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Wikipedia

Wheat

June 24, 2023

This article is about the plant. For other uses, see Wheat (disambiguation).

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food.[3][4][5] The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum /ˈtrɪtɪkəm/;[6] the most widely grown is common wheat (T. aestivum). The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis.

Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares or 545 million acres, 2014).[7] World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.[8]

In 2020, world production of wheat was 761 million tonnes (839 million short tons; 1.7 trillion pounds), making it the second most-produced cereal after maize.[9] Since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century.[10] Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the production of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and the westernization of the diet.[11][12]

Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates.[11] Globally, it is the leading source of vegetable proteins in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals[13] but relatively low in protein quality (supplying essential amino acids).[14][15] When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber.[11]

In a small part of the general population, gluten – comprising most of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.[16]

Origin and history

 
Origin and current production area of wheat

Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms ('sports') of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting.[17] In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets.[18] Selection for larger grains and non-shattering heads by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such 'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild.

 
Sumerian cylinder seal impression dating to c. 3200 BC showing an ensi and his acolyte feeding a sacred herd wheat stalks; Ninurta was an agricultural deity and, in a poem known as the "Sumerian Georgica", he offers detailed advice on farming

Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant, with finds dating back as far as 9600 BC.[19][20] Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadaǧ Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archaeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadaǧ Mountains.[21] With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb in Jordan, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BC.[22]

Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 (at Cayonu) and 8400 BC (Abu Hureyra), that is, in the Neolithic period. With the exception of Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 dated remains of domesticated emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad, in the Damascus basin, near Mount Hermon in Syria. These remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BC. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere.[23]

 
Threshing of wheat in ancient Egypt

The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and the Indian subcontinent by 6500 BC, Egypt shortly after 6000 BC, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BC.[24] "The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries."[25] By 4000 BC, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia.[26][27][28] Wheat likely appeared in China's lower Yellow River around 2600 BC.[29]

The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400–6200 BC, recovered from Çatalhöyük.[30] The first identifiable bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 BC at Assiros in Macedonia.[31]

 
Traditional wheat harvesting

From the Middle East, wheat continued to spread across Europe and to the Americas in the Columbian exchange. In the British Isles, wheat straw (thatch) was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century.[32][33]

White wheat bread was historically a high status food, but during the nineteenth century it became in Britain an item of mass consumption, displacing oats, barley and rye from diets in the North of the country. It became "a sign of a high degree of culture".[34] After 1860, the enormous expansion of wheat production in the United States flooded the world market, lowering prices by 40%, and (along with the expansion of potato growing) made a major contribution to the nutritional welfare of the poor.[35]

Farming techniques

Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. When the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.

Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines, reaper-binder machines (the 'combine harvester'), tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

  •  

    Young crop

  •  

    Month before harvest

  •  

    Right before harvest

  •  

    Field ready for harvesting

  •  

    Combine harvester threshes the wheat, crushes the chaff, then blows chaff across the field, and loads the threshed wheat onto a truck.

Physiology

 
Components of the wheat plant

Leaves emerge from the shoot apical meristem in a telescoping fashion until the transition to reproduction i.e. flowering.[36] The last leaf produced by a wheat plant is known as the flag leaf. It is denser and has a higher photosynthetic rate than other leaves, to supply carbohydrate to the developing ear. In temperate countries the flag leaf, along with the second and third highest leaf on the plant, supply the majority of carbohydrate in the grain and their condition is paramount to yield formation.[37][38] Wheat is unusual among plants in having more stomata on the upper (adaxial) side of the leaf, than on the under (abaxial) side.[39] It has been theorised that this might be an effect of it having been domesticated and cultivated longer than any other plant.[40] Winter wheat generally produces up to 15 leaves per shoot and spring wheat up to 9[41] and winter crops may have up to 35 tillers (shoots) per plant (depending on cultivar).[41]

Wheat roots are among the deepest of arable crops, extending as far down as 2 metres (6 ft 7 in).[42] While the roots of a wheat plant are growing, the plant also accumulates an energy store in its stem, in the form of fructans,[43] which helps the plant to yield under drought and disease pressure,[44] but it has been observed that there is a trade-off between root growth and stem non-structural carbohydrate reserves.[45] Root growth is likely to be prioritised in drought-adapted crops, while stem non-structural carbohydrate is prioritised in varieties developed for countries where disease is a bigger issue.

Depending on variety, wheat may be awned or not awned. Producing awns incurs a cost in grain number,[46] but wheat awns photosynthesise more efficiently than their leaves with regards to water usage,[47] so awns are much more frequent in varieties of wheat grown in hot drought-prone countries than those generally seen in temperate countries. For this reason, awned varieties could become more widely grown due to climate change. In Europe, however, a decline in climate resilience of wheat has been observed.[48]

Genetics and breeding

 
Wheat strains characterised

In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity. Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar.[49]

Major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora nodorum blotch (also known as glume blotch, caused by Phaeosphaeria nodorum), yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot (Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) and stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici). In tropical areas, spot blotch (also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important.

Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and sometimes harsh chemicals. The varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds (going as far back as 1960), more of them being created in higher populated countries such as China.[50] Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content has been developed through gamma radiation breeding,[51] and through conventional selection breeding.[52]

International wheat breeding is led by CIMMYT in Mexico. ICARDA is another major public sector international wheat breeder, but it was forced to relocate from Syria in the Syrian Civil War.[53]

Pathogens and this crop are constantly in a process of co-evolution.[54] Spore-producing wheat rusts are substantially adapted towards successful spore propagation, which is essentially to say its R0.[54] These pathogens tend towards high-R0 evolutionary attractors.[54]

Yields

 
Breeding has helped increase wheat yields over time

The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Genes for the 'dwarfing' trait, first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields worldwide, and were major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico and Asia, an initiative led by Norman Borlaug.[55] Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of lodging.[56] "Lodging" occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem.[57] By 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat area was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer.[58]

T. turgidum subsp. polonicum is known for its longer glumes and grains, has been bred into main wheat lines for its grain size effect, and likely has contributed these traits to T. petropavlovskyi and the Portuguese landrace group "Arrancada".[59][60]

As with many plants, MADS-box influences flower development, and more specifically, as with other agricultural Poaceae, heavily influences the total weight output at the end of the entire grain growing process. Despite that importance, as of 2021 little research has been done into MADS-box and other such spikelet and flower genetics in wheat specifically.[59]

The world record wheat yield is about 17 tonnes per hectare (15,000 pounds per acre), reached in New Zealand in 2017.[61] A project in the UK, led by Rothamsted Research has aimed to raise wheat yields in the country to 20 t/ha (18,000 lb/acre) by 2020, but in 2018 the UK record stood at 16 t/ha (14,000 lb/acre), and the average yield was just 8 t/ha (7,100 lb/acre).[62][63]

Disease resistance

 
Different strains of wheat have been infected with the stem rust fungus. The strains bred to be resistant have their leaves unaffected by the fungus

Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease-resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.[64] Some resistance genes have been identified against Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, especially races 1 and 5, those most problematic in Kazakhstan.[65] Wild relative, Aegilops tauschii is the source of several genes effective against TTKSK/Ug99 - Sr33, Sr45, Sr46, and SrTA1662 - of which Sr33 and SrTA1662 are the work of Olson et al. 2013, and Sr45 and Sr46 are also briefly reviewed therein.[66]

Resistance to Fusarium head blight (FHB, Fusarium ear blight) is also an important breeding target. Marker-assisted breeding panels involving kompetitive allele specific PCR can be used. Singh et al. 2019 identify a KASP genetic marker for a pore-forming toxin-like gene providing FHB resistance.[71]

Hybrid wheats

Because wheat self-pollinates, creating hybrid seed is extremely labor-intensive; the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely[72][73] despite nearly 90 years of effort.[74]

F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding, which may descend from hybrid crosses further back in its ancestry. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self-pollinate.[49] Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.[75]

Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii,[76] and various other Aegilops,[77] and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats.[78][79][80]

Triticale: Wheat-rye hybrid

 
Wheat, rye, triticale

In ancient times, wheat was often considered a luxury grain because it had lower yield but better taste and digestibility than competitors like rye. In the 19th century, efforts were made to hybridize the two to get a crop with the best traits of both. This produced triticale, a grain with high potential, but fraught with problems relating to fertility and germination. These have mostly been solved, so that in the 20th century millions of acres of triticale are being grown worldwide.

Gluten

Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to contain greater amounts of gluten,[81] which affords significant advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view.[82] However, a 2020 study that grew and analyzed 60 wheat cultivars from between 1891 and 2010 found no changes in albumin/globulin and gluten contents over time. "Overall, the harvest year had a more significant effect on protein composition than the cultivar. At the protein level, we found no evidence to support an increased immunostimulatory potential of modern winter wheat."[83]

Water efficiency

Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms.[84]

Insect resistance

The gene Sm1 protects against the orange wheat blossom midge.[85][86][87][88]

Genome

 
Phylogenetic tree shows wheat's relation to other plants

In 2010, a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time (95% of the genome of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line 42).[89] This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media.[90] On 29 November 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published.[91] Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and cDNA from the T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (CS42) were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX+ platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence (220 million reads) and identified between 94,000 and 96,000 genes.[91] The implications of the research in cereal genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation, analysis of population genetics and evolutionary biology, and further studying epigenetic modifications.[92] In 2018 an even more complete Chinese Spring genome was released by a different team.[93]

Then in 2020 some of the same researchers produced 15 genome sequences from various locations and varieties around the world[86][87][88] – the most complete and detailed so far[86][87][88] – along with examples of their own use of the sequences to localize particular insect and disease resistance factors.[86][87][88] The team expects these sequences will be useful in future cultivar breeding.[86][87][88]

Wheat Blast Resistance is controlled by R genes which are highly race-specific.[94]: 70 

Genetic engineering

CRISPR/Cas9

For decades the primary genetic modification technique has been non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). However, since its introduction, the CRISPR/Cas9 tool has been extensively adopted, for example:

As of 2021 these examples illustrate the rapid deployment and results that CRISPR/Cas9 has shown in wheat disease resistance improvement.[95]

Varieties

There are around 20 wheat varieties of 7 species grown throughout the world. In Canada different varieties are blended prior to sale. "Identity preserved" wheat that has been stored and transported separately (at extra cost) usually fetches a higher price.[96]

Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).[97]

Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n=14).[5]

Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. emmer and durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, T. dicoccoides. Wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses, T. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides. The unknown grass has never been identified among non-extinct wild grasses, but the closest living relative is Aegilops speltoides.[98] The hybridization that formed wild emmer (AABB) occurred in the wild, long before domestication,[97] and was driven by natural selection.

 
Harvest on the Palouse, Idaho, United States
 
Sheaved and stooked
 
Traditional sheafing machine

Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Aegilops tauschii) to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat.[97] These have three sets of paired chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat.

At the point of the end user – the farmer who is sowing and reaping – the exact variety they have in their field is usually not known. The development of genetic assays which can distinguish the small differences between cultivars is allowing that question to be answered field-by-field, for the first time.[99]

Major cultivated species of wheat

Hexaploid species

  • Common wheat or bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.[100]
  • Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities.[quantify] Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies[by whom?] of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be T. aestivum ssp. spelta.

Tetraploid species

  • Durum (T. durum) – A tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.[100]
  • Emmer (T. dicoccum) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.
  • Khorasan (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum, also called T. turanicum) is a tetraploid wheat species. It is an ancient grain type; Khorasan refers to a historical region in modern-day Afghanistan and the northeast of Iran. This grain is twice the size of modern-day wheat and is known for its rich nutty flavor.

Diploid species

  • Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat.

Hulled versus free-threshing species

 
Hulled wheat & Einkorn. Note how the einkorn ear breaks down into intact spikelets.

The four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn,[101] emmer[102] and spelt,[103] have hulls. This more primitive morphology (in evolutionary terms) consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing.

The result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.[101]

In free-threshing (or naked) forms, such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. On threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains.[citation needed]

Naming

Further information: Taxonomy of wheat
 
 
Model of a wheat grain, Botanical Museum Greifswald

There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy. The name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another.

Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of:

  • Growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat.[104]
  • Protein content. Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats.
  • The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish. A strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets. The gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic.
  • Grain color (red, white or amber). Many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes. White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes, and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats. The yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain.

Classes used in North America

The named classes of wheat in English are more or less the same in Canada as in the US, as broadly the same commercial cash crop strains can be found in both.

The classes used in the United States are:[105][106]

  • Durum – Very hard, translucent, light-colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta and bulghur; high in protein, specifically, gluten protein.
  • Hard Red Spring – Hard, brownish, high-protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods. Bread flour and high-gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat. It is primarily traded on the Minneapolis Grain Exchange.
  • Hard Red Winter – Hard, brownish, mellow high-protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts. Some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone. It is primarily traded on the Kansas City Board of Trade. Many varieties grown from Kansas south are descendant from a variety known as "turkey red", which was brought to Kansas by Mennonite immigrants from Russia.[107] Marquis wheat was developed to prosper in the shorter growing season in Canada, and is grown as far south as southern Nebraska.[108]
  • Soft Red Winter – Soft, low-protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins. Cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising flours with baking powder and salt added, for example, are made from soft red winter wheat. It is primarily traded on the Chicago Board of Trade.
  • Hard White – Hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky, medium-protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing.
  • Soft White – Soft, light-colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for pie crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat.

Red wheats may need bleaching; therefore, white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market.

As a food

 
Wheat is used in a wide variety of foods.
Wheat, hard red winter
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,368 kJ (327 kcal)
71.18 g
Sugars0.41
Dietary fiber12.2 g
1.54 g
12.61 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
33%
0.383 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
10%
0.115 mg
Niacin (B3)
36%
5.464 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
19%
0.954 mg
Vitamin B6
23%
0.3 mg
Folate (B9)
10%
38 μg
Choline
6%
31.2 mg
Vitamin E
7%
1.01 mg
Vitamin K
2%
1.9 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
29 mg
Iron
25%
3.19 mg
Magnesium
35%
126 mg
Manganese
190%
3.985 mg
Phosphorus
41%
288 mg
Potassium
8%
363 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
28%
2.65 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water13.1 g
Selenium70.7 µg
Link to USDA Database Entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats.[109] If the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used in several ways.

Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, muesli, pancakes, pasta, pies, pastries, pizza, semolina, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, beer, vodka, boza (a fermented beverage), and breakfast cereals.[110]

In manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities in dough,[111] enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads, noodles, and pasta that facilitate wheat consumption.[112][11]

Nutrition

In 100 grams, wheat provides 1,368 kilojoules (327 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin (table). Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content. Wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates, and 1.5% fat. Its 13% protein content is mostly gluten (75–80% of the protein in wheat).[111]

Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition, according to the new protein quality method (DIAAS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization.[15][113] Though they contain adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids, at least for adults, wheat proteins are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine.[11][114] Because the proteins present in the wheat endosperm (gluten proteins) are particularly poor in lysine, white flours are more deficient in lysine compared with whole grains.[11] Significant efforts in plant breeding are being made to develop lysine-rich wheat varieties, without success as of 2017.[115] Supplementation with proteins from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency,[14] since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth.[11]

100 g (3+1⁄2 oz) of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6 g of protein, 1.5 g of total fat, 71 g of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 g of dietary fiber, and 3.2 mg of iron (17% of the daily requirement); the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15.4 g of protein, 1.9 g of total fat, 68 g of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 g of dietary fiber, and 3.6 mg of iron (20% of the daily requirement).[120]

Worldwide production

Wheat is grown on more than 218,000,000 hectares (540,000,000 acres).[121]

The most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat. However, other natural forms of wheat exist. Other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black, yellow and blue wheat.[8][122][123]

Health effects

 
Cracked Wheat

Consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition, particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods.[3][11] When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults, in several daily servings containing a variety of foods that meet whole grain-rich criteria.[11][112][124][125] Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight.[126] Further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.[127]

Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: "low fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors" and "diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors".[128][129] The scientific opinion of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) related to health claims on gut health/bowel function, weight control, blood glucose/insulin levels, weight management, blood cholesterol, satiety, glycaemic index, digestive function and cardiovascular health is "that the food constituent, whole grain, (...) is not sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed health effects" and "that a cause and effect relationship cannot be established between the consumption of whole grain and the claimed effects considered in this opinion."[112][130]

Concerns

In genetically susceptible people, gluten – a major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease.[111][131] Coeliac disease affects about 1% of the general population in developed countries.[132][131] There is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated.[131] The only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten-free diet.[131]

While coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as a wheat allergy.[132][131] Other diseases triggered by eating wheat are non-coeliac gluten sensitivity[132][16] (estimated to affect 0.5% to 13% of the general population[133]), gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.[16]

It has been speculated that certain short-chain carbohydrates present in wheat, known as FODMAPs (and mainly frutose polymers), are the cause of non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. As of 2019, reviews have concluded that FODMAPs only explain certain gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, but not the extra-digestive symptoms that people with non-coeliac gluten sensitivity may develop, such as neurological disorders, fibromyalgia, psychological disturbances, and dermatitis.[134][135][136]

Other proteins present in wheat called amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) have been identified as the possible activator of the innate immune system in coeliac disease and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity.[136][135] ATIs are part of the plant's natural defense against insects and may cause toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated intestinal inflammation in humans.[135][137][138] These TLR4-stimulating activities of ATIs are limited to gluten-containing cereals.[136] A 2017 study in mice demonstrated that ATIs exacerbate preexisting inflammation and might also worsen it at extraintestinal sites. This may explain why there is an increase of inflammation in people with preexisting diseases upon ingestion of ATIs-containing grains.[135]

Comparison with other staple foods

The following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents.[139]

Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these staples is remarkably different from that of the raw form, as reported in this table.

In cooked form, the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method (for example: baking, boiling, steaming, frying, etc.).

Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight[140]
Staple Maize (corn)[A] Rice, white[B] Wheat[C] Potatoes[D] Cassava[E] Soybeans, green[F] Sweet potatoes[G] Yams[Y] Sorghum[H] Plantain[Z] RDA
Water content (%) 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 70 9 65
Raw grams per 100 g dry weight 111 114 115 476 250 313 435 333 110 286
Nutrient
Energy (kJ) 1698 1736 1574 1533 1675 1922 1565 1647 1559 1460 8,368–10,460
Protein (g) 10.4 8.1 14.5 9.5 3.5 40.6 7.0 5.0 12.4 3.7 50
Fat (g) 5.3 0.8 1.8 0.4 0.7 21.6 0.2 0.6 3.6 1.1 44–77
Carbohydrates (g) 82 91 82 81 95 34 87 93 82 91 130
Fiber (g) 8.1 1.5 14.0 10.5 4.5 13.1 13.0 13.7 6.9 6.6 30
Sugar (g) 0.7 0.1 0.5 3.7 4.3 0.0 18.2 1.7 0.0 42.9 minimal
Minerals [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Calcium (mg) 8 32 33 57 40 616 130 57 31 9 1,000
Iron (mg) 3.01 0.91 3.67 3.71 0.68 11.09 2.65 1.80 4.84 1.71 8
Magnesium (mg) 141 28 145 110 53 203 109 70 0 106 400
Phosphorus (mg) 233 131 331 271 68 606 204 183 315 97 700
Potassium (mg) 319 131 417 2005 678 1938 1465 2720 385 1426 4700
Sodium (mg) 39 6 2 29 35 47 239 30 7 11 1,500
Zinc (mg) 2.46 1.24 3.05 1.38 0.85 3.09 1.30 0.80 0.00 0.40 11
Copper (mg) 0.34 0.25 0.49 0.52 0.25 0.41 0.65 0.60 - 0.23 0.9
Manganese (mg) 0.54 1.24 4.59 0.71 0.95 1.72 1.13 1.33 - - 2.3
Selenium (μg) 17.2 17.2 81.3 1.4 1.8 4.7 2.6 2.3 0.0 4.3 55
Vitamins [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 93.8 51.5 90.6 10.4 57.0 0.0 52.6 90
Thiamin (B1) (mg) 0.43 0.08 0.34 0.38 0.23 1.38 0.35 0.37 0.26 0.14 1.2
Riboflavin (B2) (mg) 0.22 0.06 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.56 0.26 0.10 0.15 0.14 1.3
Niacin (B3) (mg) 4.03 1.82 6.28 5.00 2.13 5.16 2.43 1.83 3.22 1.97 16
Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg) 0.47 1.15 1.09 1.43 0.28 0.47 3.48 1.03 - 0.74 5
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.69 0.18 0.34 1.43 0.23 0.22 0.91 0.97 - 0.86 1.3
Folate Total (B9) (μg) 21 9 44 76 68 516 48 77 0 63 400
Vitamin A (IU) 238 0 10 10 33 563 4178 460 0 3220 5000
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg) 0.54 0.13 1.16 0.05 0.48 0.00 1.13 1.30 0.00 0.40 15
Vitamin K1 (μg) 0.3 0.1 2.2 9.0 4.8 0.0 7.8 8.7 0.0 2.0 120
Beta-carotene (μg) 108 0 6 5 20 0 36996 277 0 1306 10500
Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg) 1506 0 253 38 0 0 0 0 0 86 6000
Fats [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Saturated fatty acids (g) 0.74 0.20 0.30 0.14 0.18 2.47 0.09 0.13 0.51 0.40 minimal
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) 1.39 0.24 0.23 0.00 0.20 4.00 0.00 0.03 1.09 0.09 22–55
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) 2.40 0.20 0.72 0.19 0.13 10.00 0.04 0.27 1.51 0.20 13–19
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA

A raw yellow dent corn
B raw unenriched long-grain white rice
C raw hard red winter wheat
D raw potato with flesh and skin
E raw cassava
F raw green soybeans
G raw sweet potato
H raw sorghum
Y raw yam
Z raw plantains
/* unofficial

Commercial use

 
A map of worldwide wheat production.

Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodity- and international trade markets. Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate.

Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain, for example, most rye and oat breads. The popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant food surpluses.

In recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the United States to change to more profitable crops. In 1998, the price at harvest of a 60 pounds (27 kg) bushel[141] was $2.68 per.[142] Some information providers, following CBOT practice, quote the wheat market in per ton denomination.[143] A USDA report revealed that in 1998, average operating costs were $1.43 per bushel and total costs were $3.97 per bushel.[142] In that study, farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre (2.2435 metric ton/hectare), and typical total wheat production value was $31,900 per farm, with total farm production value (including other crops) of $173,681 per farm, plus $17,402 in government payments. There were significant profitability differences between low- and high-cost farms, due to crop yield differences, location, and farm size.

  •  

    Annual agricultural production of wheat, measured in tonnes in 2014.[144]

  •  

    Average wheat yields, measured in tonnes per hectare in 2014.[145]

Production and consumption

Main article: International wheat production statistics
Top wheat producers in 2020
Country Millions of tonnes
  China 134.2
  India 107.6
  Russia 85.9
  United States 49.7
  Canada 35.2
  France 30.1
  Pakistan 25.2
  Ukraine 24.9
  Germany 22.2
  Turkey 20.5
World 761
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization[146]
 
Production of wheat (2019)[147]
 
Wheat prices in England, 1264–1996[148]

In 2020, world wheat production was 761 million tonnes, led by China, India, and Russia collectively providing 38% of the world total.[146] As of 2019, the largest exporters were Russia (32 million tonnes), United States (27), Canada (23) and France (20), while the largest importers were Indonesia (11 million tonnes), Egypt (10.4) and Turkey (10.0).[149]

Historical factors

British Empire and successor states

Wheat became a central agriculture endeavor in the worldwide British Empire in the 19th century, and remains of great importance in Australia, Canada and India.[150] In Australia, with vast lands and a limited work force, expanded production depended on technological advances, especially regarding irrigation and machinery. By the 1840s there were 900 growers in South Australia. They used the "Ridley's Stripper", to remove the heads of grain, and the reaper-harvester perfected by John Ridley in 1843.[151] By 1850 South Australia had become the granary for the region; soon wheat farming spread to Victoria and New South Wales, with heavy exports to Great Britain. In Canada modern farm implements made large scale wheat farming possible from the late 1840s on. By the 1879s Saskatchewan was the center, followed by Alberta, Manitoba and Ontario, as the spread of railway lines allowed easy exports to Britain. By 1910 wheat made up 22% of Canada's exports, rising to 25% in 1930 despite the sharp decline in prices during the worldwide Great Depression.[152] Efforts to expand wheat production in South Africa, Kenya and India were stymied by low yields and disease. However by 2000 India had become the second largest producer of wheat in the world.[153]

United States

In the 19th century the American wheat frontier moved rapidly westward. By the 1880s 70% of American exports went to British ports. The first successful grain elevator was built in Buffalo in 1842.[154] The cost of transport fell rapidly. In 1869 it cost 37 cents to transport a bushel of wheat from Chicago to Liverpool. In 1905 it was 10 cents.[155]

20th century

In the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area, with lesser (about 20%) increases in crop yields per unit area. After 1955 however, there was a ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase. Thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century. There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in North America.[156]

Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed) is another 20th-century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three-quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output.

21st century

Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production: population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise. There is evidence, however, that rising temperatures associated with climate change are reducing wheat yield in several locations.[157] In addition, the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.

Farming systems

In 2014, the most productive crop yields for wheat were in Ireland, producing 10 tonnes per hectare.[9] In addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge, some large wheat grain-producing countries have significant losses after harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmers' inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. Various studies in India, for example, have concluded that about 10% of total wheat production is lost at farm level, another 10% is lost because of poor storage and road networks, and additional amounts lost at the retail level.[158]

In the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, as well as North China, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output. More widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare.[10] In developing countries, use of (mainly nitrogenous) fertilizer increased 25-fold in this period. However, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity. A good illustration of this is Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall (300 mm), wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer. This is achieved by 'rotation cropping' (traditionally called the ley system) with leguminous pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25%.[159] In these low rainfall areas, better use of available soil-water (and better control of soil erosion) is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage.[160]

Geographical variation

There are substantial differences in wheat farming, trading, policy, sector growth, and wheat uses in different regions of the world. The largest exporters of wheat in 2016 were, in order of exported quantities: Russian Federation (25.3 million tonnes), United States (24.0 million tonnes), Canada (19.7 million tonnes), France (18.3 million tonnes), and Australia (16.1 million tonnes).[161] The largest importers of wheat in 2016 were, in order of imported quantities: Indonesia (10.5 million tonnes), Egypt (8.7 million tonnes), Algeria (8.2 million tonnes), Italy (7.7 million tonnes) and Spain (7.0 million tonnes).[161]

In the rapidly developing countries of Asia and Africa, westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples.[10]

Most productive

The average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3.3 tonnes per hectare (330 grams per square meter).[9] Ireland's wheat farms were the most productive in 2014, with a nationwide average of 10.0 tonnes per hectare, followed by the Netherlands (9.2), and Germany, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (each with 8.6).[9]

Futures contracts

Wheat futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade, Kansas City Board of Trade, and Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and have delivery dates in March (H), May (K), July (N), September (U), and December (Z).[162]

Peak wheat

This section is an excerpt from Peak wheat.[edit]
 
Food production per person increased since 1961.

Peak wheat is the concept that agricultural production, due to its high use of water and energy inputs,[163] is subject to the same profile as oil and other fossil fuel production.[164][165][166] The central tenet is that a point is reached, the "peak", beyond which agricultural production plateaus and does not grow any further,[167] and may even go into permanent decline.

Based on current supply and demand factors for agricultural commodities (e.g., changing diets in the emerging economies, biofuels, declining acreage under irrigation, growing global population, stagnant agricultural productivity growth),[citation needed] some commentators are predicting a long-term annual production shortfall of around 2% which, based on the highly inelastic demand curve for food crops, could lead to sustained price increases in excess of 10% a year – sufficient to double crop prices in seven years.[168][169][170]

According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades.[171]

Agronomy

 
Wheat spikelet with the three anthers sticking out

Crop development

Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions (winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze). Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants. In particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development. For example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of higher risk from the climate. For example, pollen formation from the mother cell, and the stages between anthesis and maturity, are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress.[172] Farmers also benefit from knowing when the 'flag leaf' (last leaf) appears, as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.

Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.

 
 
 
Wheat at the anthesis stage. Face view (left) and side view (right) and wheat ear at the late milk

Pests and diseases

Pests[173] – or pests and diseases, depending on the definition – consume 21.47% of the world's wheat crop annually.[174]

Diseases

Main articles: Wheat diseases and List of wheat diseases
 
Rust-affected wheat seedlings

There are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses.[175] Plant breeding to develop new disease-resistant varieties, and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease. Fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production. Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10 and 25% in Missouri.[176] A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.[177]

The main wheat-disease categories are:

Animal pests

Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the flame, rustic shoulder-knot, setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moth. Early in the season, many species of birds and rodents feed upon wheat crops. These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the United States alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception.[179] Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food.[180] To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest pests, Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an "insect-o-graph", which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye. The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled. The new technology is so precise that it can detect 5–10 infested seeds out of 30,000 good ones.[181] Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop.

See also

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This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Wheat", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

Further reading

  • The World Wheat Book : A History of Wheat Breeding
  • Head, Lesley; Atchison, Jennifer; Gates, Alison (2016). Ingrained: A Human Bio-geography of Wheat. London: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-315-58854-4. OCLC 1082225627.
  • Jasny Naum, The Wheats of Classical Antiquity. Hopkins Press, Baltimore 1944. S2CID 82345748.
  • Nelson, Scott Reynolds (2022). Oceans of Grain: How American Wheat Remade the World. Excerpt.
  • Shiferaw, Bekele; Smale, Melinda; Braun, Hans; Duveiller, Etienne; Reynolds, Mathew; Muricho, Geoffrey (2013). "Crops that feed the world 10. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by wheat in global food security". Food Security. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 5 (3): 291–317. doi:10.1007/s12571-013-0263-y. ISSN 1876-4517. S2CID 10875639.

External links

 
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June 24, 2023
wheat, this, article, about, plant, other, uses, disambiguation, grass, widely, cultivated, seed, cereal, grain, that, worldwide, staple, food, many, species, wheat, together, make, genus, triticum, most, widely, grown, common, wheat, aestivum, archaeological,. This article is about the plant For other uses see Wheat disambiguation Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food 3 4 5 The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum ˈ t r ɪ t ɪ k e m 6 the most widely grown is common wheat T aestivum The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE Botanically the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis WheatScientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade AngiospermsClade MonocotsClade CommelinidsOrder PoalesFamily PoaceaeSubfamily PooideaeTribe TriticeaeGenus TriticumL 1 Type speciesTriticum aestivumSpecies 2 T aestivumT aethiopicumT araraticumT boeoticumT carthlicumT compactumT dicoccoidesT dicocconT durumT ispahanicumT karamyscheviiT machaT militinaeT monococcumT polonicumT speltaT sphaerococcumT timopheeviiT turanicumT turgidumT urartuT vaviloviiT zhukovskyiWheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop 220 4 million hectares or 545 million acres 2014 7 World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined 8 In 2020 world production of wheat was 761 million tonnes 839 million short tons 1 7 trillion pounds making it the second most produced cereal after maize 9 Since 1960 world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century 10 Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins which facilitate the production of processed foods whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and the westernization of the diet 11 12 Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates 11 Globally it is the leading source of vegetable proteins in human food having a protein content of about 13 which is relatively high compared to other major cereals 13 but relatively low in protein quality supplying essential amino acids 14 15 When eaten as the whole grain wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber 11 In a small part of the general population gluten comprising most of wheat protein can trigger coeliac disease noncoeliac gluten sensitivity gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis 16 Contents 1 Origin and history 2 Farming techniques 3 Physiology 4 Genetics and breeding 4 1 Yields 4 2 Disease resistance 4 3 Hybrid wheats 4 3 1 Triticale Wheat rye hybrid 4 4 Gluten 4 5 Water efficiency 4 6 Insect resistance 4 7 Genome 4 8 Genetic engineering 4 8 1 CRISPR Cas9 5 Varieties 5 1 Major cultivated species of wheat 5 2 Hulled versus free threshing species 6 Naming 6 1 Classes used in North America 7 As a food 7 1 Nutrition 7 2 Worldwide production 7 3 Health effects 7 3 1 Concerns 7 4 Comparison with other staple foods 8 Commercial use 9 Production and consumption 9 1 Historical factors 9 1 1 British Empire and successor states 9 1 2 United States 9 1 3 20th century 9 1 4 21st century 9 2 Farming systems 9 3 Geographical variation 9 4 Most productive 9 5 Futures contracts 9 6 Peak wheat 10 Agronomy 10 1 Crop development 11 Pests and diseases 11 1 Diseases 11 2 Animal pests 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External linksOrigin and history Edit Origin and current production area of wheat Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains as mutant forms sports of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers In domesticated wheat grains are larger and the seeds inside the spikelets remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting 17 In wild strains a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets 18 Selection for larger grains and non shattering heads by farmers might not have been deliberately intended but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier nevertheless such incidental selection was an important part of crop domestication As the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant s natural seed dispersal mechanisms highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild Sumerian cylinder seal impression dating to c 3200 BC showing an ensi and his acolyte feeding a sacred herd wheat stalks Ninurta was an agricultural deity and in a poem known as the Sumerian Georgica he offers detailed advice on farming Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BC 19 20 Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadaǧ Mountains in southeastern Turkey Dated archaeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria suggest the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadaǧ Mountains 21 With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed Dubb in Jordan the earliest carbon 14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BC 22 Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 at Cayonu and 8400 BC Abu Hureyra that is in the Neolithic period With the exception of Iraq ed Dubb the earliest carbon 14 dated remains of domesticated emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad in the Damascus basin near Mount Hermon in Syria These remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker Heeres to 8800 BC They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere 23 Threshing of wheat in ancient Egypt The cultivation of emmer reached Greece Cyprus and the Indian subcontinent by 6500 BC Egypt shortly after 6000 BC and Germany and Spain by 5000 BC 24 The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large scale food production industries 25 By 4000 BC wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia 26 27 28 Wheat likely appeared in China s lower Yellow River around 2600 BC 29 The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds dating to around 6400 6200 BC recovered from Catalhoyuk 30 The first identifiable bread wheat Triticum aestivum with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 BC at Assiros in Macedonia 31 Traditional wheat harvesting From the Middle East wheat continued to spread across Europe and to the Americas in the Columbian exchange In the British Isles wheat straw thatch was used for roofing in the Bronze Age and was in common use until the late 19th century 32 33 White wheat bread was historically a high status food but during the nineteenth century it became in Britain an item of mass consumption displacing oats barley and rye from diets in the North of the country It became a sign of a high degree of culture 34 After 1860 the enormous expansion of wheat production in the United States flooded the world market lowering prices by 40 and along with the expansion of potato growing made a major contribution to the nutritional welfare of the poor 35 Farming techniques EditTechnological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop When the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century another great increase in productivity occurred Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land and the use of fertilizers became widespread Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines reaper binder machines the combine harvester tractor drawn cultivators and planters and better varieties see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat Great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries Young crop Month before harvest Right before harvest Field ready for harvesting Combine harvester threshes the wheat crushes the chaff then blows chaff across the field and loads the threshed wheat onto a truck Physiology Edit Components of the wheat plant Leaves emerge from the shoot apical meristem in a telescoping fashion until the transition to reproduction i e flowering 36 The last leaf produced by a wheat plant is known as the flag leaf It is denser and has a higher photosynthetic rate than other leaves to supply carbohydrate to the developing ear In temperate countries the flag leaf along with the second and third highest leaf on the plant supply the majority of carbohydrate in the grain and their condition is paramount to yield formation 37 38 Wheat is unusual among plants in having more stomata on the upper adaxial side of the leaf than on the under abaxial side 39 It has been theorised that this might be an effect of it having been domesticated and cultivated longer than any other plant 40 Winter wheat generally produces up to 15 leaves per shoot and spring wheat up to 9 41 and winter crops may have up to 35 tillers shoots per plant depending on cultivar 41 Wheat roots are among the deepest of arable crops extending as far down as 2 metres 6 ft 7 in 42 While the roots of a wheat plant are growing the plant also accumulates an energy store in its stem in the form of fructans 43 which helps the plant to yield under drought and disease pressure 44 but it has been observed that there is a trade off between root growth and stem non structural carbohydrate reserves 45 Root growth is likely to be prioritised in drought adapted crops while stem non structural carbohydrate is prioritised in varieties developed for countries where disease is a bigger issue Depending on variety wheat may be awned or not awned Producing awns incurs a cost in grain number 46 but wheat awns photosynthesise more efficiently than their leaves with regards to water usage 47 so awns are much more frequent in varieties of wheat grown in hot drought prone countries than those generally seen in temperate countries For this reason awned varieties could become more widely grown due to climate change In Europe however a decline in climate resilience of wheat has been observed 48 Genetics and breeding Edit Wheat strains characterised In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces informal farmer maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America they continue to be important elsewhere The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation then selfing or inbreeding the progeny Selections are identified shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar 49 Major breeding objectives include high grain yield good quality disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses including mineral moisture and heat tolerance The major diseases in temperate environments include the following arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates eyespot Stagonospora nodorum blotch also known as glume blotch caused by Phaeosphaeria nodorum yellow or stripe rust powdery mildew Septoria tritici blotch sometimes known as leaf blotch brown or leaf rust Fusarium head blight tan spot Pyrenophora tritici repentis and stem rust Puccinia graminis f sp tritici In tropical areas spot blotch also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight is also important Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding with the use of gamma x rays ultraviolet light and sometimes harsh chemicals The varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds going as far back as 1960 more of them being created in higher populated countries such as China 50 Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content has been developed through gamma radiation breeding 51 and through conventional selection breeding 52 International wheat breeding is led by CIMMYT in Mexico ICARDA is another major public sector international wheat breeder but it was forced to relocate from Syria in the Syrian Civil War 53 Pathogens and this crop are constantly in a process of co evolution 54 Spore producing wheat rusts are substantially adapted towards successful spore propagation which is essentially to say its R0 54 These pathogens tend towards high R0 evolutionary attractors 54 Yields Edit Breeding has helped increase wheat yields over time The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields Genes for the dwarfing trait first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short stalked wheat have had a huge effect on wheat yields worldwide and were major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico and Asia an initiative led by Norman Borlaug 55 Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production and they also help prevent the problem of lodging 56 Lodging occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem 57 By 1997 81 of the developing world s wheat area was planted to semi dwarf wheats giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer 58 T turgidum subsp polonicum is known for its longer glumes and grains has been bred into main wheat lines for its grain size effect and likely has contributed these traits to T petropavlovskyi and the Portuguese landrace group Arrancada 59 60 As with many plants MADS box influences flower development and more specifically as with other agricultural Poaceae heavily influences the total weight output at the end of the entire grain growing process Despite that importance as of 2021 update little research has been done into MADS box and other such spikelet and flower genetics in wheat specifically 59 The world record wheat yield is about 17 tonnes per hectare 15 000 pounds per acre reached in New Zealand in 2017 61 A project in the UK led by Rothamsted Research has aimed to raise wheat yields in the country to 20 t ha 18 000 lb acre by 2020 but in 2018 the UK record stood at 16 t ha 14 000 lb acre and the average yield was just 8 t ha 7 100 lb acre 62 63 Disease resistance Edit Different strains of wheat have been infected with the stem rust fungus The strains bred to be resistant have their leaves unaffected by the fungus Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s 64 Some resistance genes have been identified against Pyrenophora tritici repentis especially races 1 and 5 those most problematic in Kazakhstan 65 Wild relative Aegilops tauschii is the source of several genes effective against TTKSK Ug99 Sr33 Sr45 Sr46 and SrTA1662 of which Sr33 and SrTA1662 are the work of Olson et al 2013 and Sr45 and Sr46 are also briefly reviewed therein 66 Lr67 is an R gene a dominant negative for partial adult resistance discovered and molecularly characterized by Moore et al 2015 As of 2018 update Lr67 is effective against all races of leaf stripe and stem rusts and powdery mildew Blumeria graminis This is produced by a mutation of two aminos in what is predicted to be a hexose transporter The product then heterodimerizes with the susceptible s product with the downstream result of reducing glucose uptake 67 Lr34 is widely deployed in cultivars due to its abnormally broad effectiveness conferring resistance against leaf and stripe rusts and powdery mildew 68 Krattinger et al 2009 finds Lr34 to also be an ABC transporter and conclude that this is the probably means of its effectiveness 68 69 and the reason that it produces a slow rusting adult resistance phenotype 69 Pm8 is a widely used powdery mildew resistance introgressed from rye Secale cereale 70 It comes from the rye 1R chromosome a source of many resistances since the 1960s 70 Resistance to Fusarium head blight FHB Fusarium ear blight is also an important breeding target Marker assisted breeding panels involving kompetitive allele specific PCR can be used Singh et al 2019 identify a KASP genetic marker for a pore forming toxin like gene providing FHB resistance 71 Hybrid wheats Edit Because wheat self pollinates creating hybrid seed is extremely labor intensive the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely 72 73 despite nearly 90 years of effort 74 F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding which may descend from hybrid crosses further back in its ancestry Heterosis or hybrid vigor as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize occurs in common hexaploid wheat but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense meaning they have both male and female parts and normally self pollinate 49 Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe particularly France the United States and South Africa 75 Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii 76 and various other Aegilops 77 and various durum wheats are now being deployed and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats 78 79 80 Triticale Wheat rye hybrid Edit Wheat rye triticale In ancient times wheat was often considered a luxury grain because it had lower yield but better taste and digestibility than competitors like rye In the 19th century efforts were made to hybridize the two to get a crop with the best traits of both This produced triticale a grain with high potential but fraught with problems relating to fertility and germination These have mostly been solved so that in the 20th century millions of acres of triticale are being grown worldwide Gluten Edit Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross bred to contain greater amounts of gluten 81 which affords significant advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view 82 However a 2020 study that grew and analyzed 60 wheat cultivars from between 1891 and 2010 found no changes in albumin globulin and gluten contents over time Overall the harvest year had a more significant effect on protein composition than the cultivar At the protein level we found no evidence to support an increased immunostimulatory potential of modern winter wheat 83 Water efficiency Edit Stomata or leaf pores are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water use efficiency These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain fed dry land wheat farms 84 Insect resistance Edit The gene Sm1 protects against the orange wheat blossom midge 85 86 87 88 Genome Edit Phylogenetic tree shows wheat s relation to other plants In 2010 a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time 95 of the genome of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line 42 89 This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media 90 On 29 November 2012 an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published 91 Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and cDNA from the T aestivum cv Chinese Spring CS42 were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence 220 million reads and identified between 94 000 and 96 000 genes 91 The implications of the research in cereal genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation analysis of population genetics and evolutionary biology and further studying epigenetic modifications 92 In 2018 an even more complete Chinese Spring genome was released by a different team 93 Then in 2020 some of the same researchers produced 15 genome sequences from various locations and varieties around the world 86 87 88 the most complete and detailed so far 86 87 88 along with examples of their own use of the sequences to localize particular insect and disease resistance factors 86 87 88 The team expects these sequences will be useful in future cultivar breeding 86 87 88 Wheat Blast Resistance is controlled by R genes which are highly race specific 94 70 Genetic engineering Edit CRISPR Cas9 Edit For decades the primary genetic modification technique has been non homologous end joining NHEJ However since its introduction the CRISPR Cas9 tool has been extensively adopted for example To intentionally damage three homologs of TaNP1 a glucose methanol choline oxidoreductase gene to produce a novel male sterility trait by Li et al 2020 95 Blumeria graminis f sp tritici resistance has been produced by Shan et al 2013 and Wang et al 2014 by editing one of the mildew resistance locus o genes more specifically one of the Triticum aestivum MLO TaMLO genes 95 Triticum aestivum EDR1 TaEDR1 the EDR1 gene which inhibits Bmt resistance has been knocked out by Zhang et al 2017 to improve that resistance 95 Triticum aestivum HRC TaHRC has been disabled by Su et al 2019 thus producing Gibberella zeae resistance 95 Triticum aestivum Ms1 TaMs1 has been knocked out by Okada et al 2019 to produce another novel male sterility 95 and Triticum aestivum acetolactate synthase TaALS and Triticum aestivum acetyl CoA carboxylase TaACC were subjected to base changes by Zhang et al 2019 in two publications to confer herbicide resistance to ALS inhibitors and ACCase inhibitors respectively 95 As of 2021 update these examples illustrate the rapid deployment and results that CRISPR Cas9 has shown in wheat disease resistance improvement 95 Varieties EditThere are around 20 wheat varieties of 7 species grown throughout the world In Canada different varieties are blended prior to sale Identity preserved wheat that has been stored and transported separately at extra cost usually fetches a higher price 96 Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics Some wheat species are diploid with two sets of chromosomes but many are stable polyploids with four sets of chromosomes tetraploid or six hexaploid 97 Einkorn wheat T monococcum is diploid AA two complements of seven chromosomes 2n 14 5 Most tetraploid wheats e g emmer and durum wheat are derived from wild emmer T dicoccoides Wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses T urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae speltoides The unknown grass has never been identified among non extinct wild grasses but the closest living relative is Aegilops speltoides 98 The hybridization that formed wild emmer AABB occurred in the wild long before domestication 97 and was driven by natural selection Harvest on the Palouse Idaho United States Sheaved and stooked Traditional sheafing machine Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers fields Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass Aegilops tauschii to make the hexaploid wheats spelt wheat and bread wheat 97 These have three sets of paired chromosomes three times as many as in diploid wheat At the point of the end user the farmer who is sowing and reaping the exact variety they have in their field is usually not known The development of genetic assays which can distinguish the small differences between cultivars is allowing that question to be answered field by field for the first time 99 Major cultivated species of wheat Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Hexaploid species Common wheat or bread wheat T aestivum A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world 100 Spelt T spelta Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities quantify Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies by whom of the closely related species common wheat T aestivum in which case its botanical name is considered to be T aestivum ssp spelta Tetraploid species Durum T durum A tetraploid form of wheat widely used today and the second most widely cultivated wheat 100 Emmer T dicoccum A tetraploid species cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use Khorasan T turgidum ssp turanicum also called T turanicum is a tetraploid wheat species It is an ancient grain type Khorasan refers to a historical region in modern day Afghanistan and the northeast of Iran This grain is twice the size of modern day wheat and is known for its rich nutty flavor Diploid species Einkorn T monococcum A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat Hulled versus free threshing species Edit Hulled wheat amp Einkorn Note how the einkorn ear breaks down into intact spikelets The four wild species of wheat along with the domesticated varieties einkorn 101 emmer 102 and spelt 103 have hulls This more primitive morphology in evolutionary terms consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains and in domesticated wheats a semi brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing The result is that when threshed the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets To obtain the grain further processing such as milling or pounding is needed to remove the hulls or husks Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain 101 In free threshing or naked forms such as durum wheat and common wheat the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough On threshing the chaff breaks up releasing the grains citation needed Naming EditFurther information Taxonomy of wheat Model of a wheat grain Botanical Museum Greifswald There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy The name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another Within a species wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of Growing season such as winter wheat vs spring wheat 104 Protein content Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10 in some soft wheats with high starch contents to 15 in hard wheats The quality of the wheat protein gluten This protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish A strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets The gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic Grain color red white or amber Many wheat varieties are reddish brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats The yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment called lutein which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain Classes used in North America Edit The named classes of wheat in English are more or less the same in Canada as in the US as broadly the same commercial cash crop strains can be found in both The classes used in the United States are 105 106 Durum Very hard translucent light colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta and bulghur high in protein specifically gluten protein Hard Red Spring Hard brownish high protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods Bread flour and high gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat It is primarily traded on the Minneapolis Grain Exchange Hard Red Winter Hard brownish mellow high protein wheat used for bread hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts Some brands of unbleached all purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone It is primarily traded on the Kansas City Board of Trade Many varieties grown from Kansas south are descendant from a variety known as turkey red which was brought to Kansas by Mennonite immigrants from Russia 107 Marquis wheat was developed to prosper in the shorter growing season in Canada and is grown as far south as southern Nebraska 108 Soft Red Winter Soft low protein wheat used for cakes pie crusts biscuits and muffins Cake flour pastry flour and some self rising flours with baking powder and salt added for example are made from soft red winter wheat It is primarily traded on the Chicago Board of Trade Hard White Hard light colored opaque chalky medium protein wheat planted in dry temperate areas Used for bread and brewing Soft White Soft light colored very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas Used for pie crusts and pastry Pastry flour for example is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat Red wheats may need bleaching therefore white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market As a food Edit Wheat is used in a wide variety of foods Wheat hard red winterNutritional value per 100 g 3 5 oz Energy1 368 kJ 327 kcal Carbohydrates71 18 gSugars0 41Dietary fiber12 2 gFat1 54 gProtein12 61 gVitaminsQuantity DV Thiamine B1 33 0 383 mgRiboflavin B2 10 0 115 mgNiacin B3 36 5 464 mgPantothenic acid B5 19 0 954 mgVitamin B623 0 3 mgFolate B9 10 38 mgCholine6 31 2 mgVitamin E7 1 01 mgVitamin K2 1 9 mgMineralsQuantity DV Calcium3 29 mgIron25 3 19 mgMagnesium35 126 mgManganese190 3 985 mgPhosphorus41 288 mgPotassium8 363 mgSodium0 2 mgZinc28 2 65 mgOther constituentsQuantityWater13 1 gSelenium70 7 µgLink to USDA Database EntryUnits mg micrograms mg milligrams IU International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults Source USDA FoodData CentralRaw wheat can be ground into flour or using hard durum wheat only can be ground into semolina germinated and dried creating malt crushed or cut into cracked wheat parboiled or steamed dried crushed and de branned into bulgur also known as groats 109 If the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill as is usually done the outer husk or bran can be used in several ways Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread porridge crackers biscuits muesli pancakes pasta pies pastries pizza semolina cakes cookies muffins rolls doughnuts gravy beer vodka boza a fermented beverage and breakfast cereals 110 In manufacturing wheat products gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities in dough 111 enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads noodles and pasta that facilitate wheat consumption 112 11 Nutrition Edit In 100 grams wheat provides 1 368 kilojoules 327 kilocalories of food energy and is a rich source 20 or more of the Daily Value DV of multiple essential nutrients such as protein dietary fiber manganese phosphorus and niacin table Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content Wheat is 13 water 71 carbohydrates and 1 5 fat Its 13 protein content is mostly gluten 75 80 of the protein in wheat 111 Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition according to the new protein quality method DIAAS promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization 15 113 Though they contain adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids at least for adults wheat proteins are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine 11 114 Because the proteins present in the wheat endosperm gluten proteins are particularly poor in lysine white flours are more deficient in lysine compared with whole grains 11 Significant efforts in plant breeding are being made to develop lysine rich wheat varieties without success as of 2017 update 115 Supplementation with proteins from other food sources mainly legumes is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency 14 since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and become excreted which is especially important during the period of growth 11 Nutrient contents in DV of common foods raw uncooked per 100 g Protein Fiber Vitamins MineralsFood DV Q DV A B1 B2 B3 B5 B6 B9 B12 Ch C D E K Ca Fe Mg P K Na Zn Cu Mn Secooking Reduction 10 30 20 25 25 35 0 0 30 10 15 20 10 20 5 10 25Corn 20 55 6 1 13 4 16 4 19 19 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 11 31 34 15 1 20 10 42 0Rice 14 71 1 3 0 12 3 11 20 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 6 7 2 0 8 9 49 22Wheat 27 51 40 0 28 7 34 19 21 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 20 36 51 12 0 28 28 151 128Soybean dry 73 132 31 0 58 51 8 8 19 94 0 24 10 0 4 59 28 87 70 70 51 0 33 83 126 25Pigeon pea dry 42 91 50 1 43 11 15 13 13 114 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 29 46 37 40 1 18 53 90 12Potato 4 112 7 3 0 5 2 5 3 15 4 0 0 33 0 0 2 1 4 6 6 12 0 2 5 8 0Sweet potato 3 82 10 284 5 4 3 8 10 3 0 0 4 0 1 2 3 3 6 5 10 2 2 8 13 1Spinach 6 119 7 3 188 5 11 4 1 10 49 0 4 5 47 0 10 604 10 15 20 5 16 3 4 6 45 1Dill 7 32 7 154 4 17 8 4 9 38 0 0 142 0 0 0 21 37 14 7 21 3 6 7 63 0Carrots 2 9 3 334 4 3 5 3 7 5 0 0 10 0 3 16 3 2 3 4 9 3 2 2 7 0Guava 5 24 18 12 4 2 5 5 6 12 0 0 381 0 4 3 2 1 5 4 12 0 2 11 8 1Papaya 1 7 5 6 22 2 2 2 2 1 10 0 0 103 0 4 3 2 1 2 1 7 0 0 1 1 1Pumpkin 2 56 1 6 184 3 6 3 3 3 4 0 0 15 0 5 1 2 4 3 4 10 0 2 6 6 0Sunflower oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 205 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Egg 25 136 0 10 5 28 0 14 7 12 22 45 0 9 5 0 5 10 3 19 4 6 7 5 2 45Milk 6 138 0 2 3 11 1 4 2 1 7 2 6 0 0 0 0 11 0 2 9 4 2 3 1 0 5Chicken Liver 34 149 0 222 20 105 49 62 43 147 276 30 0 4 0 1 50 5 30 7 3 18 25 13 78 DV daily value i e of DRI Dietary Reference Intake Note All nutrient values including protein and fiber are in DV per 100 grams of the food item Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters 116 117 Cooking reduction Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo lacto vegetables group 118 119 Q Quality of Protein in terms of completeness without adjusting for digestability 119 100 g 3 1 2 oz of hard red winter wheat contain about 12 6 g of protein 1 5 g of total fat 71 g of carbohydrate by difference 12 2 g of dietary fiber and 3 2 mg of iron 17 of the daily requirement the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15 4 g of protein 1 9 g of total fat 68 g of carbohydrate by difference 12 2 g of dietary fiber and 3 6 mg of iron 20 of the daily requirement 120 Worldwide production Edit Wheat is grown on more than 218 000 000 hectares 540 000 000 acres 121 The most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat However other natural forms of wheat exist Other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black yellow and blue wheat 8 122 123 Health effects Edit Cracked Wheat Consumed worldwide by billions of people wheat is a significant food for human nutrition particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods 3 11 When eaten as the whole grain wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults in several daily servings containing a variety of foods that meet whole grain rich criteria 11 112 124 125 Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight 126 Further wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation including dietary fiber protein and dietary minerals 127 Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States stating low fat diets rich in fiber containing grain products fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer a disease associated with many factors and diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits vegetables and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber particularly soluble fiber may reduce the risk of heart disease a disease associated with many factors 128 129 The scientific opinion of the European Food Safety Authority EFSA related to health claims on gut health bowel function weight control blood glucose insulin levels weight management blood cholesterol satiety glycaemic index digestive function and cardiovascular health is that the food constituent whole grain is not sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed health effects and that a cause and effect relationship cannot be established between the consumption of whole grain and the claimed effects considered in this opinion 112 130 Concerns Edit In genetically susceptible people gluten a major part of wheat protein can trigger coeliac disease 111 131 Coeliac disease affects about 1 of the general population in developed countries 132 131 There is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated 131 The only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten free diet 131 While coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins it is not the same as a wheat allergy 132 131 Other diseases triggered by eating wheat are non coeliac gluten sensitivity 132 16 estimated to affect 0 5 to 13 of the general population 133 gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis 16 It has been speculated that certain short chain carbohydrates present in wheat known as FODMAPs and mainly frutose polymers are the cause of non coeliac gluten sensitivity As of 2019 update reviews have concluded that FODMAPs only explain certain gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating but not the extra digestive symptoms that people with non coeliac gluten sensitivity may develop such as neurological disorders fibromyalgia psychological disturbances and dermatitis 134 135 136 Other proteins present in wheat called amylase trypsin inhibitors ATIs have been identified as the possible activator of the innate immune system in coeliac disease and non coeliac gluten sensitivity 136 135 ATIs are part of the plant s natural defense against insects and may cause toll like receptor 4 TLR4 mediated intestinal inflammation in humans 135 137 138 These TLR4 stimulating activities of ATIs are limited to gluten containing cereals 136 A 2017 study in mice demonstrated that ATIs exacerbate preexisting inflammation and might also worsen it at extraintestinal sites This may explain why there is an increase of inflammation in people with preexisting diseases upon ingestion of ATIs containing grains 135 Comparison with other staple foods Edit The following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents 139 Raw forms of these staples however are not edible and cannot be digested These must be sprouted or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption In sprouted or cooked form the relative nutritional and anti nutritional contents of each of these staples is remarkably different from that of the raw form as reported in this table In cooked form the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method for example baking boiling steaming frying etc Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight 140 Staple Maize corn A Rice white B Wheat C Potatoes D Cassava E Soybeans green F Sweet potatoes G Yams Y Sorghum H Plantain Z RDAWater content 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 70 9 65Raw grams per 100 g dry weight 111 114 115 476 250 313 435 333 110 286NutrientEnergy kJ 1698 1736 1574 1533 1675 1922 1565 1647 1559 1460 8 368 10 460Protein g 10 4 8 1 14 5 9 5 3 5 40 6 7 0 5 0 12 4 3 7 50Fat g 5 3 0 8 1 8 0 4 0 7 21 6 0 2 0 6 3 6 1 1 44 77Carbohydrates g 82 91 82 81 95 34 87 93 82 91 130Fiber g 8 1 1 5 14 0 10 5 4 5 13 1 13 0 13 7 6 9 6 6 30Sugar g 0 7 0 1 0 5 3 7 4 3 0 0 18 2 1 7 0 0 42 9 minimalMinerals A B C D E F G Y H Z RDACalcium mg 8 32 33 57 40 616 130 57 31 9 1 000Iron mg 3 01 0 91 3 67 3 71 0 68 11 09 2 65 1 80 4 84 1 71 8Magnesium mg 141 28 145 110 53 203 109 70 0 106 400Phosphorus mg 233 131 331 271 68 606 204 183 315 97 700Potassium mg 319 131 417 2005 678 1938 1465 2720 385 1426 4700Sodium mg 39 6 2 29 35 47 239 30 7 11 1 500Zinc mg 2 46 1 24 3 05 1 38 0 85 3 09 1 30 0 80 0 00 0 40 11Copper mg 0 34 0 25 0 49 0 52 0 25 0 41 0 65 0 60 0 23 0 9Manganese mg 0 54 1 24 4 59 0 71 0 95 1 72 1 13 1 33 2 3Selenium mg 17 2 17 2 81 3 1 4 1 8 4 7 2 6 2 3 0 0 4 3 55Vitamins A B C D E F G Y H Z RDAVitamin C mg 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 8 51 5 90 6 10 4 57 0 0 0 52 6 90Thiamin B1 mg 0 43 0 08 0 34 0 38 0 23 1 38 0 35 0 37 0 26 0 14 1 2Riboflavin B2 mg 0 22 0 06 0 14 0 14 0 13 0 56 0 26 0 10 0 15 0 14 1 3Niacin B3 mg 4 03 1 82 6 28 5 00 2 13 5 16 2 43 1 83 3 22 1 97 16Pantothenic acid B5 mg 0 47 1 15 1 09 1 43 0 28 0 47 3 48 1 03 0 74 5Vitamin B6 mg 0 69 0 18 0 34 1 43 0 23 0 22 0 91 0 97 0 86 1 3Folate Total B9 mg 21 9 44 76 68 516 48 77 0 63 400Vitamin A IU 238 0 10 10 33 563 4178 460 0 3220 5000Vitamin E alpha tocopherol mg 0 54 0 13 1 16 0 05 0 48 0 00 1 13 1 30 0 00 0 40 15Vitamin K1 mg 0 3 0 1 2 2 9 0 4 8 0 0 7 8 8 7 0 0 2 0 120Beta carotene mg 108 0 6 5 20 0 36996 277 0 1306 10500Lutein zeaxanthin mg 1506 0 253 38 0 0 0 0 0 86 6000Fats A B C D E F G Y H Z RDASaturated fatty acids g 0 74 0 20 0 30 0 14 0 18 2 47 0 09 0 13 0 51 0 40 minimalMonounsaturated fatty acids g 1 39 0 24 0 23 0 00 0 20 4 00 0 00 0 03 1 09 0 09 22 55Polyunsaturated fatty acids g 2 40 0 20 0 72 0 19 0 13 10 00 0 04 0 27 1 51 0 20 13 19 A B C D E F G Y H Z RDAA raw yellow dent cornB raw unenriched long grain white riceC raw hard red winter wheatD raw potato with flesh and skinE raw cassavaF raw green soybeansG raw sweet potatoH raw sorghumY raw yamZ raw plantains unofficialCommercial use Edit A map of worldwide wheat production Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodity and international trade markets Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy as each class has special uses and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season and yields a versatile high quality flour that is widely used in baking Most breads are made with wheat flour including many breads named for the other grains they contain for example most rye and oat breads The popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain even in economies with significant food surpluses In recent years low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the United States to change to more profitable crops In 1998 the price at harvest of a 60 pounds 27 kg bushel 141 was 2 68 per 142 Some information providers following CBOT practice quote the wheat market in per ton denomination 143 A USDA report revealed that in 1998 average operating costs were 1 43 per bushel and total costs were 3 97 per bushel 142 In that study farm wheat yields averaged 41 7 bushels per acre 2 2435 metric ton hectare and typical total wheat production value was 31 900 per farm with total farm production value including other crops of 173 681 per farm plus 17 402 in government payments There were significant profitability differences between low and high cost farms due to crop yield differences location and farm size Annual agricultural production of wheat measured in tonnes in 2014 144 Average wheat yields measured in tonnes per hectare in 2014 145 Production and consumption EditMain article International wheat production statistics Top wheat producers in 2020 Country Millions of tonnes China 134 2 India 107 6 Russia 85 9 United States 49 7 Canada 35 2 France 30 1 Pakistan 25 2 Ukraine 24 9 Germany 22 2 Turkey 20 5World 761Source UN Food and Agriculture Organization 146 Production of wheat 2019 147 Wheat prices in England 1264 1996 148 In 2020 world wheat production was 761 million tonnes led by China India and Russia collectively providing 38 of the world total 146 As of 2019 update the largest exporters were Russia 32 million tonnes United States 27 Canada 23 and France 20 while the largest importers were Indonesia 11 million tonnes Egypt 10 4 and Turkey 10 0 149 Historical factors Edit British Empire and successor states Edit Wheat became a central agriculture endeavor in the worldwide British Empire in the 19th century and remains of great importance in Australia Canada and India 150 In Australia with vast lands and a limited work force expanded production depended on technological advances especially regarding irrigation and machinery By the 1840s there were 900 growers in South Australia They used the Ridley s Stripper to remove the heads of grain and the reaper harvester perfected by John Ridley in 1843 151 By 1850 South Australia had become the granary for the region soon wheat farming spread to Victoria and New South Wales with heavy exports to Great Britain In Canada modern farm implements made large scale wheat farming possible from the late 1840s on By the 1879s Saskatchewan was the center followed by Alberta Manitoba and Ontario as the spread of railway lines allowed easy exports to Britain By 1910 wheat made up 22 of Canada s exports rising to 25 in 1930 despite the sharp decline in prices during the worldwide Great Depression 152 Efforts to expand wheat production in South Africa Kenya and India were stymied by low yields and disease However by 2000 India had become the second largest producer of wheat in the world 153 United States Edit In the 19th century the American wheat frontier moved rapidly westward By the 1880s 70 of American exports went to British ports The first successful grain elevator was built in Buffalo in 1842 154 The cost of transport fell rapidly In 1869 it cost 37 cents to transport a bushel of wheat from Chicago to Liverpool In 1905 it was 10 cents 155 20th century Edit In the 20th century global wheat output expanded by about 5 fold but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area with lesser about 20 increases in crop yields per unit area After 1955 however there was a ten fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase Thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area for instance in North America 156 Better seed storage and germination ability and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year s seed is another 20th century technological innovation In Medieval England farmers saved one quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop leaving only three quarters for food and feed consumption By 1999 the global average seed use of wheat was about 6 of output 21st century Edit Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise There is evidence however that rising temperatures associated with climate change are reducing wheat yield in several locations 157 In addition the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize linked with investment in modern genetic technologies has promoted shifts to other crops Farming systems Edit In 2014 the most productive crop yields for wheat were in Ireland producing 10 tonnes per hectare 9 In addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge some large wheat grain producing countries have significant losses after harvest at the farm and because of poor roads inadequate storage technologies inefficient supply chains and farmers inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers Various studies in India for example have concluded that about 10 of total wheat production is lost at farm level another 10 is lost because of poor storage and road networks and additional amounts lost at the retail level 158 In the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent as well as North China irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output More widely over the last 40 years a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi dwarf varieties in developing countries has greatly increased yields per hectare 10 In developing countries use of mainly nitrogenous fertilizer increased 25 fold in this period However farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity A good illustration of this is Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone where despite low rainfall 300 mm wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer This is achieved by rotation cropping traditionally called the ley system with leguminous pastures and in the last decade including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25 159 In these low rainfall areas better use of available soil water and better control of soil erosion is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage 160 Geographical variation Edit There are substantial differences in wheat farming trading policy sector growth and wheat uses in different regions of the world The largest exporters of wheat in 2016 were in order of exported quantities Russian Federation 25 3 million tonnes United States 24 0 million tonnes Canada 19 7 million tonnes France 18 3 million tonnes and Australia 16 1 million tonnes 161 The largest importers of wheat in 2016 were in order of imported quantities Indonesia 10 5 million tonnes Egypt 8 7 million tonnes Algeria 8 2 million tonnes Italy 7 7 million tonnes and Spain 7 0 million tonnes 161 In the rapidly developing countries of Asia and Africa westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples 10 Most productive Edit The average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3 3 tonnes per hectare 330 grams per square meter 9 Ireland s wheat farms were the most productive in 2014 with a nationwide average of 10 0 tonnes per hectare followed by the Netherlands 9 2 and Germany New Zealand and the United Kingdom each with 8 6 9 Futures contracts Edit Wheat futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade Kansas City Board of Trade and Minneapolis Grain Exchange and have delivery dates in March H May K July N September U and December Z 162 Peak wheat Edit This section is an excerpt from Peak wheat edit Food production per person increased since 1961 Peak wheat is the concept that agricultural production due to its high use of water and energy inputs 163 is subject to the same profile as oil and other fossil fuel production 164 165 166 The central tenet is that a point is reached the peak beyond which agricultural production plateaus and does not grow any further 167 and may even go into permanent decline Based on current supply and demand factors for agricultural commodities e g changing diets in the emerging economies biofuels declining acreage under irrigation growing global population stagnant agricultural productivity growth citation needed some commentators are predicting a long term annual production shortfall of around 2 which based on the highly inelastic demand curve for food crops could lead to sustained price increases in excess of 10 a year sufficient to double crop prices in seven years 168 169 170 According to the World Resources Institute global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades 171 Agronomy Edit Wheat spikelet with the three anthers sticking out Crop development Edit Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest depending upon climate seed type and soil conditions winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants In particular spring fertilizers herbicides fungicides and growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development For example it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear not visible at this stage is about 1 cm in size Z31 on Zadoks scale Knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of higher risk from the climate For example pollen formation from the mother cell and the stages between anthesis and maturity are susceptible to high temperatures and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress 172 Farmers also benefit from knowing when the flag leaf last leaf appears as this leaf represents about 75 of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield Several systems exist to identify crop stages with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season Wheat at the anthesis stage Face view left and side view right and wheat ear at the late milkPests and diseases EditPests 173 or pests and diseases depending on the definition consume 21 47 of the world s wheat crop annually 174 Diseases Edit Main articles Wheat diseases and List of wheat diseases Rust affected wheat seedlings There are many wheat diseases mainly caused by fungi bacteria and viruses 175 Plant breeding to develop new disease resistant varieties and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease Fungicides used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease can be a significant variable cost in wheat production Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10 and 25 in Missouri 176 A wide range of organisms infect wheat of which the most important are viruses and fungi 177 The main wheat disease categories are Seed borne diseases these include seed borne scab seed borne Stagonospora previously known as Septoria common bunt stinking smut and loose smut These are managed with fungicides Leaf and head blight diseases Powdery mildew leaf rust Septoria tritici leaf blotch Stagonospora Septoria nodorum leaf and glume blotch and Fusarium head scab 178 Crown and root rot diseases Two of the more important of these are take all and Cephalosporium stripe Both of these diseases are soil borne Stem rust diseases Caused by Puccinia graminis f sp tritici basidiomycete fungi e g Ug99 Wheat blast Caused by Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum 94 Viral diseases Wheat spindle streak mosaic yellow mosaic and barley yellow dwarf are the two most common viral diseases Control can be achieved by using resistant varieties Animal pests Edit Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera butterfly and moth species including the flame rustic shoulder knot setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moth Early in the season many species of birds and rodents feed upon wheat crops These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike Recent post harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the United States alone and damage to wheat by various borers beetles and weevils is no exception 179 Rodents can also cause major losses during storage and in major grain growing regions field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food 180 To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post harvest pests Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an insect o graph which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled The new technology is so precise that it can detect 5 10 infested seeds out of 30 000 good ones 181 Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop See also EditBran Chaff Effects of climate change on agriculture Gluten free diet Mushroom production on wheat stalks Intermediate wheatgrass a perennial alternative to wheat Taxonomy of wheat Wheatberry Wheat 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development on pollen tube growth and ovary anatomy in wheat Triticum aestivum L Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 10 2 137 44 doi 10 1071 PP9830137 Pest Management American Society of Agronomy 7 March 2018 Retrieved 31 January 2021 Savary Serge Willocquet Laetitia Pethybridge Sarah Jane Esker Paul McRoberts Neil Nelson Andy 4 February 2019 The global burden of pathogens and pests on major food crops Nature Ecology amp Evolution Springer Science and Business Media LLC 3 3 430 439 doi 10 1038 s41559 018 0793 y ISSN 2397 334X PMID 30718852 S2CID 59603871 Abhishek Aditya 11 January 2021 DISEASE OF WHEAT Get To Know Everything About Wheat Diseases Agriculture Review Retrieved 29 January 2021 G4319 Wheat Diseases in Missouri MU Extension MU Extension Archived from the original on 27 February 2007 Retrieved 18 May 2009 C Michael Hogan 2013 Wheat Encyclopedia of Earth National Council for Science and the Environment Washington DC ed P Saundry Gautam P Dill Macky R 2012 Impact of moisture host genetics and Fusarium graminearum isolates on Fusarium head blight development and trichothecene accumulation in spring wheat Mycotoxin Research 28 1 45 58 doi 10 1007 s12550 011 0115 6 PMID 23605982 S2CID 16596348 Biological Control of Stored Product Pests Biological Control News Volume II Number 10 October 1995 Archived 15 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Post harvest Operations Compendium FAO CSIRO Rodent Management Research Focus Mice plagues Archived 21 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine ARS Industry Cooperation Yields Device to Detect Insects in Stored Wheat USDA Agricultural Research Service 24 June 2010 This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article Wheat which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3 0 Unported License but not under the GFDL Further reading EditThe World Wheat Book A History of Wheat BreedingBonjean Alain P Angus William J 2001 The World Wheat Book A History of Wheat Breeding Vol 1 London Lavoisier ISBN 9781898298724 OCLC 59515318 ISBN 9782743004026 Bonjean Alain P 2011 The World Wheat Book A History of Wheat Breeding Vol 2 Paris Lavoisier ISBN 978 2 7430 1102 4 OCLC 707171112 Bonjean Alain Angus William J Ginkel Maarten van 2016 The World Wheat Book A History of Wheat Breeding Vol 3 Paris Lavoisier Tec amp doc ISBN 978 2 7430 2091 0 OCLC 953081390 Head Lesley Atchison Jennifer Gates Alison 2016 Ingrained A Human Bio geography of Wheat London Ashgate ISBN 978 1 315 58854 4 OCLC 1082225627 Jasny Naum The Wheats of Classical Antiquity Hopkins Press Baltimore 1944 S2CID 82345748 Nelson Scott Reynolds 2022 Oceans of Grain How American Wheat Remade the World Excerpt Shiferaw Bekele Smale Melinda Braun Hans Duveiller Etienne Reynolds Mathew Muricho Geoffrey 2013 Crops that feed the world 10 Past successes and future challenges to the role played by wheat in global food security Food Security Springer Science and Business Media LLC 5 3 291 317 doi 10 1007 s12571 013 0263 y ISSN 1876 4517 S2CID 10875639 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wheat Triticum species at Purdue University Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Wheat amp oldid 1161179077, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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