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Mineral (nutrient)

In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element. Some "minerals" are essential for life, most are not.[1][2][3] Minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.[4] The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium.[2] The remaining elements are called "trace elements". The generally accepted trace elements are iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, and selenium;[5] there is some evidence that there may be more.

Carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that requires zinc (gray sphere near the center of this image), is essential for exhalation of carbon dioxide.

Four elements comprise 96% of the human body by weight: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) (CHON). These elements are usually not included in lists of nutrient minerals. They are sometimes referred to as macrominerals. The minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder and are usually the focus of discussions of minerals in the diet.

Plants obtain minerals from soil.[6] Plants are ingested by animals, thus moving minerals up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain minerals.

Finally, although mineral and elements are in many ways synonymous, minerals are only bioavailable to the extent that they can be absorbed. To be absorbed, minerals either must be soluble or readily extractable by the consuming organism. For example, molybdenum is an essential mineral, but metallic molybdenum has no nutritional benefit. Many molybdates are sources of molybdenum.

Essential chemical elements for humans edit

Nineteen chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles, and there is evidence for around ten more.[1][7]

Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight.[2] Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight.[8] The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ~18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article on chemical composition of the human body.

Some diversity of opinion exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, whether chromium is essential in humans is debated. No Cr-containing biochemical has been purified. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient,[9][10] but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.[11]

Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean. They also tend to have soluble compounds at physiological pH ranges: elements without such soluble compounds tend to be either non-essential (Al) or, at best, may only be needed in traces (Si).[1]

Essential elements for higher organisms (eucarya).[12][13][14][15][1]
H   He
Li Be   B C N O F Ne
Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Legend:
  Quantity elements
  Essential trace elements
  Essentiality or function debated

Roles in biological processes edit

Dietary element RDA/AI Male/Female (US) [mg][16] UL (US and EU) [mg][16][17] Category High nutrient density
dietary sources
Terms for deficiency/excess
Potassium 4700 NE; NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange[18] hypokalemia / hyperkalemia
Chlorine 2300 3600; NE Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, in cellular pump functions and required in host defense Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source. hypochloremia / hyperchloremia
Sodium 1500 2300; NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables, milk, and spinach. hyponatremia / hypernatremia
Calcium 1000 2500; 2500 Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone (see hydroxyapatite), supports synthesis and function of blood cells, helps in blood clotting Dairy products, eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.[19] hypocalcaemia / hypercalcaemia
Phosphorus 700 4000; 4000 A component of bones (see hydroxyapatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions Red meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats.[20][21] In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate[22] hypophosphatemia / hyperphosphatemia
Magnesium 420/320 350; 250 Required for processing ATP and for bones Spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado[23] hypomagnesemia (magnesium deficiency) / hypermagnesemia
Iron 8/18 45; NE Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate[24] iron deficiency / iron overload disorder
Zinc 11/8 40; 25 Required for several classes of enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase and zinc finger proteins Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[25] zinc deficiency / zinc toxicity
Manganese 2.3/1.8 11; NE Required co-factor for superoxide dismutase Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[26] manganese deficiency / manganism
Copper 0.9 10; 5 Required co-factor for cytochrome c oxidase Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[26] copper deficiency / copper toxicity
Iodine 0.150 1.1; 0.6 Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones and to help enzymes in host defense Seaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[27] iodine deficiency (goiter) / iodism (hyperthyroidism[28])
Molybdenum 0.045 2; 0.6 Required for the functioning of xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase[29] Legumes, whole grains, nuts[26] molybdenum deficiency / molybdenum toxicity[30]
Selenium 0.055 0.4; 0.3 Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[31] selenium deficiency / selenosis
Cobalt none NE; NE Cobalt is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B12) by bacteria. Humans contain only milligrams of cobalt in these cofactors. A deficiency of cobalt leads to pernicious anemia. Animal muscle and liver are good dietary sources, also shellfish and crab meat.[32] pernicious anemia / cobalt poisoning

RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI= Adequate intake; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31–50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating

* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[33]

Dietary nutrition edit

Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).[citation needed]

The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components.[34] Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.

Plants edit

 
Structure of the Mn4O5Ca core of the oxygen-evolving site in plants, illustrating one of many roles of the trace mineral manganese.[35]

The list of minerals required for plants is similar to that for animals. Both use very similar enzymes, although differences exist. For example, legumes host molybdenum-containing nitrogenase, but animals do not. Many animals rely on hemoglobin (Fe) for oxygen transport, but plants do not. Fertilizers are often tailored to address mineral deficiencies in particular soils. Examples include molybdenum deficiency, manganese deficiency, zinc deficiency, and so on.

Safety edit

The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day.[16] The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S.[17] Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU.[33] In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.[36]

Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed edit

Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.[5] One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[34] Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.[5] In particular, trace arsenic seems to have a positive effect on some organisms, but so does lead, showcasing the uncertainty behind whether some trace elements are truly essential.[1] Strontium is tolerated and is a component of some drugs,[37] but it is not essential, only beneficial.[1] Non-essential elements can sometimes appear in the body when they are chemically similar to essential elements (e.g. Rb+ and Cs+ replacing Na+), so that essentiality is not the same thing as uptake by a biological system.[1]

Element Description Excess
Bromine Possibly important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to make collagen IV.[15] bromism
Arsenic Essential in rat, hamster, goat and chicken models, but no research has been done in humans.[38] arsenic poisoning
Nickel Nickel is an essential component of several enzymes, including urease and hydrogenase.[39] Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties of Bifidobacterium.[40] In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis, redox reactions and gene expression. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats.[41] Nickel toxicity
Fluorine Might have a role in biologic mineralisation, and fluoride deficiency symptoms have been found in goats, but there is no clear evidence of essentiality in humans.[42] Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure.[43][44] However, even if not essential, fluorine would still be a beneficial element for this reason.[42] Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established an Adequate Intake.[45] Fluoride poisoning
Boron Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls.[46][47][48] Boron has been shown to be essential to complete the life cycle in representatives of all kingdoms of life.[39][49] In animals, supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D.[50] No acute effects (LD50 of boric acid is 2.5 grams per kilogram body weight)
Lithium Based on plasma lithium concentrations, biological activity and epidemiological observations, there is evidence, not conclusive, that lithium is an essential nutrient.[13][14] Lithium toxicity
Chromium Proposed to be involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well-defined[51][52] chromium deficiency / chromium toxicity
Silicon Deficiency symptoms have been found in chickens and rats, though not humans. Circumstantial evidence suggests that it is an essential nutrient, probably having an effect on the function and composition of brain and bone.[42]
Vanadium Has an established, albeit specialized, biochemical role in other organisms (algae, lichens, fungi, bacteria), and there is significant circumstantial evidence for its essentiality in humans. It is rather toxic for a trace element and the requirement, if essential, is probably small.[42]
Tin Rats fed a tin-free diet exhibited improper growth, but the evidence for essentiality is otherwise limited.[1][42] Tin poisoning
Other Tungsten, the early lanthanides, and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms, but these elements appear not to be used by mammals.[42]

Mineral ecology edit

Diverse ions are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells,[53] exoskeletons and mollusc shells.[54][citation needed]

Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation.[55] Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide.[55][56] Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms.[56] Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life.[55][56] In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.[57][58]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

External links edit

  • "Vitamins and minerals". nhs.uk. 23 October 2017.
  • Concept of a nutritious food: toward a nutrient density score

mineral, nutrient, context, nutrition, mineral, chemical, element, some, minerals, essential, life, most, minerals, four, groups, essential, nutrients, others, which, vitamins, essential, fatty, acids, essential, amino, acids, five, major, minerals, human, bod. In the context of nutrition a mineral is a chemical element Some minerals are essential for life most are not 1 2 3 Minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients the others of which are vitamins essential fatty acids and essential amino acids 4 The five major minerals in the human body are calcium phosphorus potassium sodium and magnesium 2 The remaining elements are called trace elements The generally accepted trace elements are iron chlorine cobalt copper zinc manganese molybdenum iodine and selenium 5 there is some evidence that there may be more Carbonic anhydrase an enzyme that requires zinc gray sphere near the center of this image is essential for exhalation of carbon dioxide Four elements comprise 96 of the human body by weight carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen CHON These elements are usually not included in lists of nutrient minerals They are sometimes referred to as macrominerals The minor minerals also called trace elements compose the remainder and are usually the focus of discussions of minerals in the diet Plants obtain minerals from soil 6 Plants are ingested by animals thus moving minerals up the food chain Larger organisms may also consume soil geophagia or use mineral resources such as salt licks to obtain minerals Finally although mineral and elements are in many ways synonymous minerals are only bioavailable to the extent that they can be absorbed To be absorbed minerals either must be soluble or readily extractable by the consuming organism For example molybdenum is an essential mineral but metallic molybdenum has no nutritional benefit Many molybdates are sources of molybdenum Contents 1 Essential chemical elements for humans 1 1 Roles in biological processes 2 Dietary nutrition 3 Plants 3 1 Safety 4 Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed 5 Mineral ecology 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksEssential chemical elements for humans editMain article Composition of the human body Nineteen chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles and there is evidence for around ten more 1 7 Oxygen hydrogen carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96 of the weight of a human body Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight with 99 of it contained in bones and teeth This is about 1 5 of body weight 2 Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2 3 of calcium and makes up about 1 of a person s body weight 8 The other major minerals potassium sodium chlorine sulfur and magnesium make up only about 0 85 of the weight of the body Together these eleven chemical elements H C N O Ca P K Na Cl S Mg make up 99 85 of the body The remaining 18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0 15 of the body or about one hundred grams in total for the average person Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article on chemical composition of the human body Some diversity of opinion exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans and other mammals even based on the same data For example whether chromium is essential in humans is debated No Cr containing biochemical has been purified The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient 9 10 but the European Food Safety Authority EFSA representing the European Union reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree 11 Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight and are reasonably common on land or for sodium and iodine in the ocean They also tend to have soluble compounds at physiological pH ranges elements without such soluble compounds tend to be either non essential Al or at best may only be needed in traces Si 1 Essential elements for higher organisms eucarya 12 13 14 15 1 vteH HeLi Be B C N O F NeNa Mg Al Si P S Cl ArK Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br KrRb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I XeLegend The four basic organic elements Quantity elements Essential trace elements Essentiality or function debated Roles in biological processes edit Dietary element RDA AI Male Female US mg 16 UL US and EU mg 16 17 Category High nutrient density dietary sources Terms for deficiency excessPotassium 4700 NE NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium Sweet potato tomato potato beans lentils dairy products seafood banana prune carrot orange 18 hypokalemia hyperkalemiaChlorine 2300 3600 NE Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach in cellular pump functions and required in host defense Table salt sodium chloride is the main dietary source hypochloremia hyperchloremiaSodium 1500 2300 NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium Table salt sodium chloride the main source sea vegetables milk and spinach hyponatremia hypernatremiaCalcium 1000 2500 2500 Needed for muscle heart and digestive system health builds bone see hydroxyapatite supports synthesis and function of blood cells helps in blood clotting Dairy products eggs canned fish with bones salmon sardines green leafy vegetables nuts seeds tofu thyme oregano dill cinnamon 19 hypocalcaemia hypercalcaemiaPhosphorus 700 4000 4000 A component of bones see hydroxyapatite cells in energy processing in DNA and ATP as phosphate and many other functions Red meat dairy foods fish poultry bread rice oats 20 21 In biological contexts usually seen as phosphate 22 hypophosphatemia hyperphosphatemiaMagnesium 420 320 350 250 Required for processing ATP and for bones Spinach legumes nuts seeds whole grains peanut butter avocado 23 hypomagnesemia magnesium deficiency hypermagnesemiaIron 8 18 45 NE Required for many proteins and enzymes notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia Meat seafood nuts beans dark chocolate 24 iron deficiency iron overload disorderZinc 11 8 40 25 Required for several classes of enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases liver alcohol dehydrogenase carbonic anhydrase and zinc finger proteins Oysters red meat poultry nuts whole grains dairy products 25 zinc deficiency zinc toxicityManganese 2 3 1 8 11 NE Required co factor for superoxide dismutase Grains legumes seeds nuts leafy vegetables tea coffee 26 manganese deficiency manganismCopper 0 9 10 5 Required co factor for cytochrome c oxidase Liver seafood oysters nuts seeds some whole grains legumes 26 copper deficiency copper toxicityIodine 0 150 1 1 0 6 Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones and to help enzymes in host defense Seaweed kelp or kombu grains eggs iodized salt 27 iodine deficiency goiter iodism hyperthyroidism 28 Molybdenum 0 045 2 0 6 Required for the functioning of xanthine oxidase aldehyde oxidase and sulfite oxidase 29 Legumes whole grains nuts 26 molybdenum deficiency molybdenum toxicity 30 Selenium 0 055 0 4 0 3 Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase Brazil nuts seafoods organ meats meats grains dairy products eggs 31 selenium deficiency selenosisCobalt none NE NE Cobalt is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules e g vitamin B12 by bacteria Humans contain only milligrams of cobalt in these cofactors A deficiency of cobalt leads to pernicious anemia Animal muscle and liver are good dietary sources also shellfish and crab meat 32 pernicious anemia cobalt poisoningRDA Recommended Dietary Allowance AI Adequate intake UL Tolerable upper intake level Figures shown are for adults age 31 50 male or female neither pregnant nor lactating One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 mg but not the 3000 mg UL set by Japan 33 Dietary nutrition editDietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element s of interest The elements may be naturally present in the food e g calcium in dairy milk or added to the food e g orange juice fortified with calcium iodized salt fortified with iodine Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements as compounds a combination of vitamins and or other chemical compounds or a single element as a compound or mixture of compounds such as calcium calcium carbonate calcium citrate or magnesium magnesium oxide or iron ferrous sulfate iron bis glycinate citation needed The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components 34 Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health Diet can meet all the body s chemical element requirements although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet An example would be a diet low in dairy products and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium Plants edit nbsp Structure of the Mn4O5Ca core of the oxygen evolving site in plants illustrating one of many roles of the trace mineral manganese 35 The list of minerals required for plants is similar to that for animals Both use very similar enzymes although differences exist For example legumes host molybdenum containing nitrogenase but animals do not Many animals rely on hemoglobin Fe for oxygen transport but plants do not Fertilizers are often tailored to address mineral deficiencies in particular soils Examples include molybdenum deficiency manganese deficiency zinc deficiency and so on Safety edit The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits ULs can be small For example for calcium the U S Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1 200 mg day and the UL at 2 000 mg day 16 The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits which are not always in accord with the U S 17 Likewise Japan which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 mg versus 1100 for the U S and 600 for the EU 33 In the table above magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg day women 350 mg day while the UL is lower than the recommended at 350 mg The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once in the form of a dietary supplement as this may cause diarrhea Magnesium rich foods do not cause this problem 36 Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed editMany ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential but such claims have usually not been confirmed Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function 5 One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive examples silicon and nickel in solid and dust so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce 34 Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health but with weaker evidence 5 In particular trace arsenic seems to have a positive effect on some organisms but so does lead showcasing the uncertainty behind whether some trace elements are truly essential 1 Strontium is tolerated and is a component of some drugs 37 but it is not essential only beneficial 1 Non essential elements can sometimes appear in the body when they are chemically similar to essential elements e g Rb and Cs replacing Na so that essentiality is not the same thing as uptake by a biological system 1 Element Description ExcessBromine Possibly important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development as a needed catalyst to make collagen IV 15 bromismArsenic Essential in rat hamster goat and chicken models but no research has been done in humans 38 arsenic poisoningNickel Nickel is an essential component of several enzymes including urease and hydrogenase 39 Although not required by humans some are thought to be required by gut bacteria such as urease required by some varieties of Bifidobacterium 40 In humans nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis redox reactions and gene expression Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats pigs and sheep and diminished circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats 41 Nickel toxicityFluorine Might have a role in biologic mineralisation and fluoride deficiency symptoms have been found in goats but there is no clear evidence of essentiality in humans 42 Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure 43 44 However even if not essential fluorine would still be a beneficial element for this reason 42 Of the minerals in this table fluoride is the only one for which the U S Institute of Medicine has established an Adequate Intake 45 Fluoride poisoningBoron Boron is an essential plant nutrient required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls 46 47 48 Boron has been shown to be essential to complete the life cycle in representatives of all kingdoms of life 39 49 In animals supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D 50 No acute effects LD50 of boric acid is 2 5 grams per kilogram body weight Lithium Based on plasma lithium concentrations biological activity and epidemiological observations there is evidence not conclusive that lithium is an essential nutrient 13 14 Lithium toxicityChromium Proposed to be involved in glucose and lipid metabolism although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well defined 51 52 chromium deficiency chromium toxicitySilicon Deficiency symptoms have been found in chickens and rats though not humans Circumstantial evidence suggests that it is an essential nutrient probably having an effect on the function and composition of brain and bone 42 Vanadium Has an established albeit specialized biochemical role in other organisms algae lichens fungi bacteria and there is significant circumstantial evidence for its essentiality in humans It is rather toxic for a trace element and the requirement if essential is probably small 42 Tin Rats fed a tin free diet exhibited improper growth but the evidence for essentiality is otherwise limited 1 42 Tin poisoningOther Tungsten the early lanthanides and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms but these elements appear not to be used by mammals 42 Mineral ecology editFurther information Biomineralization Diverse ions are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures called biomineralization used to construct bones seashells eggshells 53 exoskeletons and mollusc shells 54 citation needed Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation 55 Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils oceans freshwater groundwater and glacier meltwater systems worldwide 55 56 Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms 56 Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton which are then eaten by other marine life 55 56 In terrestrial ecosystems fungi have similar roles as bacteria mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems 57 58 See also edit nbsp Food portalFood composition Human nutrition Micronutrient Mineral deficiencyReferences edit a b c d e f g h Zoroddu Maria Antonietta Aaseth Jan Crisponi Guido Medici Serenella Peana Massimiliano Nurchi Valeria Marina 2019 The essential metals for humans a brief overview Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 195 120 129 doi 10 1016 j jinorgbio 2019 03 013 a b c Berdanier Carolyn D Dwyer Johanna T Heber David 2013 Handbook of Nutrition and Food 3rd ed CRC Press p 199 ISBN 978 1 4665 0572 8 Retrieved 3 July 2016 Minerals MedlinePlus National Library of Medicine US National Institutes of Health 22 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Vitamin and mineral supplement fact sheets Office of Dietary Supplements US National Institutes of Health Bethesda MD 2016 Retrieved 19 December 2016 a b c Berdanier Carolyn D Dwyer Johanna T Heber David 19 April 2016 Handbook of Nutrition and Food Third Edition CRC Press pp 211 24 ISBN 978 1 4665 0572 8 Retrieved 3 July 2016 Minerals Micronutrient Information Center Linus Pauling Institute Oregon State University Corvallis OR 2016 Nelson David L Michael M Cox 15 February 2000 Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry Third Edition 3 Har Com ed W H Freeman pp 1200 ISBN 1 57259 931 6 Phosphorus in diet MedlinePlus National Library of Medicine US National Institutes of Health 2 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Institute of Medicine US Panel on Micronutrients 2001 6 Chromium Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A Vitamin K Arsenic Boron Chromium Chromium Iodine Iron Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Silicon Vanadium and Chromium National Academies Press US pp 197 223 Overview of Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese 2015 Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for chromium European Food Safety Authority 18 September 2014 Retrieved 20 March 2018 Ultratrace minerals Authors Nielsen Forrest H USDA ARS Source Modern nutrition in health and disease editors Maurice E Shils et al Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins c1999 p 283 303 Issue Date 1999 URI 1 a b Szklarska D Rzymski P May 2019 Is Lithium a Micronutrient From Biological Activity and Epidemiological Observation to Food Fortification Biol Trace Elem Res 189 1 18 27 doi 10 1007 s12011 018 1455 2 PMC 6443601 PMID 30066063 a b Enderle J Klink U di Giuseppe R Koch M Seidel U Weber K Birringer M Ratjen I Rimbach G Lieb W August 2020 Plasma Lithium Levels in a General Population A Cross Sectional Analysis of Metabolic and Dietary Correlates Nutrients 12 8 2489 doi 10 3390 nu12082489 PMC 7468710 PMID 32824874 a b McCall AS Cummings CF Bhave G Vanacore R Page McCaw A Hudson BG June 2014 Bromine is an essential trace element for assembly of collagen IV scaffolds in tissue development and architecture Cell 157 6 1380 92 doi 10 1016 j cell 2014 05 009 PMC 4144415 PMID 24906154 a b c Dietary Reference Intakes DRIs Recommended Dietary Allowances and Adequate Intakes PDF Food and Nutrition Board Institute of Medicine National Academies of Sciences Archived from the original PDF on 14 June 2022 Retrieved 25 August 2023 a b Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals PDF European Food Safety Authority 2006 retrieved 4 January 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 Appendix B 1 Food Sources of Potassium United States Department of Agriculture 2005 Drewnowski A 2010 The Nutrient Rich Foods Index helps to identify healthy affordable foods PDF Am J Clin Nutr 91 suppl 4 1095S 1101S doi 10 3945 ajcn 2010 28450D PMID 20181811 NHS Choices Vitamins and minerals Others Retrieved 8 November 2011 Corbridge DE 1 February 1995 Phosphorus An Outline of Its Chemistry Biochemistry and Technology 5th ed Amsterdam Elsevier Science Pub Co p 1220 ISBN 0 444 89307 5 Phosphorus Linus Pauling Institute Oregon State University 2014 Retrieved 8 September 2018 Magnesium Fact Sheet for Health Professionals National Institutes of Health 2016 Iron Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet National Institutes of Health 2016 Zinc Fact Sheet for Health Professionals National Institutes of Health 2016 a b c Schlenker Eleanor Gilbert Joyce Ann 28 August 2014 Williams Essentials of Nutrition and Diet Therapy Elsevier Health Sciences pp 162 3 ISBN 978 0 323 29401 0 Retrieved 15 July 2016 Iodine Fact Sheet for Health Professionals National Institutes of Health 2016 Jameson J Larry De Groot Leslie J 25 February 2015 Endocrinology Adult and Pediatric Elsevier Health Sciences p 1510 ISBN 978 0 323 32195 2 Retrieved 14 July 2016 Sardesai VM December 1993 Molybdenum an essential trace element Nutr Clin Pract 8 6 277 81 doi 10 1177 0115426593008006277 PMID 8302261 Momcilovic B September 1999 A case report of acute human molybdenum toxicity from a dietary molybdenum supplement a new member of the Lucor metallicum family Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology De Gruyter 50 3 289 97 PMID 10649845 Selenium Fact Sheet for Health Professionals National Institutes of Health 2016 Vitamin B 12 µg PDF USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28 27 October 2015 Archived PDF from the original on 26 January 2017 Retrieved 1 December 2022 a b Overview of Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese PDF Minister of Health Labour and Welfare Japan 2015 p 39 Retrieved 5 January 2020 a b Lippard SJ Berg JM 1994 Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry Mill Valley CA University Science Books p 411 ISBN 0 935702 72 5 Umena Yasufumi Kawakami Keisuke Shen Jian Ren Kamiya Nobuo May 2011 Crystal structure of oxygen evolving photosystem II at a resolution of 1 9 A PDF Nature 473 7345 55 60 Bibcode 2011Natur 473 55U doi 10 1038 nature09913 PMID 21499260 S2CID 205224374 Institute of Medicine US Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes 1997 6 Magnesium Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Vitamin D and Fluoride National Academies Press US pp 190 249 Pors Nielsen S 2004 The biological role of strontium Bone 35 3 583 588 doi 10 1016 j bone 2004 04 026 PMID 15336592 Retrieved 6 October 2010 Anke M Arsenic In Mertz W ed Trace elements in human and Animal Nutrition 5th ed Orlando FL Academic Press 1986 347 372 Uthus E O Evidency for arsenical essentiality Environ Geochem Health 1992 14 54 56 Uthus E O Arsenic essentiality and factors affecting its importance In Chappell W R Abernathy C O Cothern C R eds Arsenic Exposure and Health Northwood UK Science and Technology Letters 1994 199 208 a b Berdanier Carolyn D Dwyer Johanna T Heber David 19 April 2016 Handbook of Nutrition and Food Third Edition CRC Press pp 211 26 ISBN 978 1 4665 0572 8 Retrieved 3 July 2016 Sigel Astrid Sigel Helmut Sigel Roland K O 27 January 2014 Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases Springer Science amp Business Media p 349 ISBN 978 94 007 7500 8 Retrieved 4 July 2016 Institute of Medicine 29 September 2006 Dietary Reference Intakes The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements National Academies Press pp 313 19 415 22 ISBN 978 0 309 15742 1 Retrieved 21 June 2016 a b c d e f Ultratrace minerals Authors Nielsen Forrest H USDA ARS Source Modern nutrition in health and disease editors Maurice E Shils et al Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins c1999 p 283 303 Issue Date 1999 URI 2 Kakei M Sakae T Yoshikawa M 2012 Aspects Regarding Fluoride Treatment for Reinforcement and Remineralization of Apatite Crystals Journal of Hard Tissue Biology 21 3 475 6 doi 10 2485 jhtb 21 257 Retrieved 1 June 2017 Loskill P Zeitz C Grandthyll S Thewes N Muller F Bischoff M Herrmann M Jacobs K May 2013 Reduced adhesion of oral bacteria on hydroxyapatite by fluoride treatment Langmuir 29 18 5528 33 doi 10 1021 la4008558 PMID 23556545 Institute of Medicine 1997 Fluoride Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Vitamin D and Fluoride Washington DC The National Academies Press pp 288 313 doi 10 17226 5776 ISBN 978 0 309 06403 3 PMID 23115811 Mahler RL Essential Plant Micronutrients Boron in Idaho PDF University of Idaho Archived from the original PDF on 1 October 2009 Retrieved 5 May 2009 Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition PDF U S Borax Inc Archived from the original PDF on 20 March 2009 Blevins DG Lukaszewski KM June 1998 Boron in plant structure and function Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 49 481 500 doi 10 1146 annurev arplant 49 1 481 PMID 15012243 Erdman John W Jr MacDonald Ian A Zeisel Steven H 30 May 2012 Present Knowledge in Nutrition John Wiley amp Sons p 1324 ISBN 978 0 470 96310 4 Retrieved 4 July 2016 Nielsen FH 1997 Boron in human and animal nutrition Plant and Soil 193 2 199 208 doi 10 1023 A 1004276311956 ISSN 0032 079X S2CID 12163109 Kim Myoung Jin Anderson John Mallory Caroline 1 February 2014 Human Nutrition Jones amp Bartlett Publishers p 241 ISBN 978 1 4496 4742 1 Retrieved 10 July 2016 Gropper Sareen S Smith Jack L 1 June 2012 Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism Cengage Learning pp 527 8 ISBN 978 1 133 10405 6 Retrieved 10 July 2016 Hunton P 2005 Research on eggshell structure and quality an historical overview Revista Brasileira de Ciencia Avicola 7 2 67 71 doi 10 1590 S1516 635X2005000200001 Currey JD 1999 The design of mineralised hard tissues for their mechanical functions The Journal of Experimental Biology 202 Pt 23 3285 94 doi 10 1242 jeb 202 23 3285 PMID 10562511 a b c Warren LA Kauffman ME February 2003 Geoscience Microbial geoengineers Science 299 5609 1027 9 doi 10 1126 science 1072076 PMID 12586932 S2CID 19993145 a b c Azam F Fenchel T Field JG Gray JS Meyer Reil LA Thingstad F 1983 The ecological role of water column microbes in the sea PDF Mar Ecol Prog Ser 10 257 63 Bibcode 1983MEPS 10 257A doi 10 3354 meps010257 J Dighton 2007 Nutrient Cycling by Saprotrophic Fungi in Terrestrial Habitats In Kubicek Christian P Druzhinina Irina S eds Environmental and microbial relationships 2nd ed Berlin Springer pp 287 300 ISBN 978 3 540 71840 6 Gadd GM January 2017 The Geomycology of Elemental Cycling and Transformations in the Environment PDF Microbiol Spectr 5 1 371 386 doi 10 1128 microbiolspec FUNK 0010 2016 ISBN 9781555819576 PMID 28128071 S2CID 4704240 Further reading editHumphrey Bowen 1979 Environmental Chemistry of the Elements Academic Press ISBN 0 12 120450 2 Humphry Bowen 1966 Trace Elements in Biochemistry Academic Press External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dietary minerals Vitamins and minerals nhs uk 23 October 2017 Concept of a nutritious food toward a nutrient density score Metals in Nutrition Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mineral nutrient amp oldid 1193531814, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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