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Sewage sludge

December 12, 2023

Sewage sludge is the residual, semi-solid material that is produced as a by-product during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater. The term "septage" also refers to sludge from simple wastewater treatment but is connected to simple on-site sanitation systems, such as septic tanks.

Desiccation cracks in dried sludge, the hard final remains from a sewage plant

When fresh sewage or wastewater enters a primary settling tank, approximately 50% of the suspended solid matter will settle out in an hour and a half. This collection of solids is known as raw sludge or primary solids and is said to be "fresh" before anaerobic processes become active. The sludge will become putrescent in a short time once anaerobic bacteria take over, and must be removed from the sedimentation tank before this happens.

This is accomplished in one of two ways. Most commonly, the fresh sludge is continuously extracted from the bottom of a hopper-shaped tank by mechanical scrapers and passed to separate sludge-digestion tanks. In some treatment plants an Imhoff tank is used: sludge settles through a slot into the lower story or digestion chamber, where it is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria, resulting in liquefaction and reduced volume of the sludge.

The secondary treatment process also generates a sludge largely composed of bacteria and protozoa with entrained fine solids, and this is removed by settlement in secondary settlement tanks. Both sludge streams are typically combined and are processed by anaerobic or aerobic treatment process at either elevated or ambient temperatures. After digesting for an extended period, the result is called "digested" sludge and may be disposed of by drying and then landfilling.

"Biosolids" is a term often used in conjunction with reuse of sewage solids after sewage sludge treatment. Biosolids can be defined as organic wastewater solids that can be reused after stabilization processes such as anaerobic digestion and composting.[1] Opponents of sewage sludge reuse reject this term as a public relations term.[2][3]

Quantities produced edit

The amount of sewage sludge produced is proportional to the amount and concentration of wastewater treated, and it also depends on the type of wastewater treatment process used. It can be expressed as kg dry solids per cubic metre of wastewater treated. The total sludge production from a wastewater treatment process is the sum of sludge from primary settling tanks (if they are part of the process configuration) plus excess sludge from the biological treatment step. For example, primary sedimentation produces about 110–170 kg/ML of so-called primary sludge, with a value of 150 kg/ML regarded as being typical for municipal wastewater in the U.S. or Europe.[1] The sludge production is expressed as kg of dry solids produced per ML of wastewater treated; one mega litre (ML) is 103 m3. Of the biological treatment processes, the activated sludge process produces about 70–100 kg/ML of waste activated sludge, and a trickling filter process produces slightly less sludge from the biological part of the process: 60–100 kg/ML.[1] This means that the total sludge production of an activated sludge process that uses primary sedimentation tanks is in the range of 180–270 kg/ML, being the sum of primary sludge and waste activated sludge.

United States municipal wastewater treatment plants in 1997 produced about 7.7 million dry tons of sewage sludge, and about 6.8 million dry tons in 1998 according to EPA estimates.[4] As of 2004, about 60% of all sewage sludge was applied to land as a soil amendment and fertilizer for growing crops.[5] In a review article published in 2012, it was reported that a total amount of 10.1 million tn DS/year were produced in EU-27 countries.[6]

Production of sewage sludge can be reduced by conversion from flush toilets to dry toilets such as urine-diverting dry toilets and composting toilets.[7]

Contaminants edit

Pathogens edit

Bacteria in Class A sludge products can actually regrow under certain environmental conditions.[8] Pathogens could easily remain undetected in untreated sewage sludge.[9] Pathogens are not a significant health issue if sewage sludge is properly treated and site-specific management practices are followed.[10]

Micro-pollutants edit

Micro-pollutants are compounds which are normally found at concentrations up to microgram per liter and milligram per kilogram in the aquatic and terrestrial environment, respectively, and they are considered to be potential threats to environmental ecosystems. They can become concentrated in sewage sludge.[11] Each of these disposal options comes with myriad potential—and in some cases proven—human health and environment impacts.[12] Several organic micro-pollutants such as endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals and per-fluorinated compounds have been detected in sewage sludge samples around the world at concentrations ranging up to some hundreds mg/kg of dried sludge.[13][14]Sterols and other hormones have also been detected.[15]

Heavy metals edit

One of the main concerns in the treated sludge is the concentrated metals content (lead, arsenic, cadmium, thallium, etc.); certain metals are regulated while others are not.[16] Leaching methods can be used to reduce the metal content and meet the regulatory limit.[17]

In 2009 the EPA released the Targeted National Sewage Sludge Study, which reports on the level of metals, chemicals, hormones, and other materials present in a statistical sample of sewage sludges.[15] Some highlights include:

  • Lead, arsenic, chromium, and cadmium are estimated by the EPA to be present in detectable quantities in 100% of national sewage sludges in the US, while thallium is only estimated to be present in 94.1% of sludges.
  • Silver is present to the degree of 20 mg/kg of sludge, on average, while some sludges have up to 200 milligrams of silver per kilogram of sludge; one outlier demonstrated a silver lode of 800–900 mg per kg of sludge.
  • Barium is present at the rate of 500 mg/kg, while manganese is present at the rate of 1 g/kg sludge.

Other hazardous substances edit

Sewage treatment plants receive various forms of hazardous waste from hospitals, nursing homes, industry and households. Low levels of constituents such as PCBs, dioxin, and brominated flame retardants, may remain in treated sludge.[18][19] There are potentially thousands of other components of sludge that remain untested/undetected disposed of from modern society that also end up in sludge (pharmaceuticals, nano particles, etc.) which have been proven to be hazardous to both human and ecological health.[11]

In 2013 in South Carolina PCBs were discovered in very high levels in wastewater sludge. The problem was not discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in South Carolina were discovered to be contaminated by this hazardous material. SCDHEC issued emergency regulatory order banning all PCB laden sewage sludge from being land applied on farm fields or deposited into landfills in South Carolina.[20][21]

Also in 2013, after DHEC request, the city of Charlotte decided to stop land applying sewage sludge in South Carolina while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination.[22] In February 2014, the city of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well.[23]

Contaminants of concern in sewage sludge are plasticizers, PDBEs, PFASs ("forever chemicals"),[24] and others generated by human activities, including personal care products and medicines. Synthetic fibers from fabrics persist in treated sewage sludge as well as in biosolids-treated soils and may thus serve as an indicator of past biosolids application.[25]

Pollutant ceiling concentration edit

The term "pollutant" is defined as part of the EPA 503 rule. The components of sludge have pollutant limits defined by the EPA. "A Pollutant is an organic substance, an inorganic substance, a combination of organic and inorganic substances, or a pathogenic organism that, after discharge and upon exposure, ingestion, inhalation, or assimilation into an organism either directly from the environment or indirectly by ingestion through the food chain, could, on the basis of information available to the Administrator of EPA, cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutations, physiological malfunctions (including malfunction in reproduction), or physical deformations in either organisms or offspring of the organisms."[26] The maximum component pollutant limits by the US EPA are:

Pollutant Ceiling concentration (mg per kg)
Cadmium 85
Copper 4300
Lead 840
Mercury 57
Molybdenum 75
Nickel 420
Selenium 100
Zinc 7500

Treatment edit

Main article: Sewage sludge treatment

Sewage sludge treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater. Sewage sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater in sewage treatment plants and consists of two basic forms — raw primary sludge and secondary sludge, also known as activated sludge in the case of the activated sludge process.

Sewage sludge is usually treated by one or several of the following treatment steps: lime stabilization, thickening, dewatering, drying, anaerobic digestion or composting. Some treatment processes, such as composting and alkaline stabilization, that involve significant amendments may affect contaminant strength and concentration: depending on the process and the contaminant in question, treatment may decrease or in some cases increase the bioavailability and/or solubility of contaminants.[27] Regarding sludge stabilization processes, anaerobic and aerobic digestion seem to be the most common used methods in EU-27.[28]

Following treatment, sewage sludge is either landfilled, dumped in the ocean, incinerated, applied on agricultural land or, in some cases, retailed or given away for free to the general public.[29][30] According to a review article published in 2012, sludge reuse (including direct agricultural application and composting) was the predominant choice for sludge management in EU-15 (53% of produced sludge), following by incineration (21% of produced sludge). On the other hand, the most common disposal method in EU-12 countries was landfilling.[28]

Classes of sewage sludge after treatment (United States) edit

 
Sewage sludge in a beaker from a treatment plant

In the United States, the following classes of sewage sludge after treatment are defined:

  • Class A sludge is typically dried and pasteurized, and is also known as "exceptional" quality.
  • Class B includes all sludge not classified as Class A. Class B sludge is typically "undigested" and is volatile.

Both classes of sludge may still contain radioactive or pharmaceutical wastes.[31][32]

Disposal edit

After treatment, and dependent upon the quality of sludge produced (for example with regards to heavy metal content), sewage sludge is most commonly either disposed of in landfills, dumped in the ocean or applied to land for its fertilizing properties, as pioneered by the product Milorganite.[citation needed]

Landfill edit

Sewage sludge deposition in landfills can circulate human-virulent species of Cryptosporidium and Giardia pathogens. Sonication and quicklime stabilization are most effective in inactivation of these pathogens; microwave energy disintegration and top-soil stabilization were less effective.[33]

Ocean dumping edit

It used to be common practice to dump sewage sludge into the ocean, however, this practice has stopped in many nations due to environmental concerns as well to domestic and international laws and treaties.[34] Ronald Reagan signed the law that prohibited ocean dumping as a means of disposal of sewage sludge in the US in 1988.[35]

Land application edit

Main article: Biosolids

Biosolids is a term widely used to denote the byproduct of domestic and commercial sewage and wastewater treatment that is to be used in agriculture. National regulations that dictate the practice of land application of treated sewage sludge differ widely and e.g. in the US there are widespread disputes about this practice.

Depending on their level of treatment and resultant pollutant content, biosolids can be used in regulated applications for non-food agriculture, food agriculture,[36] or distribution for unlimited use. Treated biosolids can be produced in cake, granular, pellet, or liquid form and are spread over land before being incorporated into the soil or injected directly into the soil by specialist contractors. Such use was pioneered by the production of Milorganite in 1926.[citation needed]

Use of sewage sludge has shown an increase in level of soil available phosphorus and soil salinity.[37]

The findings of a 20-year field study of air, land, and water in Arizona, concluded that use of biosolids is sustainable and improves the soil and crops.[38] Other studies report that plants uptake large quantities of heavy metals and toxic pollutants that are retained by produce, which is then consumed by humans.[39][40][41]

A PhD thesis studying the addition of sludge to neutralize soil acidity concluded that the practice was not recommended if large amounts are used because the sludge produces acids when it oxidizes.[42]

Studies have indicated that pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which often adsorb to sludge during wastewater treatment, can persist in agricultural soils following biosolid application.[43] Some of these chemicals, including potential endocrine disruptor triclosan, can also travel through the soil column and leach into agricultural tile drainage at detectable levels.[43][44] Other studies, however, have shown that these chemicals remain adsorbed to surface soil particles, making them more susceptible to surface erosion than infiltration.[45][46] These studies are also mixed in their findings regarding the persistence of chemicals such as triclosan, triclocarban, and other pharmaceuticals. The impact of this persistence in soils is unknown, but the link to human and land animal health is likely tied to the capacity for plants to absorb and accumulate these chemicals in their consumed tissues. Studies of this kind are in early stages, but evidence of root uptake and translocation to leaves did occur for both triclosan and triclocarban in soybeans.[47] This effect was not present in corn when tested in a different study.[44]

A cautionary approach to land application of biosolids has been advocated by some for regions where soils have lower capacities for toxics absorption or due to the presence of unknowns in sewage biosolids.[48][12] In 2007 the Northeast Regional Multi-State Research Committee (NEC 1001) issued conservative guidelines tailored to the soils and conditions typical of the northeastern US.[49]

Use of sewage sludge is prohibited for produce to be labeled USDA-certified organic.[50] In 2014 the United States grocery chain Whole Foods banned produce grown in sewage sludge.[51][52]

Treated sewage sludge has been used in the UK, Europe and China agriculturally for more than 80 years, though there is increasing pressure in some countries to stop the practice of land application due to farm land contamination[53] and negative public opinion.[54][55][56] In the 1990s there was pressure in some European countries to ban the use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer. Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, and others introduced a ban. Since the 1960s there has been cooperative activity with industry to reduce the inputs of persistent substances from factories. This has been very successful and, for example, the content of cadmium in sewage sludge in major European cities is now only 1% of what it was in 1970.[57]

Incineration edit

Sludge can also be incinerated in sludge incineration plants which comes with its own set of environmental concerns (air pollution, disposal of the ash). Pyrolysis of the sludge to create syngas and potentially biochar is possible, as is combustion of biofuel produced from drying sewage sludge or incineration in a waste-to-energy facility for direct production of electricity and steam for district heating or industrial uses.

Thermal processes can greatly reduce the volume of the sludge, as well as achieve remediation of all or some of the biological concerns. Direct waste-to-energy incineration and complete combustion systems (such as the Gate 5 Energy System) will require multi-step cleaning of the exhaust gas, to ensure no hazardous substances are released. In addition, the ash produced by incineration or incomplete combustion processes (such as fluidized-bed dryers) may be difficult to use without subsequent treatment due to high heavy metal content; solutions to this include leaching of the ashes to remove heavy metals or in the case of ash produced in a complete-combustion process, or with biochar produced from a pyrolytic process, the heavy metals may be fixed in place and the ash material readily usable as a LEEDs preferred additive to concrete or asphalt.[58] Examples of other ways to use dried sewage sludge as an energy resource include the Gate 5 Energy System, an innovative process to power a steam turbine using heat from burning milled and dried sewage sludge, or combining dried sewage sludge with coal in coal-fired power stations. In both cases this allows for production of electricity with less carbon-dioxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power stations.[59]

Health risks edit

In 2011, the EPA commissioned a study at the United States National Research Council (NRC) to determine the health risks of sludge.[60] In this document the NRC pointed out that many of the dangers of sludge are unknown and unassessed.

The NRC published "Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices" in July 2002. The NRC concluded that while there is no documented scientific evidence that sewage sludge regulations have failed to protect public health, there is persistent uncertainty on possible adverse health effects.[61] The NRC noted that further research is needed and made about 60 recommendations for addressing public health concerns, scientific uncertainties, and data gaps in the science underlying the sewage sludge standards. The EPA responded with a commitment to conduct research addressing the NRC recommendations.[62]

Residents living near Class B sludge processing sites may experience asthma or pulmonary distress due to bioaerosols released from sludge fields.[63]

A 2004 survey of 48 individuals near affected sites found that most reported irritation symptoms, about half reported an infection within a month of the application, and about a fourth were affected by Staphylococcus aureus, including two deaths. The number of reported S. aureus infections was 25 times as high as in hospitalized patients, a high-risk group. The authors point out that regulations call for protective gear when handling Class B biosolids and that similar protections could be considered for residents in nearby areas given the wind conditions.[64]

In 2007, a health survey of persons living in close proximity to Class B sludged land was conducted.[65] A sample of 437 people exposed to Class B sludge (living within 1-mile (1.6 km) of sludged land) - and using a control group of 176 people not exposed to sludge (not living within 1-mile (1.6 km) of sludged land) reported the following:

"Results revealed that some reported health-related symptoms were statistically significantly elevated among the exposed residents, including excessive secretion of tears, abdominal bloating, jaundice, skin ulcer, dehydration, weight loss, and general weakness. The frequency of reported occurrence of bronchitis, upper respiratory infection, and giardiasis were also statistically significantly elevated. The findings suggest an increased risk for certain respiratory, gastrointestinal, and other diseases among residents living near farm fields on which the use of biosolids was permitted."

— Khuder, et al., Health Survey of Residents Living near Farm Fields Permitted to Receive Biosolids[65]

Although correlation does not imply causation, such extensive correlations may lead reasonable people to conclude that precaution is necessary in dealing with sludge and sludged farmlands.

Harrison and Oakes suggest that, in particular, "until investigations are carried out that answer these questions (...about the safety of Class B sludge...), land application of Class B sludges should be viewed as a practice that subjects neighbors and workers to substantial risk of disease."[36] They further suggest that even Class A treated sludge may have chemical contaminants (including heavy metals, such as lead) or endotoxins present, and a precautionary approach may be justified on this basis, though the vast majority of incidents reported by Lewis, et al. have been correlated with exposure to Class B untreated sludge and not Class A treated sludge.

A 2005 report by the state of North Carolina concluded that "a surveillance program of humans living near application sites should be developed to determine if there are adverse health effects in humans and animals as a result of biosolids application."[66]

The chain of sewage sledge to biosolids to fertilizers has resulted in PFASs ("forever chemicals") contamination of farm produce in Maine in 2021[67] and beef raised in Michigan in 2022.[68] The EPA PFAS Strategic Roadmap initiative, running from 2021 to 2024, will consider the full lifecycle of PFAS including health risks of PFAS in wastewater sludge.[69]

Regulation and guidelines edit

European Union edit

 

European legislation on dangerous substances has eliminated the production and marketing of some substances that have been of historic concern such as persistent organic micro-pollutants. The European Commission has said repeatedly that the "Directive on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture" (86/278/EEC) has been very successful in that there have been no cases of adverse effect where it has been applied.

The EC encourages the use of sewage sludge in agriculture because it conserves organic matter and completes nutrient cycles. Recycling of phosphate is regarded as especially important because the phosphate industry predicts that at the current rate of extraction the economic reserves will be exhausted in 100 or at most 250 years.[70] Phosphate can be recovered with minimal capital expenditure as technology currently exists, but municipalities have little political will to attempt nutrient extraction, instead opting for a "take all the other stuff" mentality.[71][unreliable source?]

European countries that joined the EU after 2004 favor landfills as a means of disposal for sewage sludge.[72] In 2006, the predicted sewage sludge growth rate was 10 million tons of sewage sludge per year.[73] This increase in the amount of sewage sludge accumulation in the EU can be due to the increase in the number of households that are connected to the sewage system.[74] The EU has directives in place to encourage the use of sewage sludge in agriculture, in a way that will not harm the soil, humans, and the environment are not harmed.[75] A guideline the EU has put into place it that sewage sludge should not be added to fruit and vegetable crops that are in season.[76] In Austria, in order to dispose of the sewage sludge in a landfill, it must first be treated in a way that reduces its biological reactivity.[77] Sweden no longer allows sewage sludge to be disposed in the land fills.[77] In the EU, regulations regarding sewage sludge disposal differ because legislation regarding landfill disposal in not in the national regulations for the EU.[77]

United States edit

According to the EPA, biosolids that meet treatment and pollutant content criteria of Part 503.13 "can be safely recycled and applied as fertilizer to sustainably improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth." However, they can not be disposed of in a sludge only landfill under Part 503.23 because of high chromium levels and boundary restrictions.

Biosolids that meet the Class B pathogen treatment and pollutant criteria, in accordance with the EPA "Standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge" (40 CFR Part 503), can be land applied with formal site restrictions and strict record keeping.[78] Biosolids that meet Class A pathogen reduction requirements or equivalent treatment by a "Process to Further Reduce Pathogens" (PFRP) have the least restrictions on use. PFRPs include pasteurization, heat drying, thermophilic composting (aerobic digestion, most common method), and beta or gamma ray irradiation.[79]

The EPA Office of the Inspector General (OIG) completed two assessments in 2000 and 2002 of the EPA sewage sludge program. The follow-up report in 2002 documented that "the EPA cannot assure the public that current land application practices are protective of human health and the environment." The report also documented that there had been an almost 100% reduction in EPA enforcement resources since the earlier assessment. This is probably the greatest issue with the practice: under both the federal program operated by the EPA and those of the several states, there is limited inspection and oversight by agencies charged with regulating these practices. To some degree, this lack of oversight is a function of the perceived (by the regulatory agencies) benign nature of the practice. However, a greater underlying issue is funding. Few states and the US EPA have the discretionary funds necessary to establish and implement a full enforcement program for biosolids.[80]

As detailed in the 1995 Plain English Guide to the Part 503 Risk Assessment, the EPA's most comprehensive risk assessment was completed for biosolids.[81]

Prior to 1991 edit

Since 1884 when sewage was first treated the amount of sludge has increased along with population and more advanced treatment technology (secondary treatment in addition to primary treatment). In the case of New York City, at first the sludge was discharged directly along the banks of rivers surrounding the city, then later piped further into the rivers, and then further still out into the harbor.[82] In 1924, to relieve a dismal condition in New York Harbor, New York City began dumping sludge at sea at a location in the New York Bight called the 12-Mile Site. This was deemed a successful public health measure and not until the late 1960s was there any examination of its consequences to marine life or to humans. There was accumulation of sludge particles on the seafloor and consequent changes in the numbers and types of benthic organisms. In 1970 a large area around the site was closed to shellfishing. From then until 1986, the practice of dumping at the 12-Mile Site came under increasing pressure stemming from a series of untoward environmental crises in the New York Bight that were attributed partly to sludge dumping. In 1986, sludge dumping was moved still further seaward to a site over the deep ocean called the 106-Mile Site. Then, again in response to political pressure arising from events unrelated to ocean dumping, the practice ended entirely in 1992. Since 1992, New York City sludge has been applied to land (outside of New York state). The wider question is whether or not changes on the sea floor caused by the portion of sludge that settles are severe enough to justify the added operational cost and human health concerns of applying sludge to land.

Since 1991 edit

After the 1991 Congressional ban on ocean dumping, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) instituted a policy of digested sludge reuse on agricultural land. The US EPA promulgated regulations – 40 CFR Part 503 – that continued to allow the use of biosolids on land as fertilizers and soil amendments which had been previously allowed under Part 257. The EPA promoted biosolids recycling throughout the 1990s. The EPA's Part 503 regulations were developed with input from university, EPA, and USDA researchers from around the country and involved an extensive review of the scientific literature and the largest risk assessment the agency had conducted to that time. The Part 503 regulations became effective in 1993.[83]

Society and culture edit

Court cases in the United States edit

  • In 2009, James Rosendall of Grand Rapids, MI was sentenced by United States District Judge Avern Cohn to 11 months in prison followed by three years of supervised release for conspiring to commit bribery. Rosendall was the former president of Synagro of Michigan, a subsidiary of Synagro Technologies. His duties included obtaining the approval of the City of Detroit to process and dispose of the city's wastewater.[84][85]
  • In 2011, Travis County Commissioners declared that Synagro's solid waste disposal activities would be inappropriate and prohibited land use according to the towns already established ordinances.[86]
  • A battle between the home rule of local government and states rights/commerce rights has been waged between the small town of Kern County, California, and Los Angeles, California. Kern county passed an ordinance "Keep Kern Clean" ballot initiative which banned sludge from being applied in Kern County. Los Angeles sued and after a protracted verdict, won the case in 2016.[87][88][89]
  • In 2012, two families won a $225,000 tort lawsuit against a sludge company that contaminated their properties.[90]
  • In 2013 in Pennsylvania, the case Gilbert vs. Synagro, a judge barred a nuisance, negligence and trespass lawsuit under Pennsylvania's Right to Farm Act.[91]
  • Scientists, testing the potential of sewage sludge to protect against lead-poisoned soil, did not inform test participants of possible dangers.[92]

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Further reading edit

  • Gattie, David K.; Lewis, David L. (2004). "A High-Level Disinfection Standard for Land-Applied Sewage Sludges (Biosolids)". Environmental Health Perspectives. 112 (2): 126–31. doi:10.1289/ehp.6207. JSTOR 3435552. PMC 1241820. PMID 14754565.
  • Snyder, C (2005). "The dirty work of promoting "recycling" of America's sewage sludge". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 11 (4): 415–27. doi:10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.415. PMID 16350476. S2CID 45282896.
  • Harrison, Ellen Z.; McBride, Murray B.; Bouldin, David R. (1999). "Land application of sewage sludges: An appraisal of the US regulations". International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 11: 1. doi:10.1504/IJEP.1999.002247. hdl:1813/5299.
  • "Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices", National Research Council, July 2002

December 12, 2023
sewage, sludge, examples, perspective, this, article, deal, primarily, with, united, states, represent, worldwide, view, subject, improve, this, article, discuss, issue, talk, page, create, article, appropriate, june, 2014, learn, when, remove, this, template,. The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this article discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new article as appropriate June 2014 Learn how and when to remove this template message Sewage sludge is the residual semi solid material that is produced as a by product during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater The term septage also refers to sludge from simple wastewater treatment but is connected to simple on site sanitation systems such as septic tanks Desiccation cracks in dried sludge the hard final remains from a sewage plantWhen fresh sewage or wastewater enters a primary settling tank approximately 50 of the suspended solid matter will settle out in an hour and a half This collection of solids is known as raw sludge or primary solids and is said to be fresh before anaerobic processes become active The sludge will become putrescent in a short time once anaerobic bacteria take over and must be removed from the sedimentation tank before this happens This is accomplished in one of two ways Most commonly the fresh sludge is continuously extracted from the bottom of a hopper shaped tank by mechanical scrapers and passed to separate sludge digestion tanks In some treatment plants an Imhoff tank is used sludge settles through a slot into the lower story or digestion chamber where it is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria resulting in liquefaction and reduced volume of the sludge The secondary treatment process also generates a sludge largely composed of bacteria and protozoa with entrained fine solids and this is removed by settlement in secondary settlement tanks Both sludge streams are typically combined and are processed by anaerobic or aerobic treatment process at either elevated or ambient temperatures After digesting for an extended period the result is called digested sludge and may be disposed of by drying and then landfilling Biosolids is a term often used in conjunction with reuse of sewage solids after sewage sludge treatment Biosolids can be defined as organic wastewater solids that can be reused after stabilization processes such as anaerobic digestion and composting 1 Opponents of sewage sludge reuse reject this term as a public relations term 2 3 Contents 1 Quantities produced 2 Contaminants 2 1 Pathogens 2 2 Micro pollutants 2 3 Heavy metals 2 4 Other hazardous substances 2 5 Pollutant ceiling concentration 3 Treatment 3 1 Classes of sewage sludge after treatment United States 4 Disposal 4 1 Landfill 4 2 Ocean dumping 4 3 Land application 4 4 Incineration 5 Health risks 6 Regulation and guidelines 6 1 European Union 6 2 United States 6 2 1 Prior to 1991 6 2 2 Since 1991 7 Society and culture 7 1 Court cases in the United States 8 References 9 Further readingQuantities produced editThe amount of sewage sludge produced is proportional to the amount and concentration of wastewater treated and it also depends on the type of wastewater treatment process used It can be expressed as kg dry solids per cubic metre of wastewater treated The total sludge production from a wastewater treatment process is the sum of sludge from primary settling tanks if they are part of the process configuration plus excess sludge from the biological treatment step For example primary sedimentation produces about 110 170 kg ML of so called primary sludge with a value of 150 kg ML regarded as being typical for municipal wastewater in the U S or Europe 1 The sludge production is expressed as kg of dry solids produced per ML of wastewater treated one mega litre ML is 103 m3 Of the biological treatment processes the activated sludge process produces about 70 100 kg ML of waste activated sludge and a trickling filter process produces slightly less sludge from the biological part of the process 60 100 kg ML 1 This means that the total sludge production of an activated sludge process that uses primary sedimentation tanks is in the range of 180 270 kg ML being the sum of primary sludge and waste activated sludge United States municipal wastewater treatment plants in 1997 produced about 7 7 million dry tons of sewage sludge and about 6 8 million dry tons in 1998 according to EPA estimates 4 As of 2004 about 60 of all sewage sludge was applied to land as a soil amendment and fertilizer for growing crops 5 In a review article published in 2012 it was reported that a total amount of 10 1 million tn DS year were produced in EU 27 countries 6 Production of sewage sludge can be reduced by conversion from flush toilets to dry toilets such as urine diverting dry toilets and composting toilets 7 Contaminants editPathogens edit Bacteria in Class A sludge products can actually regrow under certain environmental conditions 8 Pathogens could easily remain undetected in untreated sewage sludge 9 Pathogens are not a significant health issue if sewage sludge is properly treated and site specific management practices are followed 10 Micro pollutants edit Micro pollutants are compounds which are normally found at concentrations up to microgram per liter and milligram per kilogram in the aquatic and terrestrial environment respectively and they are considered to be potential threats to environmental ecosystems They can become concentrated in sewage sludge 11 Each of these disposal options comes with myriad potential and in some cases proven human health and environment impacts 12 Several organic micro pollutants such as endocrine disrupting compounds pharmaceuticals and per fluorinated compounds have been detected in sewage sludge samples around the world at concentrations ranging up to some hundreds mg kg of dried sludge 13 14 Sterols and other hormones have also been detected 15 Heavy metals edit One of the main concerns in the treated sludge is the concentrated metals content lead arsenic cadmium thallium etc certain metals are regulated while others are not 16 Leaching methods can be used to reduce the metal content and meet the regulatory limit 17 In 2009 the EPA released the Targeted National Sewage Sludge Study which reports on the level of metals chemicals hormones and other materials present in a statistical sample of sewage sludges 15 Some highlights include Lead arsenic chromium and cadmium are estimated by the EPA to be present in detectable quantities in 100 of national sewage sludges in the US while thallium is only estimated to be present in 94 1 of sludges Silver is present to the degree of 20 mg kg of sludge on average while some sludges have up to 200 milligrams of silver per kilogram of sludge one outlier demonstrated a silver lode of 800 900 mg per kg of sludge Barium is present at the rate of 500 mg kg while manganese is present at the rate of 1 g kg sludge Other hazardous substances edit Sewage treatment plants receive various forms of hazardous waste from hospitals nursing homes industry and households Low levels of constituents such as PCBs dioxin and brominated flame retardants may remain in treated sludge 18 19 There are potentially thousands of other components of sludge that remain untested undetected disposed of from modern society that also end up in sludge pharmaceuticals nano particles etc which have been proven to be hazardous to both human and ecological health 11 In 2013 in South Carolina PCBs were discovered in very high levels in wastewater sludge The problem was not discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in South Carolina were discovered to be contaminated by this hazardous material SCDHEC issued emergency regulatory order banning all PCB laden sewage sludge from being land applied on farm fields or deposited into landfills in South Carolina 20 21 Also in 2013 after DHEC request the city of Charlotte decided to stop land applying sewage sludge in South Carolina while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination 22 In February 2014 the city of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well 23 Contaminants of concern in sewage sludge are plasticizers PDBEs PFASs forever chemicals 24 and others generated by human activities including personal care products and medicines Synthetic fibers from fabrics persist in treated sewage sludge as well as in biosolids treated soils and may thus serve as an indicator of past biosolids application 25 Pollutant ceiling concentration edit The term pollutant is defined as part of the EPA 503 rule The components of sludge have pollutant limits defined by the EPA A Pollutant is an organic substance an inorganic substance a combination of organic and inorganic substances or a pathogenic organism that after discharge and upon exposure ingestion inhalation or assimilation into an organism either directly from the environment or indirectly by ingestion through the food chain could on the basis of information available to the Administrator of EPA cause death disease behavioral abnormalities cancer genetic mutations physiological malfunctions including malfunction in reproduction or physical deformations in either organisms or offspring of the organisms 26 The maximum component pollutant limits by the US EPA are Pollutant Ceiling concentration mg per kg Cadmium 85Copper 4300Lead 840Mercury 57Molybdenum 75Nickel 420Selenium 100Zinc 7500Treatment editMain article Sewage sludge treatment Sewage sludge treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater Sewage sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater in sewage treatment plants and consists of two basic forms raw primary sludge and secondary sludge also known as activated sludge in the case of the activated sludge process Sewage sludge is usually treated by one or several of the following treatment steps lime stabilization thickening dewatering drying anaerobic digestion or composting Some treatment processes such as composting and alkaline stabilization that involve significant amendments may affect contaminant strength and concentration depending on the process and the contaminant in question treatment may decrease or in some cases increase the bioavailability and or solubility of contaminants 27 Regarding sludge stabilization processes anaerobic and aerobic digestion seem to be the most common used methods in EU 27 28 Following treatment sewage sludge is either landfilled dumped in the ocean incinerated applied on agricultural land or in some cases retailed or given away for free to the general public 29 30 According to a review article published in 2012 sludge reuse including direct agricultural application and composting was the predominant choice for sludge management in EU 15 53 of produced sludge following by incineration 21 of produced sludge On the other hand the most common disposal method in EU 12 countries was landfilling 28 Classes of sewage sludge after treatment United States edit nbsp Sewage sludge in a beaker from a treatment plantIn the United States the following classes of sewage sludge after treatment are defined Class A sludge is typically dried and pasteurized and is also known as exceptional quality Class B includes all sludge not classified as Class A Class B sludge is typically undigested and is volatile Both classes of sludge may still contain radioactive or pharmaceutical wastes 31 32 Disposal editAfter treatment and dependent upon the quality of sludge produced for example with regards to heavy metal content sewage sludge is most commonly either disposed of in landfills dumped in the ocean or applied to land for its fertilizing properties as pioneered by the product Milorganite citation needed Landfill edit Sewage sludge deposition in landfills can circulate human virulent species of Cryptosporidium and Giardia pathogens Sonication and quicklime stabilization are most effective in inactivation of these pathogens microwave energy disintegration and top soil stabilization were less effective 33 Ocean dumping edit It used to be common practice to dump sewage sludge into the ocean however this practice has stopped in many nations due to environmental concerns as well to domestic and international laws and treaties 34 Ronald Reagan signed the law that prohibited ocean dumping as a means of disposal of sewage sludge in the US in 1988 35 Land application edit Main article Biosolids Biosolids is a term widely used to denote the byproduct of domestic and commercial sewage and wastewater treatment that is to be used in agriculture National regulations that dictate the practice of land application of treated sewage sludge differ widely and e g in the US there are widespread disputes about this practice Depending on their level of treatment and resultant pollutant content biosolids can be used in regulated applications for non food agriculture food agriculture 36 or distribution for unlimited use Treated biosolids can be produced in cake granular pellet or liquid form and are spread over land before being incorporated into the soil or injected directly into the soil by specialist contractors Such use was pioneered by the production of Milorganite in 1926 citation needed Use of sewage sludge has shown an increase in level of soil available phosphorus and soil salinity 37 The findings of a 20 year field study of air land and water in Arizona concluded that use of biosolids is sustainable and improves the soil and crops 38 Other studies report that plants uptake large quantities of heavy metals and toxic pollutants that are retained by produce which is then consumed by humans 39 40 41 A PhD thesis studying the addition of sludge to neutralize soil acidity concluded that the practice was not recommended if large amounts are used because the sludge produces acids when it oxidizes 42 Studies have indicated that pharmaceuticals and personal care products which often adsorb to sludge during wastewater treatment can persist in agricultural soils following biosolid application 43 Some of these chemicals including potential endocrine disruptor triclosan can also travel through the soil column and leach into agricultural tile drainage at detectable levels 43 44 Other studies however have shown that these chemicals remain adsorbed to surface soil particles making them more susceptible to surface erosion than infiltration 45 46 These studies are also mixed in their findings regarding the persistence of chemicals such as triclosan triclocarban and other pharmaceuticals The impact of this persistence in soils is unknown but the link to human and land animal health is likely tied to the capacity for plants to absorb and accumulate these chemicals in their consumed tissues Studies of this kind are in early stages but evidence of root uptake and translocation to leaves did occur for both triclosan and triclocarban in soybeans 47 This effect was not present in corn when tested in a different study 44 A cautionary approach to land application of biosolids has been advocated by some for regions where soils have lower capacities for toxics absorption or due to the presence of unknowns in sewage biosolids 48 12 In 2007 the Northeast Regional Multi State Research Committee NEC 1001 issued conservative guidelines tailored to the soils and conditions typical of the northeastern US 49 Use of sewage sludge is prohibited for produce to be labeled USDA certified organic 50 In 2014 the United States grocery chain Whole Foods banned produce grown in sewage sludge 51 52 Treated sewage sludge has been used in the UK Europe and China agriculturally for more than 80 years though there is increasing pressure in some countries to stop the practice of land application due to farm land contamination 53 and negative public opinion 54 55 56 In the 1990s there was pressure in some European countries to ban the use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer Switzerland Sweden Austria and others introduced a ban Since the 1960s there has been cooperative activity with industry to reduce the inputs of persistent substances from factories This has been very successful and for example the content of cadmium in sewage sludge in major European cities is now only 1 of what it was in 1970 57 Incineration edit Sludge can also be incinerated in sludge incineration plants which comes with its own set of environmental concerns air pollution disposal of the ash Pyrolysis of the sludge to create syngas and potentially biochar is possible as is combustion of biofuel produced from drying sewage sludge or incineration in a waste to energy facility for direct production of electricity and steam for district heating or industrial uses Thermal processes can greatly reduce the volume of the sludge as well as achieve remediation of all or some of the biological concerns Direct waste to energy incineration and complete combustion systems such as the Gate 5 Energy System will require multi step cleaning of the exhaust gas to ensure no hazardous substances are released In addition the ash produced by incineration or incomplete combustion processes such as fluidized bed dryers may be difficult to use without subsequent treatment due to high heavy metal content solutions to this include leaching of the ashes to remove heavy metals or in the case of ash produced in a complete combustion process or with biochar produced from a pyrolytic process the heavy metals may be fixed in place and the ash material readily usable as a LEEDs preferred additive to concrete or asphalt 58 Examples of other ways to use dried sewage sludge as an energy resource include the Gate 5 Energy System an innovative process to power a steam turbine using heat from burning milled and dried sewage sludge or combining dried sewage sludge with coal in coal fired power stations In both cases this allows for production of electricity with less carbon dioxide emissions than conventional coal fired power stations 59 Health risks editIn 2011 the EPA commissioned a study at the United States National Research Council NRC to determine the health risks of sludge 60 In this document the NRC pointed out that many of the dangers of sludge are unknown and unassessed The NRC published Biosolids Applied to Land Advancing Standards and Practices in July 2002 The NRC concluded that while there is no documented scientific evidence that sewage sludge regulations have failed to protect public health there is persistent uncertainty on possible adverse health effects 61 The NRC noted that further research is needed and made about 60 recommendations for addressing public health concerns scientific uncertainties and data gaps in the science underlying the sewage sludge standards The EPA responded with a commitment to conduct research addressing the NRC recommendations 62 Residents living near Class B sludge processing sites may experience asthma or pulmonary distress due to bioaerosols released from sludge fields 63 A 2004 survey of 48 individuals near affected sites found that most reported irritation symptoms about half reported an infection within a month of the application and about a fourth were affected by Staphylococcus aureus including two deaths The number of reported S aureus infections was 25 times as high as in hospitalized patients a high risk group The authors point out that regulations call for protective gear when handling Class B biosolids and that similar protections could be considered for residents in nearby areas given the wind conditions 64 In 2007 a health survey of persons living in close proximity to Class B sludged land was conducted 65 A sample of 437 people exposed to Class B sludge living within 1 mile 1 6 km of sludged land and using a control group of 176 people not exposed to sludge not living within 1 mile 1 6 km of sludged land reported the following Results revealed that some reported health related symptoms were statistically significantly elevated among the exposed residents including excessive secretion of tears abdominal bloating jaundice skin ulcer dehydration weight loss and general weakness The frequency of reported occurrence of bronchitis upper respiratory infection and giardiasis were also statistically significantly elevated The findings suggest an increased risk for certain respiratory gastrointestinal and other diseases among residents living near farm fields on which the use of biosolids was permitted Khuder et al Health Survey of Residents Living near Farm Fields Permitted to Receive Biosolids 65 Although correlation does not imply causation such extensive correlations may lead reasonable people to conclude that precaution is necessary in dealing with sludge and sludged farmlands Harrison and Oakes suggest that in particular until investigations are carried out that answer these questions about the safety of Class B sludge land application of Class B sludges should be viewed as a practice that subjects neighbors and workers to substantial risk of disease 36 They further suggest that even Class A treated sludge may have chemical contaminants including heavy metals such as lead or endotoxins present and a precautionary approach may be justified on this basis though the vast majority of incidents reported by Lewis et al have been correlated with exposure to Class B untreated sludge and not Class A treated sludge A 2005 report by the state of North Carolina concluded that a surveillance program of humans living near application sites should be developed to determine if there are adverse health effects in humans and animals as a result of biosolids application 66 The chain of sewage sledge to biosolids to fertilizers has resulted in PFASs forever chemicals contamination of farm produce in Maine in 2021 67 and beef raised in Michigan in 2022 68 The EPA PFAS Strategic Roadmap initiative running from 2021 to 2024 will consider the full lifecycle of PFAS including health risks of PFAS in wastewater sludge 69 Regulation and guidelines editEuropean Union edit nbsp European legislation on dangerous substances has eliminated the production and marketing of some substances that have been of historic concern such as persistent organic micro pollutants The European Commission has said repeatedly that the Directive on the protection of the environment and in particular of the soil when sewage sludge is used in agriculture 86 278 EEC has been very successful in that there have been no cases of adverse effect where it has been applied The EC encourages the use of sewage sludge in agriculture because it conserves organic matter and completes nutrient cycles Recycling of phosphate is regarded as especially important because the phosphate industry predicts that at the current rate of extraction the economic reserves will be exhausted in 100 or at most 250 years 70 Phosphate can be recovered with minimal capital expenditure as technology currently exists but municipalities have little political will to attempt nutrient extraction instead opting for a take all the other stuff mentality 71 unreliable source European countries that joined the EU after 2004 favor landfills as a means of disposal for sewage sludge 72 In 2006 the predicted sewage sludge growth rate was 10 million tons of sewage sludge per year 73 This increase in the amount of sewage sludge accumulation in the EU can be due to the increase in the number of households that are connected to the sewage system 74 The EU has directives in place to encourage the use of sewage sludge in agriculture in a way that will not harm the soil humans and the environment are not harmed 75 A guideline the EU has put into place it that sewage sludge should not be added to fruit and vegetable crops that are in season 76 In Austria in order to dispose of the sewage sludge in a landfill it must first be treated in a way that reduces its biological reactivity 77 Sweden no longer allows sewage sludge to be disposed in the land fills 77 In the EU regulations regarding sewage sludge disposal differ because legislation regarding landfill disposal in not in the national regulations for the EU 77 United States edit This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia s quality standards The specific problem is content of subheadings needs to be integrated into the section Please help improve this section if you can June 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message According to the EPA biosolids that meet treatment and pollutant content criteria of Part 503 13 can be safely recycled and applied as fertilizer to sustainably improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth However they can not be disposed of in a sludge only landfill under Part 503 23 because of high chromium levels and boundary restrictions Biosolids that meet the Class B pathogen treatment and pollutant criteria in accordance with the EPA Standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge 40 CFR Part 503 can be land applied with formal site restrictions and strict record keeping 78 Biosolids that meet Class A pathogen reduction requirements or equivalent treatment by a Process to Further Reduce Pathogens PFRP have the least restrictions on use PFRPs include pasteurization heat drying thermophilic composting aerobic digestion most common method and beta or gamma ray irradiation 79 The EPA Office of the Inspector General OIG completed two assessments in 2000 and 2002 of the EPA sewage sludge program The follow up report in 2002 documented that the EPA cannot assure the public that current land application practices are protective of human health and the environment The report also documented that there had been an almost 100 reduction in EPA enforcement resources since the earlier assessment This is probably the greatest issue with the practice under both the federal program operated by the EPA and those of the several states there is limited inspection and oversight by agencies charged with regulating these practices To some degree this lack of oversight is a function of the perceived by the regulatory agencies benign nature of the practice However a greater underlying issue is funding Few states and the US EPA have the discretionary funds necessary to establish and implement a full enforcement program for biosolids 80 As detailed in the 1995 Plain English Guide to the Part 503 Risk Assessment the EPA s most comprehensive risk assessment was completed for biosolids 81 Prior to 1991 edit Since 1884 when sewage was first treated the amount of sludge has increased along with population and more advanced treatment technology secondary treatment in addition to primary treatment In the case of New York City at first the sludge was discharged directly along the banks of rivers surrounding the city then later piped further into the rivers and then further still out into the harbor 82 In 1924 to relieve a dismal condition in New York Harbor New York City began dumping sludge at sea at a location in the New York Bight called the 12 Mile Site This was deemed a successful public health measure and not until the late 1960s was there any examination of its consequences to marine life or to humans There was accumulation of sludge particles on the seafloor and consequent changes in the numbers and types of benthic organisms In 1970 a large area around the site was closed to shellfishing From then until 1986 the practice of dumping at the 12 Mile Site came under increasing pressure stemming from a series of untoward environmental crises in the New York Bight that were attributed partly to sludge dumping In 1986 sludge dumping was moved still further seaward to a site over the deep ocean called the 106 Mile Site Then again in response to political pressure arising from events unrelated to ocean dumping the practice ended entirely in 1992 Since 1992 New York City sludge has been applied to land outside of New York state The wider question is whether or not changes on the sea floor caused by the portion of sludge that settles are severe enough to justify the added operational cost and human health concerns of applying sludge to land Since 1991 edit After the 1991 Congressional ban on ocean dumping the U S Environmental Protection Agency EPA instituted a policy of digested sludge reuse on agricultural land The US EPA promulgated regulations 40 CFR Part 503 that continued to allow the use of biosolids on land as fertilizers and soil amendments which had been previously allowed under Part 257 The EPA promoted biosolids recycling throughout the 1990s The EPA s Part 503 regulations were developed with input from university EPA and USDA researchers from around the country and involved an extensive review of the scientific literature and the largest risk assessment the agency had conducted to that time The Part 503 regulations became effective in 1993 83 Society and culture editCourt cases in the United States edit In 2009 James Rosendall of Grand Rapids MI was sentenced by United States District Judge Avern Cohn to 11 months in prison followed by three years of supervised release for conspiring to commit bribery Rosendall was the former president of Synagro of Michigan a subsidiary of Synagro Technologies His duties included obtaining the approval of the City of Detroit to process and dispose of the city s wastewater 84 85 In 2011 Travis County Commissioners declared that Synagro s solid waste disposal activities would be inappropriate and prohibited land use according to the towns already established ordinances 86 A battle between the home rule of local government and states rights commerce rights has been waged between the small town of Kern County California and Los Angeles California Kern county passed an ordinance Keep Kern Clean ballot initiative which banned sludge from being applied in Kern County Los Angeles sued and after a protracted verdict won the case in 2016 87 88 89 In 2012 two families won a 225 000 tort lawsuit against a sludge company that contaminated their properties 90 In 2013 in Pennsylvania the case Gilbert vs Synagro a judge barred a nuisance negligence and trespass lawsuit under Pennsylvania s Right to Farm Act 91 Scientists testing the potential of sewage sludge to protect against lead poisoned soil did not inform test participants of possible dangers 92 References edit a b c Tchobanoglous George Burton Franklin L Stensel H David 2003 Wastewater engineering treatment and reuse 4 ed Metcalf amp Eddy p 1449 ISBN 978 0071122504 The Sludge Hits the Fan www ejnet org Retrieved 2019 11 12 Stauber John Rampton Sheldon 1995 Toxic Sludge Is Good for You Lies Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry Common Courage Press ISBN 1567510604 Biosolids Generation Use and Disposal in The United States PDF Report EPA September 1999 p 2 EPA530 R 99 009 Retrieved 30 May 2017 Lu Qin He Zhenli H Stoffella Peter J 2012 Torri Silvana I ed Land Application of Biosolids in the USA A Review Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2012 4 doi 10 1155 2012 201462 201462 Kelessidis and Stasinakis 2012 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE METHODS USED FOR TREATMENT AND FINAL DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Waste Management vol 32 June 2012 p 1186 1195 Kelessidis and Stasinakis 2012 Rieck Christian von Munch Elisabeth Hoffmann Heike December 2012 Technology Review of Urine diverting dry toilets UDDTs PDF Susana GIZ Retrieved 5 June 2017 Jolis Domenec April 2006 Regrowth of fecal coliforms in class A biosolids Water Environment Research 78 4 442 5 doi 10 2175 106143005X90074 PMID 16749313 S2CID 21071021 Lewis David L Gattie David K July 2002 Pathogen Risks From Applying Sewage Sludge to Land Environmental Science amp Technology 36 13 286A 293A doi 10 1021 es0223426 PMID 12144261 Researchers Link Increased Risk Of Illness To Sewage Sludge Used As Fertilizer ScienceDaily Press release 30 July 2002 Harrison Ellen Z Oakes Summer Rayne 2003 Investigation of alleged health incidents associated with land application of sewage sludges PDF New Solutions 12 4 387 408 doi 10 2190 0FJ0 T6HJ 08EM HWW8 hdl 1813 5319 PMID 17208785 S2CID 26931475 Retrieved 30 May 2017 a b Biosolids Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report Overview EPA January 2009 EPA 822 R 08 014 Archived from the original on 16 February 2015 Retrieved 12 January 2015 a b Harrison Ellen Z McBride Murray March 2009 Case for Caution Revisited Health and Environmental Impacts of Application of Sewage Sludges to Agricultural Land PDF Cornell Waste Management Institute Retrieved 16 January 2016 Stasinakis et al 2013 Contribution of primary and secondary treatment on the removal of benzothiazoles benzotriazoles endocrine disruptors pharmaceuticals and perfluorinated compounds in a sewage treatment plant Sci Total Environ vol 463 464 October 2013 p 1067 1075 Stasinakis et al 2013 Arvaniti and Stasinakis 2015 Review on the occurrence fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment Sci Total Environ vol 524 525 August 2015 p 81 92 Arvaniti and Stasinakis 2015 a b Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Statistical Analysis Report PDF EPA January 2009 EPA 822 R 08 018 Archived from the original PDF on 11 July 2009 Retrieved 6 August 2009 McBride Murray B October 2003 Toxic metals in sewage sludge amended soils Has promotion of beneficial use discounted the risks Advances in Environmental Research 8 5 19 doi 10 1016 S1093 0191 02 00141 7 Retrieved 30 May 2017 Turek Marian Korolewicz Teofil Ciba Jerzy 2005 Removal of Heavy Metals from Sewage Sludge Used as Soil Fertilizer Soil and Sediment Contamination 14 2 143 54 doi 10 1080 15320380590911797 S2CID 93258156 Henry Christopher January 2005 Understanding Biosolids PDF University of Washington Archived from the original PDF on 21 February 2012 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Household Chemicals and Drugs Found in Biosolids from Wastewater Treatment Plants United States Geological Survey 16 November 2016 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Plowden Mark 25 September 2013 DHEC Issues Emergency Regulation Expands Investigation into PCBs Found at Water Treatment Plants SCDHEC Archived from the original on 26 September 2013 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Emergency Regulation for Management of Wastewater System Sludge PDF SCDHEC 25 October 2013 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Henderson Bruce 14 April 2014 Charlotte PCB cleanup costs to top 1 3 million The Charlotte Observer Retrieved 1 June 2017 Henderson Bruce Lyttle Steve Bethea April 7 February 2014 Task force named to probe chemical dumping The Charlotte Observer Retrieved 1 June 2017 Toxic Risk Assessment of Pollutants in Biosolids EPA 26 February 2020 Retrieved 28 March 2022 Zubris Kimberly Ann V Richards Brian K 2005 Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge Environmental Pollution 138 2 201 11 doi 10 1016 j envpol 2005 04 013 PMID 15967553 503 9 PDF Code of Federal Regulations GPO Report Vol 40 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Richards Brian K Peverly John H Steenhuis Tammo S Liebowitz Barry N 1997 Effect of Processing Mode on Trace Elements in Dewatered Sludge Products Journal of Environmental Quality 26 3 782 8 doi 10 2134 jeq1997 00472425002600030027x a b Kelessidis and Stasinakis 2012 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE METHODS USED FOR TREATMENT AND FINAL DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Waste Management vol 32 June 2012 p 1186 1195 Kelessidis and Stasinakis 2012 Branded products containing sewage sludge Sludge News 2007 11 30 Retrieved 16 January 2015 Wilce Rebekah 9 May 2013 Trade Group Offers Free Sewage Sludge Compost to Community Gardens in Million Tomato Campaign for Food Banks PRWatch Retrieved 16 January 2015 Pharmaceutical waste management Premier Archived from the original on 25 May 2007 Retrieved 30 May 2017 Boyd John 26 August 2011 Radioactive Sludge Collects in Japan s Sewage Treatment Plants IEEE Retrieved 30 May 2017 Graczyk Thaddeus K Kacprzak Malgorzata Neczaj Ewa et al 2008 01 01 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in sewage sludge and solid waste landfill leachate and quantitative comparative analysis of sanitization treatments on pathogen inactivation Environmental Research 106 1 27 33 Bibcode 2008ER 106 27G doi 10 1016 j envres 2007 05 005 ISSN 0013 9351 PMID 17585898 US EPA OW 2015 07 10 Learn about Ocean Dumping US EPA Retrieved 2019 11 12 US EPA OA EPA History Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988 archive epa gov Retrieved 2022 01 12 a b Harrison Ellen Z Oakes Summer Rayne 2003 Investigation of alleged health incidents associated with land application of sewage sludges New Solutions 12 4 387 408 doi 10 2190 0FJ0 T6HJ 08EM HWW8 hdl 1813 5319 PMID 17208785 S2CID 26931475 Hosseinpur Alireza Pashamokhtari Hamed 2013 The effects of incubation on phosphorus desorption properties phosphorus availability and salinity of biosolids amended soils Environmental Earth Sciences 69 3 899 908 Bibcode 2013EES 69 899H doi 10 1007 s12665 012 1975 6 S2CID 140537340 Artiola Janick F November 2006 Biosolids land use in Arizona PDF University of Arizona Archived from the original PDF on 9 March 2008 Retrieved 2 June 2017 McBride Murray B Richards Brian K Steenhuis Tammo S Spiers G May June 2000 Molybdenum Uptake by Forage Crops Grown on Sewage Sludge Amended Soils in the Field and Greenhouse PDF Journal of Environmental Quality 29 3 848 54 doi 10 2134 jeq2000 00472425002900030021x Retrieved 2 June 2017 Kim Bojeong McBride Murray B Richards Brian K Steenhuis Tammo S 2007 The long term effect of sludge application on Cu Zn and Mo behavior in soils and accumulation in soybean seeds Plant and Soil 299 1 2 227 36 doi 10 1007 s11104 007 9377 3 S2CID 24692709 McBride Murray B 2005 Molybdenum and Copper Uptake by Forage Grasses and Legumes Grown on a Metal Contaminated Sludge Site Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 36 17 18 2489 501 doi 10 1080 00103620500255840 S2CID 98655719 Bulegoa Komunikazio 8 January 2009 Adding high doses of sludge to neutralize soil acidity not advisable Basque Research Retrieved 2 June 2017 a b Edwards M Topp E Metcalfe CD et al 1 July 2009 Pharmaceutical and personal care products in tile drainage following surface spreading and injection of dewatered municipal biosolids to an agricultural field Science of the Total Environment 407 14 4220 30 Bibcode 2009ScTEn 407 4220E doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2009 02 028 PMID 19394680 a b Xia Kang Hundal Lakhwinder S Kumar Kuldip et al 2010 Triclocarban triclosan polybrominated diphenyl ethers and 4 nonylphenol in biosolids and in soil receiving 33 year biosolids application Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 29 3 597 605 doi 10 1002 etc 66 PMID 20821484 S2CID 8455892 Cha Jongmun Cupples Alison M 2009 Detection of the antimicrobials triclocarban and triclosan in agricultural soils following land application of municipal biosolids Water Research 43 9 2522 30 doi 10 1016 j watres 2009 03 004 PMID 19327812 Cha Jongmun Cupples Alison M 2010 Triclocarban and triclosan biodegradation at field concentrations and the resulting leaching potentials in three agricultural soils Chemosphere 81 4 494 9 Bibcode 2010Chmsp 81 494C doi 10 1016 j chemosphere 2010 07 040 PMID 20705327 Wu Chenxi Spongberg Alison L Witter Jason D et al 2010 Uptake of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products by Soybean Plants from Soils Applied with Biosolids and Irrigated with Contaminated Water Environmental Science amp Technology 44 16 6157 61 Bibcode 2010EnST 44 6157W doi 10 1021 es1011115 PMID 20704212 Harrison Ellen Z McBride Murray B Bouldin David R 1999 Land application of sewage sludges An appraisal of the US regulations International Journal of Environment and Pollution 11 1 36 doi 10 1504 IJEP 1999 002247 hdl 1813 5299 Barker Allen Harrison Ellen Hay Anthony et al April 2007 Guidelines for Application of Sewage Biosolids to Agricultural Lands in the Northeastern U S PDF Cornell University Retrieved 2 June 2017 Understanding Organic Food Labels Benefits and Claims HelpGuide Archived from the original on 9 January 2012 Retrieved 2 June 2017 Whole Foods Draws A Line In The Sludge Food Republic 23 January 2014 Retrieved 26 February 2017 Barclay Eliza 21 January 2014 Whole Foods Bans Produce Grown With Sludge But Who Wins NPR Retrieved 26 February 2017 Guangwei He 7 July 2014 In China s Heartland A Toxic Trail Leads from Factories to Fields to Food Yale Environment 360 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Reid Andy 21 December 2015 Sewage sludge prompts outrage PressReader Sun Sentinel Retrieved 5 June 2017 Godfrey Miles 7 August 2008 Outrage as Poohaven sewage plant is approved The Argus Retrieved 5 June 2017 Richardson Jill 4 March 2010 Outrage in San Francisco City Gives Residents Organic Compost Containing Toxic Sewage Sludge AlterNet Retrieved 5 June 2017 Zorpas Antonis A 2012 Contribution of Zeolites in Sewage Sludge Composting In Inglezakis Vassilis J Zorpas Antonis A eds Handbook of Natural Zeolites Bentham Science p 289 ISBN 978 1 60805 446 6 Ingunza Maria del Pilar Durante Junior Olavo Francisco dos Santos Medeiros Sayonara Andrade 2013 Wu Yun Wu Yijin eds Sewage Sludge as Raw Material in Asphalt Mixtures Advanced Materials Research 664 638 643 doi 10 4028 www scientific net AMR 664 638 S2CID 137163083 Cartmell Elise Gostelow Peter Riddell Black Drusilla et al 2006 Biosolids A Fuel or a Waste An Integrated Appraisal of Five Co combustion Scenarios with Policy Analysis Environmental Science amp Technology 40 3 649 58 Bibcode 2006EnST 40 649C doi 10 1021 es052181g PMID 16509299 Jerving Sara 18 March 2012 New Toxic Sludge PR and Lobbying Effort Gets Underway CommonDreams PRWatch Retrieved 2 June 2017 Biosolids Applied to Land Advancing Standards and Practices Washington DC National Academy of Sciences 2002 doi 10 17226 10426 ISBN 978 0 309 57036 7 Use and Disposal of Biosolids EPA 2016 11 08 Archived from the original on 26 March 2008 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Douwes J Thorne P Pearce N Heederik D 2003 Bioaerosol Health Effects and Exposure Assessment Progress and Prospects Annals of Occupational Hygiene 47 3 187 200 doi 10 1093 annhyg meg032 PMID 12639832 Lewis David L Gattie David K Novak Marc E et al 2002 Interactions of pathogens and irritant chemicals in land applied sewage sludges biosolids BMC Public Health 2 11 doi 10 1186 1471 2458 2 11 PMC 117218 PMID 12097151 a b Khuder Sadik Milz Sheryl A Bisesi Michael et al 2007 Health Survey of Residents Living Near Farm Fields Permitted to Receive Biosolids Archives of Environmental amp Occupational Health 62 1 5 11 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 534 8483 doi 10 3200 AEOH 62 1 5 11 PMID 18171641 S2CID 14867023 Human Health Risk Sludge Victims Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Perkins Tom 22 March 2022 I don t know how we ll survive the farmers facing ruin in America s forever chemicals crisis The Guardian Guardian News amp Media Limited Retrieved 28 March 2022 Toxic forever chemicals found in Michigan farm s beef abcNEWS ABC News Internet Ventures Retrieved 28 March 2022 PFAS Strategic Roadmap EPA s Commitments to Action 2021 2024 EPA 14 October 2021 Retrieved 2022 03 24 Sims J Thomas Sharpley Andrew N eds 2005 Phosphorus Agriculture and the Environment ASA SSSA CSSA ISBN 978 0 89118 269 6 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Morgenschweis Christa Phosphorus recovery with Pearl technology Grontmij Archived from the original on 18 March 2016 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Kelessidis Alexandros Stasinakis Athanasios S June 2012 Comparative study of the methods used for treatment and final disposal of sewage sludge in European countries Waste Management New York N Y 32 6 1186 1195 doi 10 1016 j wasman 2012 01 012 ISSN 1879 2456 PMID 22336390 Martinez K Abad E Palacios O et al 2007 11 01 Assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo p dioxins and dibenzofurans in sludges according to the European environmental policy Environment International 33 8 1040 1047 doi 10 1016 j envint 2007 06 005 ISSN 0160 4120 PMID 17698193 Sewage sludge Waste Environment European Commission ec europa eu Retrieved 2019 11 19 Council Directive 86 278 EEC of 12 June 1986 on the protection of the environment and in particular of the soil when sewage sludge is used in agriculture vol OJ L 1986 07 04 retrieved 2019 11 19 Council Directive 86 278 EEC of 12 June 1986 on the protection of the environment and in particular of the soil when sewage sludge is used in agriculture vol OJ L 1986 07 04 retrieved 2019 11 19 a b c Disposal and Recycling Routes for Sewage Sludge Part 2 Regulatory report October 2001 pg 1 65 Written by the EU Directive General for the Environment under the European commission https ec europa eu environment archives waste sludge pdf sludge disposal2 pdf Title 40 Protection of Environment GPO Retrieved 5 June 2017 Processes to Further Reduce Pathogens PFRPs PDF EPA Archived from the original PDF on 6 March 2009 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Land Application of Biosolids PDF EPA 28 March 2002 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Questions and Answers on the Part 503 Risk Assessments PDF EPA 2014 04 23 Archived from the original PDF on 3 November 2014 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Swanson R Lawrence Bortman Marci L O Connor Thomas P Stanford Harold M November 2004 Science policy and the management of sewage materials The New York City experience Marine Pollution Bulletin 49 9 10 679 687 doi 10 1016 j marpolbul 2004 06 025 PMID 15530510 A Plain English Guide to the EPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule PDF EPA September 1994 Retrieved 5 June 2017 Former Synagro Executive guilty of bribing City officials Synagro Bribe Caught on FBI Tape Travis County Sludge violates local ordinances PDF Los Angeles and Kern County s Epic Sewage Sludge Battle PR Watch 2011 10 05 Retrieved 2018 10 26 Court Reaches Verdict in Los Angeles County Vs Kern County Case Waste360 2016 12 08 Retrieved 2023 02 15 City of L A Secures Trial Decision Striking Down Kern County Biosolids Ban Department of Public Works dpw lacity org Retrieved 2023 02 15 Writer D E SmootPhoenix Staff Landowners win sludge suit Muskogee Phoenix Retrieved 2018 10 26 Gilbert v synagro lawsuit PDF Heilprin John 2008 04 14 Sludge tested as lead protection in poor areas Boston com Retrieved 2018 10 26 Further reading editGattie David K Lewis David L 2004 A High Level Disinfection Standard for Land Applied Sewage Sludges Biosolids Environmental Health Perspectives 112 2 126 31 doi 10 1289 ehp 6207 JSTOR 3435552 PMC 1241820 PMID 14754565 Snyder C 2005 The dirty work of promoting recycling of America s sewage sludge International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 11 4 415 27 doi 10 1179 oeh 2005 11 4 415 PMID 16350476 S2CID 45282896 Harrison Ellen Z McBride Murray B Bouldin David R 1999 Land application of sewage sludges An appraisal of the US regulations International Journal of Environment and Pollution 11 1 doi 10 1504 IJEP 1999 002247 hdl 1813 5299 Biosolids Applied to Land Advancing Standards and Practices National Research Council July 2002 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sewage sludge amp oldid 1187800819, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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