense Council NRDC filed a suit against the EPA in 2015 in which it argued that the agency ignored warnings about the potentially dangerous impacts of glyphosate usage on monarchs 213 Legal statusGlyphosate was first approved for use in the 1970s and as of 2010 was labelled for use in 130 countries 19 2 In 2017 Vandenberg et al cited a 100 fold increase in the use of glyphosate based herbicides from 1974 to 2014 the possibility that herbicide mixtures likely have effects that are not predicted by studying glyphosate alone and reliance of current safety assessments on studies done over 30 years ago They recommended that current safety standards be updated writing that the current standards may fail to protect public health or the environment 214 Europe In April 2014 the legislature of the Netherlands passed legislation prohibiting sale of glyphosate to individuals for use at home commercial sales were not affected 215 In June 2015 the French Ecology Minister asked nurseries and garden centers to halt over the counter sales of glyphosate in the form of Monsanto s Roundup This was a nonbinding request and all sales of glyphosate remain legal in France until 2022 when it was planned to ban the substance for home gardening 216 However more recently the French parliament decided to not to impose a definitive date for such a ban 217 In January 2019 the sale distribution and use of Roundup 360 wa s banned in France Exemptions for many farmers were later implemented and a curb of its use by 80 for 2021 is projected 218 219 A vote on the relicensing of glyphosate in the EU stalled in March 2016 Member states France Sweden and the Netherlands objected to the renewal 220 A vote to reauthorize on a temporary basis failed in June 2016 221 but at the last minute the license was extended for 18 months until the end of 2017 222 On 27 November 2017 in the EU Council a majority of eighteen member states voted in favor of permitting the use of glyphosate for five more years A qualified majority of sixteen states representing 65 of EU citizens was required to pass the law 223 The German Minister of Agriculture Christian Schmidt unexpectedly voted in favor while the German coalition government was internally divided on the issue which usually results in Germany abstaining 224 In December 2018 attempts were made to reopen the decision to license the weed killer These were condemned by Conservative MEPs who said the proposal was politically motivated and flew in the face of scientific evidence 225 In March 2019 the European Court of Justice ECJ ordered the European Food Safety Authority EFSA to release all carcinogenicity and toxicity pesticide industry studies on glyphosate to the general public 226 In March 2019 the Austrian state of Carinthia outlawed the private use of glyphosate in residential areas while the commercial application of the herbicide is still permitted for farmers The use of glyphosate by public authorities and road maintenance crews was already halted a number of years prior to the current ban by local authorities 227 In June 2019 Deutsche Bahn and Swiss Federal Railways announced that glyphosate and other commonly used herbicides for weed eradication along railway tracks will be phased out by 2025 while more environmentally sound methods for vegetation control are implemented 228 229 In July 2019 the Austrian parliament voted to ban glyphosate in Austria 230 In September 2019 the German Environment Ministry announced that the use of glyphosate will be banned from the end of 2023 The use of glyphosate based herbicides will be reduced starting from 2020 231 The assessment process for an approval of glyphosate in the European Union will begin in December 2019 France Hungary the Netherlands and Sweden will jointly assess the application dossiers of the producers The draft report of the assessment group will then be peer reviewed by the EFSA before the current approval expires in December 2022 232 The date has since been pushed back partially due to very high interest and input in the participation process with the European Food Safety Authority EFSA even calling it an unprecedented number 233 Because the EFSA has to review all these 2400 comments and almost 400 responses the process is expected to take longer The created document is under extra review by the specially formed Glyphosate Renewal Group GRG and the Assessment Group on Glyphosate AGG the panel consisting of the four mentioned member states With their responses now being scheduled for September 2022 the consultations with member states are supposed to be held by the very end of 2022 234 235 This would allow to finish the final assessment by mid 2023 and pass it on to further legislature to decide In November 2023 glyphosate received 10 year renewed authorization for use in the EU 236 Other countries In September 2013 the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador approved legislation to ban 53 agrochemicals including glyphosate the ban on glyphosate was set to begin in 2015 237 238 239 In the United States the state of Minnesota preempts local laws that attempt to ban glyphosate In 2015 there was an attempt to pass legislation at the state level that would repeal that preemption 240 In May 2015 the President of Sri Lanka banned the use and import of glyphosate effective immediately 241 242 However in May 2018 the Sri Lankan government decided to re authorize its use in the plantation sector 243 In May 2015 Bermuda blocked importation on all new orders of glyphosate based herbicides for a temporary suspension awaiting outcomes of research 244 In May 2015 Colombia announced that it would stop using glyphosate by October 2015 in the destruction of illegal plantations of coca the raw ingredient for cocaine Farmers have complained that the aerial fumigation has destroyed entire fields of coffee and other legal produce 71 In April 2019 Vietnam s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development banned the use of glyphosate throughout the country 245 In August 2020 Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador announced that glyphosate will be gradually phased out of use in Mexico by late 2024 246 Thailand s National Hazardous Substances Committee decided to ban the use of glyphosate in October 2019 247 but reversed the decision in November 2019 248 After a court ruling in 2018 glyphosate was temporarily banned in Brazil This decision was later overturned causing major criticism by the federal agency of health Anvisa This comes as the latest evaluations declared glyphosate as noncarcinogenic Since all carcinogenic agrichemicals are automatically banned in the country this allowed the continuous use 249 In New Zealand glyphosate is an approved herbicide for killing weeds 250 with the most popular brand being Roundup 250 251 Genetically modified crops designed to resist glyphosate are absent in New Zealand 250 Crops applied with glyphosate must be regulated under the HSNO Act 1996 and ACVM Act 1997 250 252 Legal status for glyphosate use in New Zealand is approved for commercial and personal use 251 In 2021 exports of New Zealand honey were found to contain traces of glyphosate causing some concern to Japanese importers 253 254 Legal casesSee also Monsanto legal cases Roundup Lawsuits claiming liability for cancer Since 2018 in a number of court cases in the United States plaintiffs have argued that their cancer was caused by exposure to glyphosate in glyphosate based herbicides produced by Monsanto Bayer Defendant Bayer has paid out over 9 6 billion in judgements and settlements in these cases Bayer has also won at least 10 cases successfully arguing that their glyphosate based herbicides were not responsible for the plaintiff s cancer 255 Advertising controversies In 2016 a lawsuit was filed against Quaker Oats in the Federal district courts of both New York and California after trace amounts of glyphosate were found in oatmeal The lawsuit alleged that the claim of 100 natural was false advertising 256 That same year General Mills dropped the label Made with 100 Natural Whole Grain Oats from their Nature Valley granola bars after a lawsuit was filed that claimed the oats contained trace amounts of glyphosate 257 Trade dumping allegations United States companies have cited trade issues with glyphosate being dumped into western world market areas by Chinese companies and a formal dispute was filed in 2010 258 259 Society and cultureGlyphosate has become a locus of campaigning and misinformation by anti GMO activists because of its association with genetically modified glyphosate resistant crops 260 The US politician Robert F Kennedy Jr has incorporated glyphosate into his anti vaccination rhetoric falsely claiming that both glyphosate and vaccines are responsible for the American obesity epidemic 260 Stephanie Seneff has spread misinformation about glyphosate including claims that it causes autism and worsens concussion 261 See also2 4 Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid Ammonium sulfamate Atrazine Environmental impact of pesticides Health effects of pesticides Integrated pest management Monsanto legal cases Pesticide regulation in the United States Regulation of pesticides in the European Union Seralini affairReferences Wilson C J G Wood P A Parsons S 2022 CSD Entry PHOGLY05 Cambridge Structural Database Access Structures Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre doi 10 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Experimental Toxicology 10 1 1 8 Bibcode 1991HETox 10 1T doi 10 1177 096032719101000101 PMID 1673618 S2CID 8028945 Mesnage R Defarge N Spiroux de Vendomois J Seralini GE 2015 Potential toxic effects of glyphosate and its commercial formulations below regulatory limits Food Chem Toxicol 84 133 53 doi 10 1016 j fct 2015 08 012 PMID 26282372 S2CID 12725778 Govindarajulu PP 2008 Literature Review of Impacts of Glyphosate Herbicide on Amphibians What Risks can the Silvicultural Use of this Herbicide Pose for Amphibians in BC British Columbia Ecosystems Branch Ministry of Environment CiteSeerX 10 1 1 314 3577 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Solomon KR Thompson DG 2003 Ecological risk assessment for aquatic organisms from over water uses of glyphosate Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B 6 3 289 324 Bibcode 2003JTEHB 6 289S doi 10 1080 10937400306468 PMID 12746143 S2CID 42770586 Wagner N Reichenbecher W Teichmann H Tappeser B Lotters S August 2013 Questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate based herbicides on amphibians Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 32 8 1688 700 doi 10 1002 etc 2268 PMID 23637092 S2CID 36417341 ToxNet Glyposate National Library of Medicine Glyphosate no more poisonous than previously assumed although a critical view should be taken of certain co formulants BfR Bfr bund de a b Renewal Assessment Report Glyphosate Volume 1 Report and Proposed Decision December 18 2013 German Institute for Risk Assessment page 65 Downloaded from http dar efsa europa eu dar web provision Archived January 30 2009 at the Wayback Machine registration required Glyphosate RAR 01 Volume 1 2013 12 18 San Renewal Assessment Report Hungry4Pesticides December 18 2013 Retrieved March 27 2015 Frequently asked questions on the health assessment of glyphosate PDF Bundesinstitut fur Risikobewertung January 15 2014 Archived from the original PDF on October 14 2015 Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance glyphosate EFSA Journal 13 11 4302 2015 doi 10 2903 j efsa 2015 4302 Nelson Arthur September 14 2017 EU report on weedkiller safety copied text from Monsanto study The Guardian Retrieved September 30 2017 Independent scientists warn over Monsanto herbicide DW December 1 2015 Retrieved December 9 2015 a b Portier Christopher J et al November 27 2015 Open letter Review of the Carcinogenicity of Glyphosate by EFSA and BfR PDF Letter to Vytenis Andriukaitis Retrieved December 9 2015 Alvarez Frenando et al July 2023 Peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance glyphosate EFSA Journal 7 21 e08164 doi 10 2903 j efsa 2023 8164 PMC 10369247 PMID 37502013 Glyphosate no critical areas of concern data gaps identified EFSA www efsa europa eu July 6 2023 Retrieved July 6 2023 Supporting documents for EFSA Q 2020 00140 Open EFSA Retrieved August 25 2023 Specter M April 10 2015 Roundup and Risk Assessment New Yorker Probable means that there was enough evidence to say it is more than possible but not enough evidence to say it is a carcinogen Aaron Blair a lead researcher on the IARC s study said Blair a scientist emeritus at the National Cancer Institute has studied the effects of pesticides for years It means you ought to be a little concerned about glyphosate he said Pollack A March 27 2015 Weed Killer Long Cleared Is Doubted New York Times Lost Glyphosat Krebs aus announcement 007 2015 PDF in German German Institute for Risk Assessment March 23 2015 Butler K June 15 2017 A scientist didn t disclose important data and let everyone believe a popular weedkiller causes cancer Mother Jones Retrieved June 19 2017 Preamble to the IARC Monographs International Agency for Research on Cancer 2006 Lerner S November 3 2015 EPA used Monsanto s Research to Give Roundup A Pass The Intercept Portier CJ et al August 2016 Differences in the carcinogenic evaluation of glyphosate between the International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC and the European Food Safety Authority EFSA Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 70 8 741 45 doi 10 1136 jech 2015 207005 PMC 4975799 PMID 26941213 Grossarth Jan Herbizid Der dramatische Kampf um die Deutungshoheit von Glyphosat FAZ NET in German ISSN 0174 4909 Retrieved January 6 2019 Webster Ben October 18 2017 Weedkiller scientist was paid 120 000 by cancer lawyers The Times ISSN 0140 0460 Retrieved January 6 2019 Kelland Kate Glyphosate WHO cancer agency edited out Reuters Retrieved January 6 2019 Charles D September 17 2016 EPA Weighs In On Glyphosate Says It Doesn t Cause Cancer NPR Retrieved September 19 2016 a b EPA Takes Action to Provide Accurate Risk Information to Consumers Stop False Labeling on Products US EPA August 8 2019 Retrieved October 28 2019 Charles Dan March 15 2017 Emails Reveal Monsanto s Tactics To Defend Glyphosate Against Cancer Fears NPR Retrieved May 14 2019 Gillam C March 24 2015 Monsanto seeks retraction for report linking herbicide to cancer Reuters Glyphosate IARC Monsanto shared document PDF Baum Hedlund Law February 23 2015 Retrieved June 3 2018 Monsanto Papers Secret Documents Baum Hedlund Aristei amp Goldman PC Retrieved October 31 2019 McHenry Leemon B 2018 The Monsanto Papers Poisoning the scientific well International Journal of Risk amp Safety in Medicine 29 3 4 193 205 doi 10 3233 JRS 180028 ISSN 1878 6847 PMID 29843257 S2CID 44179710 Chemical Industry Documents Library Retrieved November 2 2019 Hakim Danny August 1 2017 Monsanto Emails Raise Issue of Influencing Research on Roundup Weed Killer The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved October 26 2019 Stephane Foucart Stephane Horel The Investigative Reporting Award 2018 Winner Monsanto Papers European Press Prize Retrieved March 31 2019 T he non American scientists who had been members of the IARC panel on glyphosate all received the same letter Sent by Monsanto s law firm Hollingsworth the letter told them to 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2048 3694 S2CID 89994510 Peterson John Antoniou Michael Blumberg Bruce Carroll Lynn Colborn Theo Everett Lorne Hansen Michael Landrigan Philip Lanphear Bruce Mesnage Robin Vandenberg Laura vom Saal Frederick Welshons Wade Benbrook Charles 2016 Concerns over use of glyphosate based herbicides and risks associated with exposures a consensus statement Environmental Health Springer Science and Business Media LLC 15 1 19 Bibcode 2016EnvHe 15 19M doi 10 1186 s12940 016 0117 0 ISSN 1476 069X PMC 4756530 PMID 26883814 S2CID 10631819 These reviews cite this research Benbrook Charles 2016 Trends in glyphosate herbicide use in the United States and globally Environmental Sciences Europe Springer Science and Business Media LLC 28 1 3 doi 10 1186 s12302 016 0070 0 ISSN 2190 4707 PMC 5044953 PMID 27752438 S2CID 1660085 a b Heap Ian 2014 Herbicide Resistant Weeds Integrated Pest Management pp 281 301 doi 10 1007 978 94 007 7796 5 12 ISBN 978 94 007 7795 8 a b Lori May 7 2009 U of G Researchers Find Suspected Glyphosate Resistant Weed Uoguelph ca Retrieved August 22 2010 Heap Ian Michael 1988 Resistance to herbicides in annual ryegrass Lolium Rigidum Adelaide Department of Agronomy University of Adelaide King Carolyn June 2015 History of herbicide resistance Herbicide resistance Then now and the years to come Archived from the original on July 3 2015 Retrieved March 24 2016 Hartzler B January 29 2003 Are Roundup Ready Weeds in Your Future II Iowa State University ISU Weed Science Online archived from the original on March 5 2016 retrieved March 24 2016 Powles SB Lorraine Colwill DF Dellow JJ Preston C 1998 Evolved Resistance to Glyphosate in Rigid Ryegrass Lolium rigidum in Australia Weed Science 46 5 604 07 doi 10 1017 S0043174500091165 JSTOR 4045968 S2CID 83591923 Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds History Development and Management Editor Vijay K Nandula John Wiley amp Sons 2010 ISBN 978 1118043547 Glyphosate resistance is a reality that should scare some cotton growers into changing the way they do business Southeastfarmpress com February 10 2006 Retrieved August 22 2010 a b Heap I 2020 List of Herbicide Resistant Weeds by Herbicide Mode of Action Weeds Resistant to EPSP synthase inhibitors G 9 The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds Herbicide Resistance Action Committee Retrieved November 22 2020 Neuman W Pollack A May 4 2010 U S Farmers Cope With Roundup Resistant Weeds The New York Times New York pp B1 Retrieved May 4 2010 Benbrook Charles M 2012 Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U S the first sixteen years Environmental Sciences Europe 24 24 doi 10 1186 2190 4715 24 24 With BioDirect Monsanto Hopes RNA Sprays Can Someday Deliver Drought Tolerance and Other Traits to Plants on Demand MIT Technology Review Retrieved August 31 2015 a b Culpepper AS Grey TL Vencill WK Kichler JM Webster TM Brown SM York AC Davis JW Hanna WW 2006 Glyphosate resistant Palmer amaranth Amaranthus palmeri confirmed in Georgia Weed Science 54 4 620 26 doi 10 1614 WS 06 001R 1 JSTOR 4539441 S2CID 56236569 a b Hampton Natalie Winter 2009 Cotton versus the monster weed College of Agriculture and Life Science North Carolina State University Ward Sarah M Webster Theodore M Steckel Larry E January 20 2017 Palmer Amaranth Amaranthus palmeri A Review Weed Technology 27 1 12 27 doi 10 1614 WT D 12 00113 1 S2CID 84142912 a b Smith JT March 2009 Resistance a growing problem PDF The Farmer Stockman Archived from the original PDF on July 10 2011 Retrieved July 19 2009 Taylor O July 16 2009 Peanuts variable insects variable weather Roundup resistant Palmer in new state PeanutFax AgFax Media Archived from the original on July 7 2011 Retrieved July 19 2009 Vargas L Bianchi MA Rizzardi MA Agostinetto D Dal Magro T 2007 Buva Conyza bonariensis resistente ao glyphosate na regiao sul do Brasil Conyza bonariensis biotypes resistant to the glyphosate in southern Brazil Planta Daninha in Portuguese 25 3 573 78 doi 10 1590 S0100 83582007000300017 Koger CH Shaner DL Henry WB Nadler Hassar T Thomas WE Wilcut JW 2005 Assessment of two nondestructive assays for detecting glyphosate resistance in horseweed Conyza canadensis Weed Science 53 4 438 45 doi 10 1614 WS 05 010R JSTOR 4047050 S2CID 198128423 Ge X d Avignon DA Ackerman JJ Sammons RD April 2010 Rapid vacuolar sequestration the horseweed glyphosate resistance mechanism Pest Management Science 66 4 345 48 doi 10 1002 ps 1911 PMC 3080097 PMID 20063320 Vila Aiub MM Vidal RA Balbi MC Gundel PE Trucco F Ghersa CM April 2008 Glyphosate resistant weeds of South American cropping systems an overview Pest Management Science 64 4 366 71 doi 10 1002 ps 1488 PMID 18161884 Jhala A June 4 2015 Post Emergence Herbicide Options for Glyphosate Resistant Marestail in Corn and Soybean CropWatch Nebraska Extension Retrieved August 17 2015 Preston C Wakelin AM Dolman FC Bostamam Y Boutsalis P 2009 A Decade of Glyphosate Resistant Lolium around the World Mechanisms Genes Fitness and Agronomic Management Weed Science 57 4 435 41 doi 10 1614 WS 08 181 1 S2CID 85725624 Peerzada Arslan Masood et al March 16 2017 Eco biology impact and management of Sorghum halepense L Pers PDF Biological Invasions 25 4 955 973 doi 10 1007 s10530 017 1410 8 S2CID 17096998 Kniss A February 10 2014 Are herbicides responsible for the decline in Monarch butterflies Control Freaks Retrieved June 16 2016 The evidence seems clear that the number of milkweed plants through this region has indeed declined The cause for the milkweed decline though is a little less certain Plumer B January 29 2014 Monarch butterflies keep disappearing Here s why The Washington Post Retrieved June 16 2016 Pleasants JM Oberhauser KS 2013 Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use Effect on the monarch butterfly population Insect Conservation and Diversity 6 2 135 44 doi 10 1111 j 1752 4598 2012 00196 x S2CID 14595378 Hartzler RG Buhler DD 2000 Occurrence of common milkweed Asclepias syriaca in cropland and adjacent areas Crop Protection 19 5 363 66 doi 10 1016 s0261 2194 00 00024 7 NRDC Sues EPA Over Demise of Monarch Butterfly Population NBC 2015 Vandenberg LN Blumberg B Antoniou MN Benbrook CM Carroll L Colborn T Everett LG Hansen M Landrigan PJ Lanphear BP Mesnage R vom Saal FS Welshons WV Myers JP June 2017 Is it time to reassess current safety standards for glyphosate based herbicides J Epidemiol Community Health 71 6 613 18 doi 10 1136 jech 2016 208463 PMC 5484035 PMID 28320775 Staff Sustainable Pulse Apr 4 2014 Dutch Parliament Bans Glyphosate Herbicides for Non Commercial Use French minister asks shops to stop selling Monsanto Roundup weedkiller Reuters June 14 2015 French parliament does not vote for a date to terminate glyphosate Rejet a l Assemblee de l inscription dans la loi de la date de sortie du glyphosate Weedkiller Roundup banned in France after court ruling France 24 January 16 2019 Retrieved January 16 2019 French court cancels Monsanto weedkiller permit on safety grounds Reuters January 15 2019 Retrieved January 16 2019 Arthur Nelson March 8 2016 Vote on controversial weedkiller s European licence postponed The Guardian Recall of Monsanto s Roundup likely as EU refuses limited use of glyphosate Reuters June 6 2016 Arthur Nelson June 29 2016 Controversial chemical in Roundup weedkiller escapes immediate ban The Guardian EU votes for five more years usage of herbicide glyphosate NRC Handelsblad in Dutch 28 November 2017 Talks CDU SPD under pressure because of herbicide in Dutch NRC Handelsblad 28 November 2017 Move to re open Glyphosate case attacked by Conservative MEPs Conservative Europe December 6 2018 Archived from the original on January 30 2019 Retrieved January 30 2019 European Court of Justice orders public release of industry glyphosate studies 7 March 2019 Karnten verbietet ab 28 Marz Glyphosat fur Private in German Die Presse Retrieved 29 April 2019 Briner M July 2018 Schluss mit Glyphosat SBB wollen Unkraut anders vernichten Archived June 27 2019 at the Wayback Machine Aargauer Zeitung in German Retrieved 26 June 2019 Schlesiger Ch June 2019 Deutsche Bahn will kunftig auf Glyphosat verzichten Wirtschaftswoche in German Retrieved 26 June 2019 Nationalrat stimmt fur Glyphosatverbot Austrian parliament votes to forbid Glyphosphat amp water is a public good necessary for the existence of a human orf at 2019 07 02 Rinke Andreas September 4 2019 Germany to ban use of glyphosate from end of 2023 Reuters European Commission July 12 2017 Glyphosate Current status of glyphosate in the EU Retrieved October 29 2019 Glyphosate EFSA and ECHA update timelines for assessments European Food Safety Authority May 10 2022 Retrieved May 28 2022 Glifosato La EFSA pospone su evaluacion ante la avalancha de comentarios recibidos Agrodigital May 11 2022 Retrieved May 28 2022 Case Philip May 11 2022 EU delays glyphosaterenewal decision until 2023 Farmers Weekly Retrieved May 28 2022 No qualified majority reached by Member States to renew or reject the approval of glyphosate European Commission November 16 2023 Retrieved November 16 2023 Staff Centralamericadata com September 6 2013 El Salvador Use of 53 Chemicals Banned Staff Centralamericadata com November 27 2013 El Salvador Confirmation to Be Given on Ban of Agrochemicals Legislative Assembly of El Salvador November 26 2013 Analizan observaciones del Ejecutivo al decreto que contiene la prohibicion de 53 agroquimicos que danan la salud Archived May 31 2015 at the Wayback Machine English translation by Google Moore Robyn August 8 2021 Herbicide a growing problem The Citizen Press Publications Retrieved August 9 2021 Staff Colombo Page May 22 2015 Sri Lankan President orders to ban import of glyphosate with immediate effect Archived June 30 2015 at the Wayback Machine Sarina Locke for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Updated May 27 2015 Toxicologist critical of dodgy science in glyphosate bans Glyphosate ban lifted for tea rubber industries Navin Daily Mirror May 2 2018 Health Minister importation of roundup weed spray suspended Bermuda Today May 11 2015 Archived from the original on June 2 2015 Việt Nam bans weed killer ingredient glyphosate Viet Nam News April 11 2019 Mexico to phase out use of herbicide glyphosate Reuters August 13 2020 Retrieved March 3 2021 Reuters October 25 2019 U S protests Thailand s chemical ban would hurt crop exports Thailand reverses ban of chemicals use in pesticides Reuters November 27 2019 Retrieved December 12 2019 Spring Jake February 26 2019 Brazil health officials find weed killer glyphosate non cancerous Reuters Retrieved May 28 2022 a b c d Industries Ministry for Primary July 13 2021 Glyphosate in food MPI Ministry for Primary Industries A New Zealand Government Department www mpi govt nz a b Glyphosate EPA www epa govt nz New Zealand Government May 11 2022 Glyphosate in Aotearoa New Zealand PDF Japan warns it will block NZ honey shipments if glyphosate limits breached RNZ January 20 2021 Stringer Nick June 1 2021 Glyphosate is farming s favourite weed killer Can NZ learn to live without it The Spinoff Bayer wins latest Roundup cancer trial ending losing streak Reuters December 23 2023 Strom Stephanie December 21 2017 Quaker Oats 100 Natural Claim Questioned in Lawsuit The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved August 13 2018 General Mills drops 100 Natural on Nature Valley granola bars after lawsuit USA Today Retrieved August 25 2018 In the Matter of Glyphosate From China PDF United States International Trade Commission April 22 2010 Hoskins Tim April 15 2010 Glyphosate maker complains of Chinese dumping Iowa Farmer Today Retrieved December 29 2023 a b Jann Bellamy July 20 2020 Monsanto gets injunction against California s mandated cancer warning for glyphosate Science Based Medicine Gorski DH February 24 2020 Quoth RFK Jr Vaccines and glyphosate are responsible for the obesity epidemic Science Based Medicine External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glyphosate Glyphosate in the Pesticide Properties DataBase PPDB Glyphosate trimesium in the Pesticide Properties DataBase PPDB Glyphosate isopropylamine salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase PPDB Glyphosate potassium salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase PPDB Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Glyphosate amp oldid 1193940689, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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