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Food energy

Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from their food to sustain their metabolism, including their muscular activity.[1]

Most animals derive most of their energy from aerobic respiration, namely combining the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins with oxygen from air or dissolved in water.[2] Other smaller components of the diet, such as organic acids, polyols, and ethanol (drinking alcohol) may contribute to the energy input. Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol, and fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons. Some organisms have instead anaerobic respiration, which extracts energy from food by reactions that do not require oxygen.

The energy contents of a given mass of food is usually expressed in the metric (SI) unit of energy, the joule (J), and its multiple the kilojoule (kJ); or in the traditional unit of heat energy, the calorie (cal). In nutritional contexts, the latter is often (especially in US) the "large" variant of the unit, also written "Calorie" (with symbol Cal, both with capital "C") or "kilocalorie" (kcal), and equivalent to 4184 J or 4.184 kJ.[3] Thus, for example, fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of food energy per unit mass, 37 and 29 kJ/g (9 and 7 kcal/g), respectively. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g), though there are differences between different kinds. For example, the values for glucose, sucrose, and starch are 15.57, 16.48 and 17.48 kilojoules per gram (3.72, 3.94 and 4.18 kcal/g) respectively. The differing energy density of foods (fat, alcohols, carbohydrates and proteins) lies mainly in their varying proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fibre, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols (including sugar alcohols) and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g (2.4 kcal/g) and 13 kJ/g (3.1 kcal/g) respectively.[4]

The energy contents of a complex dish or meal can be approximated by adding the energy contents of its components.

History and methods of measurement

Direct calorimetry of combustion

The first determinations of the energy content of food were made by burning a dried sample in a bomb calorimeter and measuring the temperature change in the water surrounding the apparatus, a method known as direct calorimetry.[5]

The Atwater system

However, the direct calorimetric method generally overestimates the actual energy that the body can obtain from the food, because it also counts the energy contents of dietary fiber and other indigestible components, and does not allow for partial absorption and/or incomplete metabolism of certain substances. For this reason, today the energy content of food is instead obtained indirectly, by using chemical analysis to determine the amount of each digestible dietary component (such as protein, carbohydrates, and fats), and adding the respective food energy contents, previously obtained by measurement of metabolic heat released by the body.[6][7] In particular, the fibre content is excluded. This method is known as the Modified Atwater system, after Wilbur Atwater who pioneered these measurements in the late 19th century.[1][8]

The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA, who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed.[9]

Dietary sources of energy

The typical human diet consists chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, ethanol, and indigestible components such as bones, seeds, and fibre (mostly cellulose). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins typically comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of food.[10] Ruminants can extract food energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens that decompose it into digestible carbohydrates.

Other minor components of the human diet that contribute to its energy content are organic acids such as citric and tartaric, and polyols such as glycerol, xylitol, inositol, and sorbitol.

Some nutrients have regulatory roles affected by cell signaling, in addition to providing energy for the body.[11] For example, leucine plays an important role in the regulation of protein metabolism and suppresses an individual's appetite.[12] Small amounts of essential fatty acids, constituents of some fats that cannot be synthesized by the human body, are used (and necessary) for other biochemical processes.

The approximate food energy contents of various human diet components, to be used in package labeling according to the EU regulations[13] and UK regulations,[14] are:

Food component Energy density
kJ/g kcal/g
Fat 37 9
Ethanol 29 7
Proteins 17 4
Carbohydrates 17 4
Organic acids 13 3
Polyols (sugar alcohols, sweeteners) (1) 10 2.4
Fiber (2) 8 2

(1) Some polyols, like erythritol, are not digested and should be excluded from the count.

(2) This entry exists in the EU regulations of 2008,[13] but not in the UK regulations, according to which fibre shall not be counted.[14]

More detailed tables for specific foods have been published by many organizations, such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization also has published a similar table.[3]

Other components of the human diet are either noncaloric, or are usually consumed in such small amounts that they can be neglected.

Energy usage in the human body

The food energy actually obtained by respiration is used by the human body for a wide range of purposes, including basal metabolism of various organs and tissues, maintaining the internal body temperature, and exerting muscular force to maintain posture and produce motion. About 20% is used for brain metabolism.[3]

The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into muscular (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy.[15] This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 18 kJ/h (4.3 kcal/h). For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from "burning" food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus 1,300 kJ (300 kcal) per hour,[16] which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to "burn off" 17,000 kJ (4,000 kcal)[17] more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram of body fat is roughly equivalent to 32,300 kilojoules of food energy (i.e., 3,500 kilocalories per pound or 7,700 kilocalories per kilogram).[18]

Recommended daily intake

Many countries and health organizations have published recommendations for healthy levels of daily intake of food energy. For example, the United States government estimates 8,400 and 10,900 kJ (2,000 and 2,600 kcal) needed for women and men, respectively, between ages 26 and 45, whose total physical activity is equivalent to walking around 2.5 to 5 km (1+12 to 3 mi) per day in addition to the activities of sedentary living. These estimates are for a "reference woman" who is 1.63 m (5 ft 4 in) tall and weighs 57 kg (126 lb) and a "reference man" who is 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) tall and weighs 70 kg (154 lb).[19] Because caloric requirements vary by height, activity, age, pregnancy status, and other factors, the USDA created the DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals in order to determine individual caloric needs.[20][21]

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal).[22]

Older people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically active people require more. Recognizing these factors, Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council recommends different daily energy intakes for each age and gender group.[23] Notwithstanding, nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend the average daily energy intake of 8,800 kJ (2,100 kcal).

The minimum food energy intake is also higher in cold environments. Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.[24]

Nutrition labels

 
The nutritional information label on a pack of Basmati rice in the United Kingdom

Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake. To facilitate evaluation by consumers, food energy values (and other nutritional properties) in package labels or tables are often quoted for convenient amounts of the food, rather than per gram or kilogram; such as in "calories per serving" or "kcal per 100 g", or "kJ per package". The units vary depending on country:

Country Mandatory unit (symbol) Second unit (symbol) Common usage
United States Calorie (Cal)[25] kilojoule (kJ), optional[25] calorie (cal)[26]
Canada Calorie (Cal)[citation needed] kilojoule (kJ), optional[citation needed] calorie (cal)[citation needed]
Australia and New Zealand kilojoule (kJ)[27][28] kilocalorie (kcal), optional[27][28] AU: kilocalorie (kcal)[citation needed]
United Kingdom kJ[14] kcal, mandatory[14]
European Union kilojoule (kJ)[29] kilocalorie (kcal), mandatory[29]
Brazil caloria or quilocaloria (kcal)[30] caloria

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Allison Marsh (2020): "How Counting Calories Became a Science: Calorimeters defined the nutritional value of food and the output of steam generators 2022-01-21 at the Wayback Machine" Online article on the IEEE Spectrum 2022-01-20 at the Wayback Machine website, dated 29 December 2020. Accessed on 2022-01-20.
  2. ^ Ross, K. A. (2000c) Energy and fuel, in Littledyke M., Ross K. A. and Lakin E. (eds), Science Knowledge and the Environment. London: David Fulton Publishers.
  3. ^ a b c United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (2003): "FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 77: Food energy - methods of analysis and conversion factors 2010-05-24 at the Wayback Machine". Accessed on 21 January 2022.
  4. ^ "Schedule 7: Nutrition labelling". Legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives. 1 July 1996. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
  5. ^ Adrienne Youdim (2021): "Calories 2013-08-04 at the Wayback Machine". Article in the Merck Manual Home Edition online, dated Dec/2011. Accessed on 21 February 2022
  6. ^ "Nutrient Value of Some Common Foods" (PDF). Health Canada, PDF p. 4. 1997. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
  7. ^ "How Do Food Manufacturers Calculate the Calorie Count of Packaged Foods?". Scientific American. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
  8. ^ "Why food labels are wrong" 2011-11-13 at the Wayback Machine by Bijal Trivedi, New Scientist, 18 July 2009, pp. 30-3.
  9. ^ Annabel Merrill; Bernice Watt (1973). (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2016.
  10. ^ "Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nutrition". The Merck Manual.
  11. ^ Jeffrey S. F. (2006). "Regulating Energy Balance: The Substrate Strikes Back". Science: 861–864.
  12. ^ Garlick, P. J. The role of leucine in the regulation of protein metabolism. Journal of Nutrition, 2005. 135(6): 1553S–6S.
  13. ^ a b "Council directive 90/496/EEC of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs". from the original on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
  14. ^ a b c d United Kingdom The Food Labelling Regulations 1996 2013-09-21 at the Wayback Machine – Schedule 7: Nutrition labelling 2013-03-17 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ Stephen Seiler, Efficiency, Economy and Endurance Performance 2007-12-21 at the Wayback Machine (1996, 2005).
  16. ^ Concept II Rowing Ergometer, user manual 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine (1993).
  17. ^ Guyton A. C., Hall J. E. Textbook of medical physiology, 11 ed., p. 887, Elsevier Saunders, 2006.
  18. ^ Wishnofsky, M. Caloric Equivalents of Gained or Lost Weight. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (1958).
  19. ^ US National Institutes of Health (2015): "Dietary guidelines 2016-03-01 at the Wayback Machine"
  20. ^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020 - 2025" (PDF). dietaryguidelines.gov. USDA & HHS. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  21. ^ "DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals". usda.gov. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  22. ^ United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (2014): "Hunger 2009-12-20 at the Wayback Machine". Accessed on 27 September 2014
  23. ^ "Dietary Energy". Retrieved 27 September 2014.
  24. ^ Evaluation of a mental effort hypothesis for correlations between cortical metabolism and intelligence 2012-10-23 at the Wayback Machine, Intelligence, Volume 21, Number 3, November 1995 , pp. 267-278(12), 1995.
  25. ^ a b United States Federal Government (1977), "Code of Federal Regulations - Part 101 - Food labeling 2022-01-21 at the Wayback Machine", from Federal Register 14308, 15 March 1977.
  26. ^ U. S. Food and Drug Administration (2019): "Calories on the Menu - Information for 2022-01-20 at the Wayback Machine". Online document at the FDA Website 2013-09-15 at the Wayback Machine, dated 5 August 2019. Accessed on 2022-01-20.
  27. ^ a b Health. "Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Standard 1.2.8 – Nutrition information requirements". www.legislation.gov.au. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  28. ^ a b "What's the difference between a calorie and a kilojoule". Queensland Health. 21 February 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  29. ^ a b European Union Parliament (2011): "Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 2022-01-11 at the Wayback Machine" Document 02011R1169-20180101
  30. ^ Ministério da Saúde, Brazil (2020): "Instrução Normativa Nº 75 - Estabelece os requisitos técnicos para declaração da rotulagem nutricional nos alimentos embalados 2022-01-21 at the Wayback Machine", dated 2020-10-08, published on Diário Oficial da União on 2020-10-09, page 113.

External links

  • Is a calorie a calorie?
  • DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals

food, energy, chemical, energy, that, animals, including, humans, derive, from, their, food, sustain, their, metabolism, including, their, muscular, activity, most, animals, derive, most, their, energy, from, aerobic, respiration, namely, combining, carbohydra. Food energy is chemical energy that animals including humans derive from their food to sustain their metabolism including their muscular activity 1 Most animals derive most of their energy from aerobic respiration namely combining the carbohydrates fats and proteins with oxygen from air or dissolved in water 2 Other smaller components of the diet such as organic acids polyols and ethanol drinking alcohol may contribute to the energy input Some diet components that provide little or no food energy such as water minerals vitamins cholesterol and fiber may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons Some organisms have instead anaerobic respiration which extracts energy from food by reactions that do not require oxygen The energy contents of a given mass of food is usually expressed in the metric SI unit of energy the joule J and its multiple the kilojoule kJ or in the traditional unit of heat energy the calorie cal In nutritional contexts the latter is often especially in US the large variant of the unit also written Calorie with symbol Cal both with capital C or kilocalorie kcal and equivalent to 4184 J or 4 184 kJ 3 Thus for example fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of food energy per unit mass 37 and 29 kJ g 9 and 7 kcal g respectively Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ g 4 kcal g though there are differences between different kinds For example the values for glucose sucrose and starch are 15 57 16 48 and 17 48 kilojoules per gram 3 72 3 94 and 4 18 kcal g respectively The differing energy density of foods fat alcohols carbohydrates and proteins lies mainly in their varying proportions of carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms Carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed such as fibre or lactose in lactose intolerant individuals contribute less food energy Polyols including sugar alcohols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ g 2 4 kcal g and 13 kJ g 3 1 kcal g respectively 4 The energy contents of a complex dish or meal can be approximated by adding the energy contents of its components Contents 1 History and methods of measurement 1 1 Direct calorimetry of combustion 1 2 The Atwater system 2 Dietary sources of energy 3 Energy usage in the human body 4 Recommended daily intake 5 Nutrition labels 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksHistory and methods of measurement EditDirect calorimetry of combustion Edit The first determinations of the energy content of food were made by burning a dried sample in a bomb calorimeter and measuring the temperature change in the water surrounding the apparatus a method known as direct calorimetry 5 The Atwater system Edit Main article Atwater system However the direct calorimetric method generally overestimates the actual energy that the body can obtain from the food because it also counts the energy contents of dietary fiber and other indigestible components and does not allow for partial absorption and or incomplete metabolism of certain substances For this reason today the energy content of food is instead obtained indirectly by using chemical analysis to determine the amount of each digestible dietary component such as protein carbohydrates and fats and adding the respective food energy contents previously obtained by measurement of metabolic heat released by the body 6 7 In particular the fibre content is excluded This method is known as the Modified Atwater system after Wilbur Atwater who pioneered these measurements in the late 19th century 1 8 The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed 9 Dietary sources of energy EditThe typical human diet consists chiefly of carbohydrates fats proteins water ethanol and indigestible components such as bones seeds and fibre mostly cellulose Carbohydrates fats and proteins typically comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of food 10 Ruminants can extract food energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens that decompose it into digestible carbohydrates Other minor components of the human diet that contribute to its energy content are organic acids such as citric and tartaric and polyols such as glycerol xylitol inositol and sorbitol Some nutrients have regulatory roles affected by cell signaling in addition to providing energy for the body 11 For example leucine plays an important role in the regulation of protein metabolism and suppresses an individual s appetite 12 Small amounts of essential fatty acids constituents of some fats that cannot be synthesized by the human body are used and necessary for other biochemical processes The approximate food energy contents of various human diet components to be used in package labeling according to the EU regulations 13 and UK regulations 14 are Food component Energy densitykJ g kcal gFat 37 9Ethanol 29 7Proteins 17 4Carbohydrates 17 4Organic acids 13 3Polyols sugar alcohols sweeteners 1 10 2 4Fiber 2 8 2 1 Some polyols like erythritol are not digested and should be excluded from the count 2 This entry exists in the EU regulations of 2008 13 but not in the UK regulations according to which fibre shall not be counted 14 More detailed tables for specific foods have been published by many organizations such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization also has published a similar table 3 Other components of the human diet are either noncaloric or are usually consumed in such small amounts that they can be neglected Energy usage in the human body EditMain articles Bioenergetics and Energy balance biology The food energy actually obtained by respiration is used by the human body for a wide range of purposes including basal metabolism of various organs and tissues maintaining the internal body temperature and exerting muscular force to maintain posture and produce motion About 20 is used for brain metabolism 3 The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into muscular physical power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage e g which muscles are used whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically In general the efficiency of muscles is rather low only 18 to 26 of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy 15 This low efficiency is the result of about 40 efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle and mechanical losses inside the body The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used fast twitch or slow twitch For an overall efficiency of 20 one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 18 kJ h 4 3 kcal h For example a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from burning food as four times the actual mechanical work plus 1 300 kJ 300 kcal per hour 16 which amounts to about 20 efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output e g walking to burn off 17 000 kJ 4 000 kcal 17 more than a body would otherwise consume For reference each kilogram of body fat is roughly equivalent to 32 300 kilojoules of food energy i e 3 500 kilocalories per pound or 7 700 kilocalories per kilogram 18 Recommended daily intake EditMany countries and health organizations have published recommendations for healthy levels of daily intake of food energy For example the United States government estimates 8 400 and 10 900 kJ 2 000 and 2 600 kcal needed for women and men respectively between ages 26 and 45 whose total physical activity is equivalent to walking around 2 5 to 5 km 1 1 2 to 3 mi per day in addition to the activities of sedentary living These estimates are for a reference woman who is 1 63 m 5 ft 4 in tall and weighs 57 kg 126 lb and a reference man who is 1 78 m 5 ft 10 in tall and weighs 70 kg 154 lb 19 Because caloric requirements vary by height activity age pregnancy status and other factors the USDA created the DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals in order to determine individual caloric needs 20 21 According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7 500 kJ 1 800 kcal 22 Older people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy children and physically active people require more Recognizing these factors Australia s National Health and Medical Research Council recommends different daily energy intakes for each age and gender group 23 Notwithstanding nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend the average daily energy intake of 8 800 kJ 2 100 kcal The minimum food energy intake is also higher in cold environments Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption 24 Nutrition labels Edit The nutritional information label on a pack of Basmati rice in the United Kingdom Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products to help consumers control their energy intake To facilitate evaluation by consumers food energy values and other nutritional properties in package labels or tables are often quoted for convenient amounts of the food rather than per gram or kilogram such as in calories per serving or kcal per 100 g or kJ per package The units vary depending on country Country Mandatory unit symbol Second unit symbol Common usageUnited States Calorie Cal 25 kilojoule kJ optional 25 calorie cal 26 Canada Calorie Cal citation needed kilojoule kJ optional citation needed calorie cal citation needed Australia and New Zealand kilojoule kJ 27 28 kilocalorie kcal optional 27 28 AU kilocalorie kcal citation needed United Kingdom kJ 14 kcal mandatory 14 European Union kilojoule kJ 29 kilocalorie kcal mandatory 29 Brazil caloria or quilocaloria kcal 30 caloriaSee also EditAtwater system Basal metabolic rate Calorie Chemical energy Food chain Food composition Heat of combustion Nutrition facts label Table of food nutrients List of countries by food energy intakeReferences Edit a b Allison Marsh 2020 How Counting Calories Became a Science Calorimeters defined the nutritional value of food and the output of steam generators Archived 2022 01 21 at the Wayback Machine Online article on the IEEE Spectrum Archived 2022 01 20 at the Wayback Machine website dated 29 December 2020 Accessed on 2022 01 20 Ross K A 2000c Energy and fuel in Littledyke M Ross K A and Lakin E eds Science Knowledge and the Environment London David Fulton Publishers a b c United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization 2003 FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 77 Food energy methods of analysis and conversion factors Archived 2010 05 24 at the Wayback Machine Accessed on 21 January 2022 Schedule 7 Nutrition labelling Legislation gov uk The National Archives 1 July 1996 Retrieved 13 December 2019 Adrienne Youdim 2021 Calories Archived 2013 08 04 at the Wayback Machine Article in the Merck Manual Home Edition online dated Dec 2011 Accessed on 21 February 2022 Nutrient Value of Some Common Foods PDF Health Canada PDF p 4 1997 Retrieved 25 January 2015 How Do Food Manufacturers Calculate the Calorie Count of Packaged Foods Scientific American Retrieved 8 September 2017 Why food labels are wrong Archived 2011 11 13 at the Wayback Machine by Bijal Trivedi New Scientist 18 July 2009 pp 30 3 Annabel Merrill Bernice Watt 1973 Energy Values of Food basis and derivation PDF United States Department of Agriculture Archived from the original PDF on 22 November 2016 Carbohydrates Proteins Nutrition The Merck Manual Jeffrey S F 2006 Regulating Energy Balance The Substrate Strikes Back Science 861 864 Garlick P J The role of leucine in the regulation of protein metabolism Journal of Nutrition 2005 135 6 1553S 6S a b Council directive 90 496 EEC of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs Archived from the original on 3 October 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2010 a b c d United Kingdom The Food Labelling Regulations 1996 Archived 2013 09 21 at the Wayback Machine Schedule 7 Nutrition labelling Archived 2013 03 17 at the Wayback Machine Stephen Seiler Efficiency Economy and Endurance Performance Archived 2007 12 21 at the Wayback Machine 1996 2005 Concept II Rowing Ergometer user manual Archived 2010 12 26 at the Wayback Machine 1993 Guyton A C Hall J E Textbook of medical physiology 11 ed p 887 Elsevier Saunders 2006 Wishnofsky M Caloric Equivalents of Gained or Lost Weight The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1958 US National Institutes of Health 2015 Dietary guidelines Archived 2016 03 01 at the Wayback Machine Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020 2025 PDF dietaryguidelines gov USDA amp HHS Retrieved 17 May 2022 DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals usda gov U S Department of Agriculture Retrieved 17 May 2022 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization 2014 Hunger Archived 2009 12 20 at the Wayback Machine Accessed on 27 September 2014 Dietary Energy Retrieved 27 September 2014 Evaluation of a mental effort hypothesis for correlations between cortical metabolism and intelligence Archived 2012 10 23 at the Wayback Machine Intelligence Volume 21 Number 3 November 1995 pp 267 278 12 1995 a b United States Federal Government 1977 Code of Federal Regulations Part 101 Food labeling Archived 2022 01 21 at the Wayback Machine from Federal Register 14308 15 March 1977 U S Food and Drug Administration 2019 Calories on the Menu Information for Archived 2022 01 20 at the Wayback Machine Online document at the FDA Website Archived 2013 09 15 at the Wayback Machine dated 5 August 2019 Accessed on 2022 01 20 a b Health Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code Standard 1 2 8 Nutrition information requirements www legislation gov au Retrieved 29 May 2020 a b What s the difference between a calorie and a kilojoule Queensland Health 21 February 2017 Retrieved 29 May 2020 a b European Union Parliament 2011 Regulation EU No 1169 2011 Archived 2022 01 11 at the Wayback Machine Document 02011R1169 20180101 Ministerio da Saude Brazil 2020 Instrucao Normativa Nº 75 Estabelece os requisitos tecnicos para declaracao da rotulagem nutricional nos alimentos embalados Archived 2022 01 21 at the Wayback Machine dated 2020 10 08 published on Diario Oficial da Uniao on 2020 10 09 page 113 External links EditIs a calorie a calorie DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Food energy amp oldid 1146237126, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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