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Wikipedia

Monsanto

May 11, 2023

For other uses, see Monsanto (disambiguation).

The Monsanto Company (/mɒnˈsæntoʊ/) was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto's best known product is Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide, developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.[2]

Monsanto Company
TypeSubsidiary
IndustryAgribusiness
FoundedSeptember 26, 1901; 121 years ago (1901-09-26)
Reformed in 2000 (spun off from Pharmacia & Upjohn)
FounderJohn Francis Queeny
DefunctJune 7, 2018; 4 years ago (2018-06-07)
FateAcquired by Bayer
HeadquartersCreve Coeur, Missouri, U.S.
Key people
  • Hugh Grant
  • (Chairman, President, & CEO)
  • Pierre Courduroux
  • (Vice President & CFO)
Products
OwnerBayer (2018)
Websitewww.monsanto.com
Footnotes / references
[1]

Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983,[3] and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It was one of the top 10 US chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology. Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies.[4]: 2–6  In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents.[5][6][7][8]

Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT, PCBs, Agent Orange, and recombinant bovine growth hormone. Its seed patenting model was criticized as biopiracy and a threat to biodiversity[9][10] as invasive species.[11]

In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$66 billion in an all-cash deal.[12] After gaining US and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained.[13][14][15] In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup, PCBs and Dicamba.[16]

History

Further information: Timeline of Monsanto

"Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto

Monsanto Company Inc.
 
IndustryChemicals, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals
Founded1901; 122 years ago (1901)
St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
FounderJohn Francis Queeny
FateAcquired by Pharmacia & Upjohn[17]
Headquarters
United States  

1901 to WWII

In 1901 Monsanto was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company.[18] The founder was John Francis Queeny, who at age 42 was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry.[19] He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name, the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Sephardic Jewish Monsanto family.[20] The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as the artificial sweetener saccharin, caffeine and vanillin.[21]: 6 [22][23][24][25]

Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr, Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid, and later rubber processing chemicals. In the 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs. Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over the company in 1928. In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president.[26]

In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama, and thereby entered the business of producing PCBs.[27][28][29]

In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department.[30]: 340–341  Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970.[31] In 1943, Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves, commander of the Manhattan Project, and James Conant, president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC).[32] They urged Thomas to become co-director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer, but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto.[32] He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research.[33]: vii  To that end, Monsanto operated the Dayton Project, and later Mound Laboratories, and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons.[32]

Post-WWII

In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which they sold to Lever Brothers in 1957.[34] In 1947, its styrene factory was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster.[35] In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds. In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in the United States.[36]

Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria-transmitting mosquitoes, but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts.

In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later.[37][38]

1960s and 1970s

In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation. This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds.[39] Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"—L‑dopa, which is used to treat Parkinson's disease.[40] In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed the Monsanto process for making acetic acid, which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass).[41]

In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam, and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984.[42]: 6  In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide. From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators, digital watches and digital clocks.[43] Monsanto became a pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s.

Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open.

In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman, which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were the first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application.[44][45]

1980 to 1989: Becoming an agribiotech

Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983.[3] Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops. Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983.[18] This involvement increased under the leadership of Robert Shapiro, appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture.[18]

In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company, a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex,[46][47] which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[48] Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002.[49]

1990 to 1999: Moving into the seed market & industry consolidation

In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin, brand-named Posilac.[50] Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company.

In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus, the biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991.[51]

In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia, a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production.

Monsanto first entered the maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998.[52] In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law, indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired.[53][54] In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries.[52] In 2005, it finalized the purchase of Seminis Inc, a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $1.4 billion.[55] This made it the world's largest conventional seed company.

In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co.[18] In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn, in a deal valuing the transaction at $27 billion.[56][18] The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of the "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex.[57]

"Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview

"Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto

2000 to 2009: Birth of the "new" Monsanto

In 2000: Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into a new company,[18] the "new Monsanto",[58] focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton.[59] Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia. As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003.[60][61])

In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform".[62]

Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis, the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $1.4 billion.[63] Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in the longer term.[64]

In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company, a major cotton seed breeder, for $1.5 billion.[65] As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice, Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer, and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot.[66] Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property".[67]: 108  In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced a long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products.[68]

In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million,[69] and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co, in August for $300 million plus "additional contingent consideration".[70]

2010 to 2017: Further growth, Syngenta

In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $210 million Precision Planting Inc., a company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting.[71]

Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $930 million in 2013.[72] Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated.[73]

In May 2013, a worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto, was held in over 400 cities.[74][75] A second protest took place in May 2014.

Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$46.5 billion in 2015, but failed.[76] In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%).[77] Monsanto was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US.[78]

"Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview

Sale to Bayer

In September 2016, Monsanto agreed to be acquired by Bayer for US$66 billion.[96][97] In an effort to receive regulatory clearance for the deal, Bayer announced the sale of significant portions of its current agriculture businesses, including its seed and herbicide businesses, to BASF.[98][99]

The deal was approved by the European Union on March 21, 2018,[100][101] and approved in the United States on May 29, 2018.[102] The sale closed on June 7, 2018; Bayer announced its intent to discontinue the Monsanto name, with the combined company operating solely under the Bayer brand.[103][104]

Under the terms of merger, Bayer promised to maintain Monsanto's more than 9,000 U.S. jobs and add 3,000 new U.S. high-tech positions.[105]

The prospective merger parties said at the time the combined agriculture business planned to spend $16 billion on research and development over the next six years and at least $8 billion on research and development in United States .[106]

Bayer would also establish their new global Seeds & Traits and North American commercial headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri.[107]

Products and associated issues

Current products

Glyphosate herbicides

See also: Glyphosate

Following its 1970 introduction, Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent on the herbicide glyphosate (brand name RoundUp) expired in 2000. Glyphosate has since been marketed by many agrochemical companies, in various solution strengths and with various adjuvants, under dozens of tradenames.[108][109][110][111] As of 2009, glyphosate represented about 10% of Monsanto's revenue.[112] Roundup-related products (which include genetically modified seeds) represented about half of Monsanto's gross margin.[113]

Crop seed

See also: Hybrid seed, Genetically modified crops, Genetically modified food, and Genetically modified food controversies

As of 2015, Monsanto's line of seed products included corn, cotton, soy and vegetable seeds.

Row crops

Many of Monsanto's agricultural seed products are genetically modified, such as for resistance to herbicides, including glyphosate and dicamba. Monsanto calls glyphosate-tolerant seeds Roundup Ready. Monsanto's introduction of this system (planting a glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged) allowed farmers to increase yield by planting rows closer together.[114] Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to allow the control of post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage.[114] Farmers widely adopted the technology—for example over 80% of maize (Mon 832), soybean (MON-Ø4Ø32-6), cotton, sugar beet and canola planted in the United States are glyphosate-tolerant. Monsanto developed a Roundup Ready genetically modified wheat (MON 71800) but ended development in 2004 due to concerns from wheat exporters about the rejection of genetically modified (GM) wheat by foreign markets.[115]

Two patents were critical to Monsanto's GM soybean business; one expired in 2011 and the other in 2014.[116] The second expiration meant that glyphosate resistant soybeans became "generic".[114][117][118][119][120] The first harvest of generic glyphosate-tolerant soybeans came in 2015.[121] Monsanto broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products.[122] About 150 companies have licensed the technology,[123] including competitors Syngenta[124] and DuPont Pioneer.[125]

Monsanto invented and sells genetically modified seeds that make a crystalline insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, known as Bt. In 1995 Monsanto's potato plants producing Bt toxin were approved by the Environmental Protection Agency, following approval by the FDA, making it the first pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the United States.[126] Monsanto subsequently developed Bt maize (MON 802, MON 809, MON 863, MON 810), Bt soybean[127] and Bt cotton.

Monsanto produces seed that has multiple genetic modifications, also known as "stacked traits"—for instance, cotton that make one or more Bt proteins and is resistant to glyphosate. One of these, created in collaboration with Dow Chemical Company, is called SmartStax. In 2011 Monsanto launched the Genuity brand for its stacked-trait products.[128]

As of 2012, the agricultural seed lineup included Roundup Ready alfalfa, canola and sugarbeet; Bt and/or Roundup Ready cotton; sorghum hybrids; soybeans with various oil profiles, most with the Roundup Ready trait; and a wide range of wheat products, many of which incorporate the nontransgenic "clearfield" imazamox-tolerant[129] trait from BASF.[130]

In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids branded DroughtGard.[131] The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis; it was approved by the USDA in 2011[132] and by China in 2013.[133]

The "Xtend Crop System" includes seed genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and dicamba, and a herbicide product including those two active ingredients.[134] In December 2014, the system was approved for use in the US. In February 2016, China approved the Roundup Ready 2 Xtend system.[135] The lack of European Union approval led many American traders to reject the use of Xtend soybeans over concerns that the new seeds would become mixed with EU-approved seeds, leading Europe to reject American soybean exports.[136]

India-specific issues

In 2009, Monsanto scientists discovered insects that had developed resistance to the Bt Cotton planted in Gujarat. Monsanto communicated this to the Indian government and its customers, stating that "Resistance is natural and expected, so measures to delay resistance are important. Among the factors that may have contributed to pink bollworm resistance to the Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard I in Gujarat are limited refuge planting and early use of unapproved Bt cotton seed, planted prior to GEAC approval of Bollgard I cotton, which may have had lower protein expression levels."[137] The company advised farmers to switch to its second generation of Bt cotton – Bolgard II – which had two resistance genes instead of one,[138] the widely recognised best practice to forestall, prevent, and cope with any kind of pesticide resistance.[139][140][141][142][143][144][145] However, this advice was criticized: "an internal analysis of the statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests says it 'appears that this could be a business strategy to phase out single gene events [that is, the first-generation Bollgard I product] and promote double genes [the second generation Bollgard II] which would fetch higher price.'"[146]

Monsanto's GM cotton seed was the subject of NGO agitation because of its higher cost. Indian farmers crossed GM varieties with local varieties, using plant breeding, violating their agreements with Monsanto.[147] In 2009, high prices of Bt Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of Jhabua district into debt when the crops died due to lack of rain.[148]

Vegetables

In 2012 Monsanto was the world's largest supplier of non-GE vegetable seeds by value, with sales of $800M. 95% of the research and development for vegetable seed is in conventional breeding. The company concentrates on improving flavor.[63] According to their website they sell "4,000 distinct seed varieties representing more than 20 species".[149] Broccoli, with the brand name Beneforté, with increased amounts of glucoraphanin was introduced in 2010 following development by its Seminis subsidiary.[150]

Former products

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Until it ended production in 1977, Monsanto was the source of 99% of the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) used by U.S. industry.[38] They were sold under brand names including Aroclor and Santotherm; the name Santotherm is still used for non-chlorinated products.[151][152] PCBs are a persistent organic pollutant, and cause cancer in both animals and humans, among other health effects.[153] PCBs were initially welcomed due to the electrical industry's need for durable, safer (than flammable mineral oil) cooling and insulating fluid for industrial transformers and capacitors. PCBs were also commonly used as stabilizing additives in the manufacture of flexible PVC coatings for electrical wiring and in electronic components to enhance PVC heat and fire resistance.[154] As transformer leaks occurred and toxicity problems arose near factories, their durability and toxicity became recognized as serious problems. PCB production was banned by the U.S. Congress in 1979 and by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001.[38][155][156]

Agent Orange

Main article: Agent Orange

Monsanto, Dow Chemical, and eight other chemical companies made Agent Orange for the U.S. Department of Defense.[42]: 6  It was given its name from the color of the orange-striped barrels in which it was shipped, and was by far the most widely used of the so-called "Rainbow Herbicides".[157]

Bovine somatotropin

Main article: Bovine somatotropin

Monsanto developed and sold recombinant bovine somatotropin (also known as rBST and rBGH), a synthetic hormone that increases milk production by 11–16% when injected into cows.[158][159] In October 2008, Monsanto sold this business to Eli Lilly for $300 million plus additional considerations.[160]

The use of rBST remains controversial with respect to its effects on cows and their milk.[161]

In some markets, milk from cows that are not treated with rBST is sold with labels indicating that it is rBST-free: this milk has proved popular with consumers.[162] In reaction to this, in early 2008 a pro-rBST advocacy group called "American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology" (AFACT),[163] made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto, formed and began lobbying to ban such labels. AFACT stated that "absence" labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior.[162]

Uncommercialized products

Monsanto also developed notable technologies that were not ultimately commercialized.

"Terminator" seeds

Main article: Genetic use restriction technology

Genetic use restriction technology, colloquially known as "terminator technology", produces plants with sterile seeds. This trait would prevent the spread of those seeds into the wild. It also would prevent farmers from planting seeds they harvest, requiring them to purchase seed for every planting, allowing the company to enforce its licensing terms via technology. Farmers have been buying hybrid seeds for generations, instead of replanting their harvest, because second-generation hybrid seeds are inferior. Nevertheless, most seed companies contract only with farmers who agree not to plant harvested seeds.

Terminator technology has been developed by governmental labs, university researchers and companies.[164][165][166] The technology has not been used commercially.[167][168] Rumors that Monsanto and other companies intended to introduce terminator technology caused protests, for example in India.[169][170]

In 1999, Monsanto pledged not to commercialize terminator technology.[167][171] The Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi intended to commercialize the technology,[166] but D&PL was acquired by Monsanto in 2007.[172]

Monsanto "Terminator seeds" were never commercialized nor used in any farmer's field anywhere in the world. The patent expired in 2015.[173]

GM wheat

Main article: Genetically modified wheat

Monsanto developed several strains of genetically modified wheat, including glyphosate-resistant strains, in the 1990s. Field tests were done in the United States between 1998 and 2005.[174] As of 2017, no genetically modified wheat had been released for commercial use.[175]

Legal affairs

Main article: Monsanto legal cases

Monsanto engaged in high-profile lawsuits, as both plaintiff and defendant. It defended lawsuits mostly over its products' health and environmental effects. Monsanto used the courts to enforce its patents, particularly in agricultural biotechnology, an approach similar to that of other companies in the field, such as Dupont Pioneer[176][177] and Syngenta.[178] Monsanto also became one of the most controversial large corporations in the world, over a range of issues involving its industrial and agricultural chemical products, and GM seed.[179] In April 2018, just prior to Bayer's acquisition, Bayer indicated that improving Monsanto's reputation represented a major challenge.[180] That June, Bayer announced it would drop the Monsanto name as part of a campaign to regain consumer trust.[179]

Argentina

Argentina approved Roundup Ready soy in 1996. Between 1996 and 2008 soy production grew from 14 million acres to 42 million acres. The growth was driven by Argentine investors' interest in export markets.[181] The consolidation led to a decrease in production of many staples such as milk, rice, maize, potatoes and lentils. As of 2004, about 150,000 small farmers had left the countryside; as of 2009, 50% in the Chaco region.[181][182][183]

The Guardian reported that a Monsanto representative had said, "any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture, not because it was GM. If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems."[182]

In 2005 and 2006, Monsanto attempted to enforce its patents on soymeal originating in Argentina and shipped to Spain by having Spanish customs officials seize the soymeal shipments. The seizures were part of a larger attempt by Monsanto to put pressure on the Argentinian government to enforce Monsanto's seed patents.[184]

In 2013 environmentalist groups objected to a Monsanto corn seed conditioning facility in Malvinas Argentinas, Córdoba. Neighbours objected to the risk of environmental impact. Court rulings supported the project,[185] but environmentalist groups organised demonstrations and opened an online petition for the subject to be decided in a popular referendum.[186] The court rulings stipulated that while construction could continue, the facility could not begin operating until the environmental impact report required by law had been duly presented.[187]

In 2016 Monsanto reached an agreement with Argentina's government on soybean seed royalty payments. Monsanto agreed to give the Argentine Seed Institute (Inase) oversight over crops grown from Monsanto's Intacta genetically modified soybean seeds. Before the agreement, Argentine farmers generally avoided royalties by using seeds from previous harvests or purchased from non-registered suppliers. Inase agreed to delegate testing to grain exchanges. About 6 million sample tests were to be conducted annually. Seeds that appear to be GMOs may be tested again using a polymerase chain reaction test.[188]

Brazil

Brazil is the second largest producer of GMO soy. In 2003 GM soy was found in fields planted in the state of Rio Grande do Sul.[189] This was a controversial decision, and in response, the Landless Workers' Movement protested by invading and occupying several Monsanto farm plots used for research, training and seed-processing.[190] In 2005 Brazil passed a law creating a regulatory pathway for GM crops.

China

Monsanto was criticized by Chinese economist Larry Lang for controlling the Chinese soybean market, and for trying to do the same to Chinese corn and cotton.[191]

India

Main article: Farmers' suicides in India

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, public attention was drawn to suicides by indebted farmers following crop failures.[192] For example, in the early 2000s, farmers in Andhra Pradesh (AP) were in economic crisis due to high-interest rates and crop failures, leading to widespread unrest and farmer suicides.[193] Monsanto was one focus of protests with respect to the price and yields of Bt seed. In 2005, the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, the Indian regulatory authority, released a study on field tests of certain Bt cotton strains in AP and ruled that Monsanto could not market those strains in AP because of poor yields.[194] At about the same time, the state agriculture minister barred the company from selling Bt cotton seed, because Monsanto refused a request by the state government to provide pay about Rs 4.5 crore (about one million US$) to indebted farmers in some districts, and because the government blamed Monsanto's seeds for crop failures.[195] The order was later lifted.

In 2006, AP tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price of Bt seeds. Unsatisfied, the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its Mumbai-based licensee, Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds.[196] Research by International Food Policy Research Institute found no evidence supporting an increased suicide rate following the introduction of Bt cotton and that Bt cotton.[197][198] The report stated that farmer suicides predated commercial introduction in 2002 (and unofficial introduction in 2001) and that such suicides had made up a fairly constant portion of the overall national suicide rate since 1997.[198][199] The report concluded that while Bt cotton may have been a factor in specific suicides, the contribution was likely marginal compared to socio-economic factors.[198][199] As of 2009, Bt cotton was planted in 87% of Indian cotton-growing land.[200]

Critics including Vandana Shiva said that the crop failures could "often be traced to" Monsanto's Bt cotton, that the seeds increased farmer indebtedness and argued that Monsanto misrepresented the profitability of their Bt Cotton, causing losses leading to debt.[192][201][202][203] In 2009, Shiva wrote that Indian farmers who had previously spent as little as ₹7 (rupees) per kilogram were now paying up to ₹17,000 per kilo per year for Bt cotton.[204] In 2012 the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Central Cotton Research Institute (CCRI) stated that for the first time farmer suicides could be linked to a decline in the performance of Bt cotton, and advised, "cotton farmers are in a deep crisis since shifting to Bt cotton. The spate of farmer suicides in 2011–12 has been particularly severe among Bt cotton farmers."[205]

In 2004, in response to an order from the Bombay High Court the Tata Institute produced a report on farmer suicides in Maharashtra in 2005.[206][207] The survey cited "government apathy, the absence of a safety net for farmers, and lack of access to information related to agriculture as the chief causes for the desperate condition of farmers in the state."[206]

Various studies identified the important factors as insufficient or risky credit systems, the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, a downturn in the urban economy which forced non-farmers into farming and the absence of suitable counseling services.[199][208][209] ICAR and CCRI stated that the cost of cotton cultivation had jumped as a consequence of rising pesticide costs, while total Bt cotton production in the five years from 2007 to 2012 had declined.[205]

United Kingdom

Main article: Brofiscin Quarry

Brofiscin Quarry was used as a waste site from about 1965 to 1972 and accepted waste from BP, Veolia and Monsanto.[210][211] A 2005 report by Environment Agency Wales (EAW) found that the quarry contained up to 75 toxic substances, including heavy metals, Agent Orange and PCBs.[210][212]

In February 2011, Monsanto agreed to help with the costs of remediation, but did not accept responsibility for the pollution.[213][214] In 2011, EAW and the Rhondda Cynon Taf council announced that they had decided to place an engineered cap over the waste mass,[215] and stated that the cost would be £1.5 million; previous estimates had been as high as £100 million.[212][216]

United States

PCBs

In the late 1960s, the Monsanto plant in Sauget, Illinois, was the nation's largest producer of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) compounds, which remained in the water along Dead Creek there. An EPA official referred to Sauget as "one of the most polluted communities in the region" and "a soup of different chemicals".[217]

In Anniston, Alabama, plaintiffs in a 2002 lawsuit provided documentation showing that the local Monsanto factory knowingly discharged both mercury and PCB-laden waste into local creeks for over 40 years.[218] In 1969 Monsanto dumped 45 tons of PCBs into Snow Creek, a feeder for Choccolocco Creek, which supplies much of the area's drinking water, and buried millions of pounds of PCB in open-pit landfills located on hillsides above the plant and surrounding neighborhoods.[219] In August 2003, Solutia and Monsanto agreed to pay plaintiffs $700 million to settle claims by over 20,000 Anniston residents.[220]

In June 2020, Bayer proposed paying $650 million to settle local PCB lawsuits, and $170 million to the attorneys-general of New Mexico, Washington and the District of Columbia.[16] Monsanto was acknowledged at the time of the settlement to have ceased making PCBs in 1977, though State Impact of Pennsylvania reported that this did not stop PCBs from contaminating people many years later.[16] State Impact of Pennsylvania stated "In 1979, the EPA banned the use of PCBs, but they still exist in some products produced before 1979. They persist in the environment because they bind to sediments and soils. High exposure to PCBs can cause birth defects, developmental delays, and liver changes." On November 25, 2020, however U.S. District Judge Fernando M. Olguin rejected the proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer and allowed Monsanto-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.[221]

Polluted sites

As of November 2013, Monsanto was associated with nine "active" Superfund sites and 32 "archived" sites in the US, in the EPA's Superfund database.[222] Monsanto was sued and settled multiple times for damaging the health of its employees or residents near its Superfund sites through pollution and poisoning.[223][224]

GM wheat

In 2013 a Monsanto-developed transgenic cultivar of glyphosate-resistant wheat was discovered on a farm in Oregon, growing as a weed or "volunteer plant". The final Oregon field test had occurred in 2001. As of May 2013, the GMO seed source was unknown. Volunteer wheat from a former test field two miles away was tested and was not found to be glyphosate-tolerant. Monsanto faced penalties up to $1 million over potential violations of the Plant Protection Act. The discovery threatened world-leading US wheat exports, which totaled $8.1 billion in 2012.[225][226] This wheat variety was rarely exported to Europe and was more likely destined for Asia. Monsanto said it had destroyed all the material it held after completing trials in 2004 and it was "mystified" by its appearance.[227] On June 14, 2013, the USDA announced: "As of today, USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm. All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of GE wheat in commerce."[228] As of August 30, 2013, while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders.[229]

Cancer risks of Roundup

Monsanto has faced controversy in the United States over claims that its herbicide products might be carcinogens. There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.[230] The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.[231] Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization, European Commission, Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment[232] have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans.[citation needed] However, one international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), affiliated with the WHO, has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews; in 2015 the IARC declared glyphosate "probably carcinogenic".[233]

As of October 30, 2019, there were 42,700 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer after the IARC report in 2015 linking glyphosate to cancer in humans.[234][235][236][237] Monsanto denies that Roundup is carcinogenic.[238][239]

In March 2017, 40 plaintiffs filed a lawsuit at the Alameda County Superior Court, a branch of the California Superior Court, asking for damages caused by the company's glyphosate-based weed-killers, including Roundup, and demanding a jury trial.[240] On August 10, 2018, Monsanto lost the first decided case. Dewayne Johnson, who has non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, was initially awarded $289 million in damages after a jury in San Francisco said that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide. Pending appeal, the award was later reduced to $78.5 million.[241][242] In November 2018, Monsanto appealed the judgement, asking an appellate court to consider a motion for a new trial.[242] A verdict on the appeal was delivered in June 2020 upholding the verdict but further reducing the award to $21.5 million.[243]

On March 27, 2019, Monsanto was found liable in a federal court for Edwin Hardeman's non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and ordered to pay $80 million in damages. A spokesperson for Bayer, by this time the parent company of Monsanto, said the company would appeal the verdict.[244]

On May 13, 2019, a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup.[245] On July 26, 2019, an Alameda County judge cut the settlement to $86.7 million, stating that the judgement by the jury exceeded legal precedent.[246]

In June 2020, Monsanto acquisitor Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup cancer lawsuits, agreeing to pay $8.8 to $9.6 billion to settle those claims, and $1.5 billion for any future claims. The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed.[16]

Dicamba lawsuits

Following a lawsuit by a peach farmer alleging that Dicamba used as a weed killer drifted in the wind from adjacent crops to destroy his peach orchards, a Missouri trial jury found in February 2020 that Monsanto and codefendant BASF were negligent in design of Dicamba and failed to warn farmers about the product, awarding $15 million for losses and $250 million in punitive damages.[247] On February 14, 2020, the jury involved in a Missouri lawsuit involving tree damage caused by dicamba drift ruled against Bayer and its co-defendant BASF and found in favor of Bader Farms owner Bill Bader.[248] In June 2020, Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to $400 million for all 2015–2020 crop year dicamba claims, not including the $250 million judgement which was issued to Bader.[16] On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge Stephen Limbaugh Jr. reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to $60 million.[249]

Improper accounting for incentive rebates

From 2009 to 2011, Monsanto improperly accounted for incentive rebates. The actions inflated Monsanto's reported profit by $31 million over the two years. Monsanto paid $80 million in penalties pursuant to a subsequent settlement with the US Securities and Exchange Commission.[250] Monsanto materially misstated its consolidated earnings in response to losing market share of Roundup to generic producers. Monsanto overhauled its internal controls. Two of their top CPAs were suspended and Monsanto was required to hire, at their expense, an independent ethics/compliance consultant for two years.[251]

Alleged ghostwriting

A review of glyphosate's carcinogenic potential by four independent expert panels, with a comparison to the IARC assessment, was published in September 2016. Using emails released in August 2017 by plaintiffs' lawyers who are suing Monsanto, Bloomberg Business Week reported that "Monsanto scientists were heavily involved in organizing, reviewing, and editing drafts submitted by the outside experts." A Monsanto spokesperson responded that Monsanto had provided only non-substantive cosmetic copyediting.[252]

In 2017, The New York Times reported that a 2015 article attributed to researcher and columnist Henry I. Miller had been drafted by Monsanto.[253] According to the report, Monsanto asked Miller to write an article rebutting the findings of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, and he indicated willingness to do it if he "could start from a high-quality draft".[253] Forbes later removed Miller's blog from Forbes.com and ended their relationship.[254]

Government relations

United States

Monsanto regularly lobbied the US government with[255] expenses reaching $8.8 million in 2008[256] and $6.3 million in 2011.[257] $2 million was spent on matters concerning "Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws, Regulations, and Trade". Some US diplomats in Europe at other times worked directly for Monsanto.[258]

California's 2012 Proposition 37 would have mandated the disclosure of genetically modified crops used in the production of California food products. Monsanto spent $8.1 million opposing passage, making it the largest contributor against the initiative. The proposition was rejected by a 53.7% majority.[259] Labeling is not required in the US.[260][261]

In 2009 Michael R. Taylor, food safety expert and former Monsanto VP for Public Policy,[262][263][264] became a senior advisor to the FDA Commissioner.[265]

Monsanto is a member of the Washington D.C based Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO), the world's largest biotechnology trade association, which provides "advocacy, business development, and communications services."[266][267] Between 2010 and 2011 BIO spent a total of $16.43 million on lobbying.[268][269]

The Monsanto Company Citizenship Fund aka Monsanto Citizenship Fund is a political action committee that donated over $10 million to various candidates from 2003 to 2013.[270][271][272][273][274]

As of October 2013, Monsanto and DuPont Co. continued backing an anti-labeling campaign, spending roughly $18 million. The state of Washington, along with 26 other states, made proposals in November to require GMO labeling.[275]

Revolving door

In the US regulatory environment, many individuals move back and forth between positions in the public and private sectors, including at Monsanto. Critics argued that the connections between the company and the government allowed Monsanto to obtain favorable regulations at the expense of consumer safety.[276][277][278] Supporters of the practice point to the benefits of competent and experienced individuals in both sectors and to the importance of appropriately managing potential conflicts of interest.[279][280]: 16–23  The list of such people includes:

United Kingdom

During the late 1990s, Monsanto lobbied to raise permitted glyphosate levels in soybeans and was successful in convincing Codex Alimentarius and both the UK and US governments to lift levels 200 times to 20 milligrams per kilogram of soya.[291]: 265  When asked how negotiations with Monsanto were conducted, Lord Donoughue, then the Labour Party Agriculture minister in the House of Lords, stated that all information relating to the matter would be "kept secret".[291]: 265  During the 24 months prior to the 1997 British election Monsanto representatives had 22 meetings at the departments of Agriculture and the Environment.[291]: 266  Stanley Greenberg, an election advisor to Tony Blair, later worked as a Monsanto consultant.[291]: 266  Former Labour spokesperson David Hill, became Monsanto's media adviser at the lobbying firm Bell Pottinger.[291]: 266  The Labour government was challenged in Parliament about "trips, facilities, gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants", but only acknowledged that Department of Trade and Industry had two working lunches with Monsanto.[291]: 267  Peter Luff, then a Conservative Party MP and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee, received up to £10,000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto.[291]: 266 [292][293]

European Union

In January 2011, WikiLeaks documents suggested that US diplomats in Europe responded to a request for help from the Spanish government. One report stated, "In addition, the cables show US diplomats working directly for GM companies such as Monsanto. 'In response to recent urgent requests by [Spanish rural affairs ministry] state secretary Josep Puxeu and Monsanto, post requests renewed US government support of Spain's science-based agricultural biotechnology position through high-level US government intervention.'"[258][294] The leaked documents showed that in 2009, when the Spanish government's policy approving MON810 was under pressure from EU interests, Monsanto's Director for Biotechnology for Spain and Portugal requested that the US government support Spain on the matter.[258][295][296] The leaks indicated that Spain and the US had worked closely together to "persuade the EU not to strengthen biotechnology laws".[258][294] Spain was viewed as a key GMO supporter and a leading indicator of support across the continent.[297][298] The leaks also revealed that in response to an attempt by France to ban MON810 in late 2007, then-US ambassador to France, Craig Roberts Stapleton, asked Washington to "calibrate a targeted retaliation list that [would cause] some pain across the EU", targeting countries that did not support the use of GM crops.[299] This activity transpired after the US, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Mexico and New Zealand had brought an action against Europe via the World Trade Organization with respect to the EU's banning of GMOs; in 2006, the WTO had ruled against the EU.[298][300][301]

Monsanto was a member of EuropaBio, the leading biotechnology trade group in Europe. One of EuropaBio's initiatives is "Transforming Europe's position on GM food". It found "an urgent need to reshape the terms of the debate about GM in Europe".[302] EuropaBio proposed the recruitment of high-profile "ambassadors" to lobby EU officials.[302][303][304]

In September 2017 Monsanto lobbyists were banned from the European parliament after the Monsanto refused to attend a parliamentary hearing into allegations of regulatory interference.[305]

Haiti

After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Monsanto donated $255,000 for disaster relief[306] and 60,000 seed sacks (475 tons) of hybrid (non-GM) corn and vegetable seeds worth $4 million.[307] However, a Catholic Relief Services (CRS) rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the five most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds be introduced only on a small scale.[308] Emmanuel Prophete, head of Haiti's Ministry of Agriculture's Service National Semencier (SNS), stated that SNS was not opposed to the hybrid maize seeds because they at least double yields. Louise Sperling, Principal Researcher at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) told HGW that she was not opposed to hybrids, but noted that most hybrids required extra water and better soils and that most of Haiti was not appropriate for hybrids.

Activists objected that some of the seeds were coated with the fungicides Maxim or thiram. In the United States, pesticides containing thiram are banned in home garden products because most home gardeners do not have adequate protection.[309] Activists wrote that the coated seeds were handled in a dangerous manner by the recipients.[310]

The donated seeds were sold at a reduced price in local markets.[307] However, farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would "threaten local varieties"[306] and an estimated 8,000–12,000 farmers attended a protest of the donation on June 4, 2010, organized by a Haitian farmers' association, the Peasant Movement of Papay, where a small pile of seeds was symbolically burned.[311]

Public relations

Monsanto has engaged in various public relations campaigns to improve its image and public perception of some of its products.[312][313] These include developing a relationship with scientist Richard Doll with respect to Agent Orange.[314][315][316] Other campaigns include the joint funding with other biotech companies for the website GMO Answers.[317]

Sponsorships

University relationships

Monsanto was a major funder of science research at Washington University in St. Louis for many years.[327] This research was highlighted by the Washington University/Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement, which brought more than $100 million of research funding to the university.[328] Washington University built the Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences in 1965.[329] In 2015, Monsanto gave Washington University's Institute for School Partnership a $1.94 million grant to help better teach students in STEM fields.[330][331]

Awards

In 2009 Monsanto was chosen as Forbes magazine's company of the year.[283][332] In 2010 Swiss research firm Covalence rated Monsanto least ethical[333] of 581 multinational corporations based on their EthicalQuote reputation tracking index which "aggregates thousands of positive and negative news items published by the media, companies, and stakeholders".[334] without attempt to validate sources.[335][336][337] The journal Science ranked Monsanto in its Top 20 Employers list between 2011 and 2014. In 2012, it described the company as "innovative leader in the industry", "makes changes needed" and "does important quality research".[338][339] Monsanto executive Robert Fraley won the World Food Prize for "breakthrough achievements in founding, developing, and applying modern agricultural biotechnology".[340][341]

Documentaries

See also

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Bibliography

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Monsanto Company.

May 11, 2023
monsanto, other, uses, disambiguation, company, american, agrochemical, agricultural, biotechnology, corporation, founded, 1901, headquartered, creve, coeur, missouri, best, known, product, roundup, glyphosate, based, herbicide, developed, 1970s, later, compan. For other uses see Monsanto disambiguation The Monsanto Company m ɒ n ˈ s ae n t oʊ was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur Missouri Monsanto s best known product is Roundup a glyphosate based herbicide developed in the 1970s Later the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops In 2018 the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue 2 Monsanto CompanyTypeSubsidiaryIndustryAgribusinessFoundedSeptember 26 1901 121 years ago 1901 09 26 Reformed in 2000 spun off from Pharmacia amp Upjohn FounderJohn Francis QueenyDefunctJune 7 2018 4 years ago 2018 06 07 FateAcquired by BayerHeadquartersCreve Coeur Missouri U S Key peopleHugh Grant Chairman President amp CEO Pierre Courduroux Vice President amp CFO ProductsHerbicidesCrop SeedsGMOsOwnerBayer 2018 Websitewww monsanto comFootnotes references 1 Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983 3 and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987 It was one of the top 10 US chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002 through a process of mergers and spin offs that focused the company on biotechnology Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture using techniques developed by biotech drug companies 4 2 6 In this business model companies recoup R amp D expenses by exploiting biological patents 5 6 7 8 Monsanto s roles in agricultural changes biotechnology products lobbying of government agencies and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT PCBs Agent Orange and recombinant bovine growth hormone Its seed patenting model was criticized as biopiracy and a threat to biodiversity 9 10 as invasive species 11 In September 2016 German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US 66 billion in an all cash deal 12 After gaining US and EU regulatory approval the sale was completed on June 7 2018 The name Monsanto was no longer used but Monsanto s previous product brand names were maintained 13 14 15 In June 2020 Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex Monsanto products Roundup PCBs and Dicamba 16 Contents 1 History 1 1 Pre Pharmacia Monsanto 1 1 1 1901 to WWII 1 1 2 Post WWII 1 1 3 1960s and 1970s 1 1 4 1980 to 1989 Becoming an agribiotech 1 1 5 1990 to 1999 Moving into the seed market amp industry consolidation 1 1 6 Pre Pharmacia Monsanto overview 1 2 Post Pharmacia Monsanto 1 2 1 2000 to 2009 Birth of the new Monsanto 1 2 2 2010 to 2017 Further growth Syngenta 1 2 3 Post Pharmacia Monsanto overview 1 3 Sale to Bayer 2 Products and associated issues 2 1 Current products 2 1 1 Glyphosate herbicides 2 1 2 Crop seed 2 1 3 Row crops 2 1 4 India specific issues 2 1 5 Vegetables 2 2 Former products 2 2 1 Polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs 2 2 2 Agent Orange 2 2 3 Bovine somatotropin 2 3 Uncommercialized products 2 3 1 Terminator seeds 2 3 2 GM wheat 3 Legal affairs 3 1 Argentina 3 2 Brazil 3 3 China 3 4 India 3 5 United Kingdom 3 6 United States 3 6 1 PCBs 3 6 2 Polluted sites 3 6 3 GM wheat 3 6 4 Cancer risks of Roundup 3 6 5 Dicamba lawsuits 3 7 Improper accounting for incentive rebates 3 8 Alleged ghostwriting 4 Government relations 4 1 United States 4 1 1 Revolving door 4 2 United Kingdom 4 3 European Union 4 4 Haiti 5 Public relations 5 1 Sponsorships 5 2 University relationships 6 Awards 7 Documentaries 8 See also 9 References 10 BibliographyHistory EditFurther information Timeline of Monsanto Pre Pharmacia Monsanto Edit Monsanto Company Inc IndustryChemicals biotechnology pharmaceuticalsFounded1901 122 years ago 1901 St Louis Missouri U S FounderJohn Francis QueenyFateAcquired by Pharmacia amp Upjohn 17 HeadquartersUnited States 1901 to WWII Edit In 1901 Monsanto was founded in St Louis Missouri as a chemical company 18 The founder was John Francis Queeny who at age 42 was a 30 year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry 19 He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife Olga Mendez Monsanto who was a scioness of the Sephardic Jewish Monsanto family 20 The company s first products were commodity food additives such as the artificial sweetener saccharin caffeine and vanillin 21 6 22 23 24 25 Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser s Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr Wales The venture produced vanillin aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid and later rubber processing chemicals In the 1920s Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs Queeny s son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over the company in 1928 In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois now known as Sauget It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget its first village president 26 In 1935 Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston Alabama and thereby entered the business of producing PCBs 27 28 29 In 1936 Monsanto acquired Thomas amp Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton Ohio to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A Hochwalt The acquisition became Monsanto s Central Research Department 30 340 341 Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto serving as President 1951 1960 and Board Chair 1960 1965 He retired in 1970 31 In 1943 Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington D C with Leslie Groves commander of the Manhattan Project and James Conant president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee NDRC 32 They urged Thomas to become co director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto 32 He joined the NDRC and Monsanto s Central Research Department began to conduct related research 33 vii To that end Monsanto operated the Dayton Project and later Mound Laboratories and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons 32 Post WWII Edit In 1946 Monsanto developed and marketed All laundry detergent which they sold to Lever Brothers in 1957 34 In 1947 its styrene factory was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster 35 In 1949 Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds In 1954 Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in the United States 36 Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944 along with some 15 other companies This insecticide was used to kill malaria transmitting mosquitoes but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts In 1977 Monsanto stopped producing PCBs Congress banned PCB production two years later 37 38 1960s and 1970s Edit In the mid 1960s William Standish Knowles and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds 39 Knowles team designed the first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound L dopa which is used to treat Parkinson s disease 40 In 2001 Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry In the mid 1960s chemists at Monsanto developed the Monsanto process for making acetic acid which until 2000 was the most widely used production method In 1964 Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf initially ChemGrass 41 In the 1960s and 1970s Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984 42 6 In 1968 it became the first company to start mass production of visible light emitting diodes LEDs using gallium arsenide phosphide From 1968 to 1970 sales doubled every few months Their products discrete LEDs and seven segment numeric displays became industry standards The primary markets then were electronic calculators digital watches and digital clocks 43 Monsanto became a pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s Between 1968 and 1974 the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola Florida which was renamed the Monsanto Open In 1974 Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10 year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman which became the largest such arrangement ever made medical inventions arising from that research were the first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application 44 45 1980 to 1989 Becoming an agribiotech Edit Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell publishing their results in 1983 3 Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto s CEO in 1983 18 This involvement increased under the leadership of Robert Shapiro appointed CEO in 1995 leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture 18 In 1985 Monsanto acquired G D Searle amp Company a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals agriculture and animal health In 1993 its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex 46 47 which in 1998 became the first selective COX 2 inhibitor to be approved by the U S Food and Drug Administration FDA 48 Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer s acquisition of Monsanto s pharmaceutical business in 2002 49 1990 to 1999 Moving into the seed market amp industry consolidation Edit In 1994 Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin brand named Posilac 50 Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company In 1996 Monsanto purchased Agracetus the biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton soybeans peanuts and other crops and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991 51 In 1997 Monsanto divested Solutia a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto s PCB business and associated liabilities along with some related organic chemical production Monsanto first entered the maize seed business when it purchased 40 of Dekalb in 1996 it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998 52 In 1997 the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto s Law a biotechnological take on Moore s Law indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology In the same year Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired 53 54 In 1998 Monsanto purchased Cargill s international seed business which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries 52 In 2005 it finalized the purchase of Seminis Inc a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company for 1 4 billion 55 This made it the world s largest conventional seed company In 1999 Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co 18 In December of the same year Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia amp Upjohn in a deal valuing the transaction at 27 billion 56 18 The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of the new Pharmacia Monsanto s medical research division which included products such as Celebrex 57 Pre Pharmacia Monsanto overview Edit Illustration of the company s mergers acquisitions spin offs and historical predecessors PL LaboratoriesLKB produkter AB Acq 1968 Pharmacia BiotechKabi Vitrum Acq 1990 Kabi PharmaciaFarmitalia Acq 1993 Pharmacia Merged 1995 Upjohn Merged 1995 Pharmacia amp UpjohnMonsanto Est 1901 Swann Chemical Company Acq 1935 Thomas amp Hochwalt Laboratories Acq 1936 American Viscose Acq 1949 G D Searle amp Company Acq 1985 Agracetus Acq 1996 DeKalb Genetics Corporation Acq 1998 Cargill Seed div Acq 1998 Monsanto Pharmacia Corp Acquired by Pfizer 2002 Post Pharmacia Monsanto Edit 2000 to 2009 Birth of the new Monsanto Edit In 2000 Pharmacia spun off its agro biotech subsidiary into a new company 18 the new Monsanto 58 focused on four key agricultural crops soybeans maize wheat and cotton 59 Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia As a result the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003 60 61 In 2005 Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands Emergent was the third largest U S cotton seed company with about 12 of the U S market Monsanto s goal was to obtain a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform 62 Also in 2005 Monsanto purchased Seminis the California based world leader in vegetable seed production for 1 4 billion 63 Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross pollination methods Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non GM development while not ruling out GM in the longer term 64 In June 2007 Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company a major cotton seed breeder for 1 5 billion 65 As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business which it sold to Bayer and to divest its NexGen cotton business which it sold to Americot 66 Monsanto also exited the pig breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November divesting itself of any and all swine related patents patent applications and all other intellectual property 67 108 In 2007 Monsanto and BASF announced a long term agreement to cooperate in the research development and marketing of new plant biotechnology products 68 In 2008 Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for 546 million 69 and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health a division of Eli Lilly amp Co in August for 300 million plus additional contingent consideration 70 2010 to 2017 Further growth Syngenta Edit In 2012 Monsanto purchased for 210 million Precision Planting Inc a company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting 71 Monsanto purchased San Francisco based Climate Corp for 930 million in 2013 72 Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data if the forecasts were wrong the farmer was compensated 73 In May 2013 a worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation called March Against Monsanto was held in over 400 cities 74 75 A second protest took place in May 2014 Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro biotechnology rival Syngenta for US 46 5 billion in 2015 but failed 76 In that year Monsanto was the world s biggest supplier of seeds controlling 26 of the global seed market Du Pont was second with 21 77 Monsanto was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US 78 Post Pharmacia Monsanto overview Edit Chart of Monsanto s mergers acquisitions spin offs and historical predecessors Monsanto Spun off from Pharmacia amp Upjohn 2000 Emergent Genetics Acq 2005 Seminis Acq 2005 Icoria Inc Selected assets Acq 2005 Delta amp Pine Land Company Acq 2007 Monsanto s Asia subsidiaries 79 Sold to Devgen 2007 Monsanto Choice Genetics 80 Sold to Newsham Genetics 2007 De Ruiter Seeds Acq 2008 Agroeste Sementes 81 Acq 2008 Monsanto s Dairy Product Business 82 Sold to Eli Lilly amp Co 2008 Aly Participacoes Ltda 83 Acq 2008 CanaVialis S A Alellyx S A Monsanto s Global Sunflower Assets 84 Sold to Syngenta 2009 Divergence Inc 85 Acq 2011 Beeologics 86 Acq 2011 Precision Planting Inc Acq 2012 Climate Corp Acq 2013 640 Labs 87 Acq 2014 Agradis Inc 88 Select assets Acq 2013 Rosetta Green Ltd 89 Acq 2013 Channel Bio Corp 90 Acq 2004 Stone Seeds 91 Acq 2005 Trelay Seeds 91 Acq 2005 Stewart Seeds 91 Acq 2005 Fontanelle Hybrids 91 Acq 2005 Specialty Hybrids 91 Acq 2005 NC Hybrids Inc 92 Acq 2005 Heritage Seeds 93 Acq 2006 Gold Country Seed Inc 93 Acq 2006 Campbell Seed Seed marketing and sales business Acq 2006 Trisler Seed Farms 94 Acq 2006 Kruger Seed Company 94 Acq 2006 Sieben Hybrids 94 Acq 2006 Diener Seeds 94 Seed marketing and sales businesses Acq 2006 American Seeds Inc Poloni Semences 95 Acq 2007 Charentais melon breeding company 95 Acq 2007 International Seed Group Inc Monsanto Inc Sale to Bayer Edit In September 2016 Monsanto agreed to be acquired by Bayer for US 66 billion 96 97 In an effort to receive regulatory clearance for the deal Bayer announced the sale of significant portions of its current agriculture businesses including its seed and herbicide businesses to BASF 98 99 The deal was approved by the European Union on March 21 2018 100 101 and approved in the United States on May 29 2018 102 The sale closed on June 7 2018 Bayer announced its intent to discontinue the Monsanto name with the combined company operating solely under the Bayer brand 103 104 Under the terms of merger Bayer promised to maintain Monsanto s more than 9 000 U S jobs and add 3 000 new U S high tech positions 105 The prospective merger parties said at the time the combined agriculture business planned to spend 16 billion on research and development over the next six years and at least 8 billion on research and development in United States 106 Bayer would also establish their new global Seeds amp Traits and North American commercial headquarters in St Louis Missouri 107 Products and associated issues EditCurrent products Edit Glyphosate herbicides Edit See also Glyphosate Following its 1970 introduction Monsanto s last commercially relevant United States patent on the herbicide glyphosate brand name RoundUp expired in 2000 Glyphosate has since been marketed by many agrochemical companies in various solution strengths and with various adjuvants under dozens of tradenames 108 109 110 111 As of 2009 glyphosate represented about 10 of Monsanto s revenue 112 Roundup related products which include genetically modified seeds represented about half of Monsanto s gross margin 113 Crop seed Edit See also Hybrid seed Genetically modified crops Genetically modified food and Genetically modified food controversies As of 2015 Monsanto s line of seed products included corn cotton soy and vegetable seeds Row crops Edit Many of Monsanto s agricultural seed products are genetically modified such as for resistance to herbicides including glyphosate and dicamba Monsanto calls glyphosate tolerant seeds Roundup Ready Monsanto s introduction of this system planting a glyphosate resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged allowed farmers to increase yield by planting rows closer together 114 Without it farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to allow the control of post emergent weeds with mechanical tillage 114 Farmers widely adopted the technology for example over 80 of maize Mon 832 soybean MON O4O32 6 cotton sugar beet and canola planted in the United States are glyphosate tolerant Monsanto developed a Roundup Ready genetically modified wheat MON 71800 but ended development in 2004 due to concerns from wheat exporters about the rejection of genetically modified GM wheat by foreign markets 115 Two patents were critical to Monsanto s GM soybean business one expired in 2011 and the other in 2014 116 The second expiration meant that glyphosate resistant soybeans became generic 114 117 118 119 120 The first harvest of generic glyphosate tolerant soybeans came in 2015 121 Monsanto broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products 122 About 150 companies have licensed the technology 123 including competitors Syngenta 124 and DuPont Pioneer 125 Monsanto invented and sells genetically modified seeds that make a crystalline insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis known as Bt In 1995 Monsanto s potato plants producing Bt toxin were approved by the Environmental Protection Agency following approval by the FDA making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the United States 126 Monsanto subsequently developed Bt maize MON 802 MON 809 MON 863 MON 810 Bt soybean 127 and Bt cotton Monsanto produces seed that has multiple genetic modifications also known as stacked traits for instance cotton that make one or more Bt proteins and is resistant to glyphosate One of these created in collaboration with Dow Chemical Company is called SmartStax In 2011 Monsanto launched the Genuity brand for its stacked trait products 128 As of 2012 the agricultural seed lineup included Roundup Ready alfalfa canola and sugarbeet Bt and or Roundup Ready cotton sorghum hybrids soybeans with various oil profiles most with the Roundup Ready trait and a wide range of wheat products many of which incorporate the nontransgenic clearfield imazamox tolerant 129 trait from BASF 130 In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids branded DroughtGard 131 The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis it was approved by the USDA in 2011 132 and by China in 2013 133 The Xtend Crop System includes seed genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and dicamba and a herbicide product including those two active ingredients 134 In December 2014 the system was approved for use in the US In February 2016 China approved the Roundup Ready 2 Xtend system 135 The lack of European Union approval led many American traders to reject the use of Xtend soybeans over concerns that the new seeds would become mixed with EU approved seeds leading Europe to reject American soybean exports 136 India specific issues Edit In 2009 Monsanto scientists discovered insects that had developed resistance to the Bt Cotton planted in Gujarat Monsanto communicated this to the Indian government and its customers stating that Resistance is natural and expected so measures to delay resistance are important Among the factors that may have contributed to pink bollworm resistance to the Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard I in Gujarat are limited refuge planting and early use of unapproved Bt cotton seed planted prior to GEAC approval of Bollgard I cotton which may have had lower protein expression levels 137 The company advised farmers to switch to its second generation of Bt cotton Bolgard II which had two resistance genes instead of one 138 the widely recognised best practice to forestall prevent and cope with any kind of pesticide resistance 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 However this advice was criticized an internal analysis of the statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests says it appears that this could be a business strategy to phase out single gene events that is the first generation Bollgard I product and promote double genes the second generation Bollgard II which would fetch higher price 146 Monsanto s GM cotton seed was the subject of NGO agitation because of its higher cost Indian farmers crossed GM varieties with local varieties using plant breeding violating their agreements with Monsanto 147 In 2009 high prices of Bt Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of Jhabua district into debt when the crops died due to lack of rain 148 Vegetables Edit In 2012 Monsanto was the world s largest supplier of non GE vegetable seeds by value with sales of 800M 95 of the research and development for vegetable seed is in conventional breeding The company concentrates on improving flavor 63 According to their website they sell 4 000 distinct seed varieties representing more than 20 species 149 Broccoli with the brand name Beneforte with increased amounts of glucoraphanin was introduced in 2010 following development by its Seminis subsidiary 150 Former products Edit Polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs Edit Until it ended production in 1977 Monsanto was the source of 99 of the polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs used by U S industry 38 They were sold under brand names including Aroclor and Santotherm the name Santotherm is still used for non chlorinated products 151 152 PCBs are a persistent organic pollutant and cause cancer in both animals and humans among other health effects 153 PCBs were initially welcomed due to the electrical industry s need for durable safer than flammable mineral oil cooling and insulating fluid for industrial transformers and capacitors PCBs were also commonly used as stabilizing additives in the manufacture of flexible PVC coatings for electrical wiring and in electronic components to enhance PVC heat and fire resistance 154 As transformer leaks occurred and toxicity problems arose near factories their durability and toxicity became recognized as serious problems PCB production was banned by the U S Congress in 1979 and by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001 38 155 156 Agent Orange Edit Main article Agent Orange Monsanto Dow Chemical and eight other chemical companies made Agent Orange for the U S Department of Defense 42 6 It was given its name from the color of the orange striped barrels in which it was shipped and was by far the most widely used of the so called Rainbow Herbicides 157 Bovine somatotropin Edit Main article Bovine somatotropin Monsanto developed and sold recombinant bovine somatotropin also known as rBST and rBGH a synthetic hormone that increases milk production by 11 16 when injected into cows 158 159 In October 2008 Monsanto sold this business to Eli Lilly for 300 million plus additional considerations 160 The use of rBST remains controversial with respect to its effects on cows and their milk 161 In some markets milk from cows that are not treated with rBST is sold with labels indicating that it is rBST free this milk has proved popular with consumers 162 In reaction to this in early 2008 a pro rBST advocacy group called American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology AFACT 163 made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto formed and began lobbying to ban such labels AFACT stated that absence labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior 162 Uncommercialized products Edit Monsanto also developed notable technologies that were not ultimately commercialized Terminator seeds Edit Main article Genetic use restriction technology Genetic use restriction technology colloquially known as terminator technology produces plants with sterile seeds This trait would prevent the spread of those seeds into the wild It also would prevent farmers from planting seeds they harvest requiring them to purchase seed for every planting allowing the company to enforce its licensing terms via technology Farmers have been buying hybrid seeds for generations instead of replanting their harvest because second generation hybrid seeds are inferior Nevertheless most seed companies contract only with farmers who agree not to plant harvested seeds Terminator technology has been developed by governmental labs university researchers and companies 164 165 166 The technology has not been used commercially 167 168 Rumors that Monsanto and other companies intended to introduce terminator technology caused protests for example in India 169 170 In 1999 Monsanto pledged not to commercialize terminator technology 167 171 The Delta amp Pine Land Company of Mississippi intended to commercialize the technology 166 but D amp PL was acquired by Monsanto in 2007 172 Monsanto Terminator seeds were never commercialized nor used in any farmer s field anywhere in the world The patent expired in 2015 173 GM wheat Edit Main article Genetically modified wheat Monsanto developed several strains of genetically modified wheat including glyphosate resistant strains in the 1990s Field tests were done in the United States between 1998 and 2005 174 As of 2017 no genetically modified wheat had been released for commercial use 175 Legal affairs EditMain article Monsanto legal cases Monsanto engaged in high profile lawsuits as both plaintiff and defendant It defended lawsuits mostly over its products health and environmental effects Monsanto used the courts to enforce its patents particularly in agricultural biotechnology an approach similar to that of other companies in the field such as Dupont Pioneer 176 177 and Syngenta 178 Monsanto also became one of the most controversial large corporations in the world over a range of issues involving its industrial and agricultural chemical products and GM seed 179 In April 2018 just prior to Bayer s acquisition Bayer indicated that improving Monsanto s reputation represented a major challenge 180 That June Bayer announced it would drop the Monsanto name as part of a campaign to regain consumer trust 179 Argentina Edit Argentina approved Roundup Ready soy in 1996 Between 1996 and 2008 soy production grew from 14 million acres to 42 million acres The growth was driven by Argentine investors interest in export markets 181 The consolidation led to a decrease in production of many staples such as milk rice maize potatoes and lentils As of 2004 about 150 000 small farmers had left the countryside as of 2009 50 in the Chaco region 181 182 183 The Guardian reported that a Monsanto representative had said any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture not because it was GM If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems 182 In 2005 and 2006 Monsanto attempted to enforce its patents on soymeal originating in Argentina and shipped to Spain by having Spanish customs officials seize the soymeal shipments The seizures were part of a larger attempt by Monsanto to put pressure on the Argentinian government to enforce Monsanto s seed patents 184 In 2013 environmentalist groups objected to a Monsanto corn seed conditioning facility in Malvinas Argentinas Cordoba Neighbours objected to the risk of environmental impact Court rulings supported the project 185 but environmentalist groups organised demonstrations and opened an online petition for the subject to be decided in a popular referendum 186 The court rulings stipulated that while construction could continue the facility could not begin operating until the environmental impact report required by law had been duly presented 187 In 2016 Monsanto reached an agreement with Argentina s government on soybean seed royalty payments Monsanto agreed to give the Argentine Seed Institute Inase oversight over crops grown from Monsanto s Intacta genetically modified soybean seeds Before the agreement Argentine farmers generally avoided royalties by using seeds from previous harvests or purchased from non registered suppliers Inase agreed to delegate testing to grain exchanges About 6 million sample tests were to be conducted annually Seeds that appear to be GMOs may be tested again using a polymerase chain reaction test 188 Brazil Edit Brazil is the second largest producer of GMO soy In 2003 GM soy was found in fields planted in the state of Rio Grande do Sul 189 This was a controversial decision and in response the Landless Workers Movement protested by invading and occupying several Monsanto farm plots used for research training and seed processing 190 In 2005 Brazil passed a law creating a regulatory pathway for GM crops China Edit Monsanto was criticized by Chinese economist Larry Lang for controlling the Chinese soybean market and for trying to do the same to Chinese corn and cotton 191 India Edit Main article Farmers suicides in India In the late 1990s and early 2000s public attention was drawn to suicides by indebted farmers following crop failures 192 For example in the early 2000s farmers in Andhra Pradesh AP were in economic crisis due to high interest rates and crop failures leading to widespread unrest and farmer suicides 193 Monsanto was one focus of protests with respect to the price and yields of Bt seed In 2005 the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee the Indian regulatory authority released a study on field tests of certain Bt cotton strains in AP and ruled that Monsanto could not market those strains in AP because of poor yields 194 At about the same time the state agriculture minister barred the company from selling Bt cotton seed because Monsanto refused a request by the state government to provide pay about Rs 4 5 crore about one million US to indebted farmers in some districts and because the government blamed Monsanto s seeds for crop failures 195 The order was later lifted In 2006 AP tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price of Bt seeds Unsatisfied the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its Mumbai based licensee Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds 196 Research by International Food Policy Research Institute found no evidence supporting an increased suicide rate following the introduction of Bt cotton and that Bt cotton 197 198 The report stated that farmer suicides predated commercial introduction in 2002 and unofficial introduction in 2001 and that such suicides had made up a fairly constant portion of the overall national suicide rate since 1997 198 199 The report concluded that while Bt cotton may have been a factor in specific suicides the contribution was likely marginal compared to socio economic factors 198 199 As of 2009 Bt cotton was planted in 87 of Indian cotton growing land 200 Critics including Vandana Shiva said that the crop failures could often be traced to Monsanto s Bt cotton that the seeds increased farmer indebtedness and argued that Monsanto misrepresented the profitability of their Bt Cotton causing losses leading to debt 192 201 202 203 In 2009 Shiva wrote that Indian farmers who had previously spent as little as 7 rupees per kilogram were now paying up to 17 000 per kilo per year for Bt cotton 204 In 2012 the Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICAR and the Central Cotton Research Institute CCRI stated that for the first time farmer suicides could be linked to a decline in the performance of Bt cotton and advised cotton farmers are in a deep crisis since shifting to Bt cotton The spate of farmer suicides in 2011 12 has been particularly severe among Bt cotton farmers 205 In 2004 in response to an order from the Bombay High Court the Tata Institute produced a report on farmer suicides in Maharashtra in 2005 206 207 The survey cited government apathy the absence of a safety net for farmers and lack of access to information related to agriculture as the chief causes for the desperate condition of farmers in the state 206 Various studies identified the important factors as insufficient or risky credit systems the difficulty of farming semi arid regions poor agricultural income absence of alternative income opportunities a downturn in the urban economy which forced non farmers into farming and the absence of suitable counseling services 199 208 209 ICAR and CCRI stated that the cost of cotton cultivation had jumped as a consequence of rising pesticide costs while total Bt cotton production in the five years from 2007 to 2012 had declined 205 United Kingdom Edit Main article Brofiscin Quarry Brofiscin Quarry was used as a waste site from about 1965 to 1972 and accepted waste from BP Veolia and Monsanto 210 211 A 2005 report by Environment Agency Wales EAW found that the quarry contained up to 75 toxic substances including heavy metals Agent Orange and PCBs 210 212 In February 2011 Monsanto agreed to help with the costs of remediation but did not accept responsibility for the pollution 213 214 In 2011 EAW and the Rhondda Cynon Taf council announced that they had decided to place an engineered cap over the waste mass 215 and stated that the cost would be 1 5 million previous estimates had been as high as 100 million 212 216 United States Edit PCBs Edit In the late 1960s the Monsanto plant in Sauget Illinois was the nation s largest producer of polychlorinated biphenyl PCB compounds which remained in the water along Dead Creek there An EPA official referred to Sauget as one of the most polluted communities in the region and a soup of different chemicals 217 In Anniston Alabama plaintiffs in a 2002 lawsuit provided documentation showing that the local Monsanto factory knowingly discharged both mercury and PCB laden waste into local creeks for over 40 years 218 In 1969 Monsanto dumped 45 tons of PCBs into Snow Creek a feeder for Choccolocco Creek which supplies much of the area s drinking water and buried millions of pounds of PCB in open pit landfills located on hillsides above the plant and surrounding neighborhoods 219 In August 2003 Solutia and Monsanto agreed to pay plaintiffs 700 million to settle claims by over 20 000 Anniston residents 220 In June 2020 Bayer proposed paying 650 million to settle local PCB lawsuits and 170 million to the attorneys general of New Mexico Washington and the District of Columbia 16 Monsanto was acknowledged at the time of the settlement to have ceased making PCBs in 1977 though State Impact of Pennsylvania reported that this did not stop PCBs from contaminating people many years later 16 State Impact of Pennsylvania stated In 1979 the EPA banned the use of PCBs but they still exist in some products produced before 1979 They persist in the environment because they bind to sediments and soils High exposure to PCBs can cause birth defects developmental delays and liver changes On November 25 2020 however U S District Judge Fernando M Olguin rejected the proposed 650 million settlement from Bayer and allowed Monsanto related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed 221 Polluted sites Edit As of November 2013 Monsanto was associated with nine active Superfund sites and 32 archived sites in the US in the EPA s Superfund database 222 Monsanto was sued and settled multiple times for damaging the health of its employees or residents near its Superfund sites through pollution and poisoning 223 224 GM wheat Edit In 2013 a Monsanto developed transgenic cultivar of glyphosate resistant wheat was discovered on a farm in Oregon growing as a weed or volunteer plant The final Oregon field test had occurred in 2001 As of May 2013 the GMO seed source was unknown Volunteer wheat from a former test field two miles away was tested and was not found to be glyphosate tolerant Monsanto faced penalties up to 1 million over potential violations of the Plant Protection Act The discovery threatened world leading US wheat exports which totaled 8 1 billion in 2012 225 226 This wheat variety was rarely exported to Europe and was more likely destined for Asia Monsanto said it had destroyed all the material it held after completing trials in 2004 and it was mystified by its appearance 227 On June 14 2013 the USDA announced As of today USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of GE wheat in commerce 228 As of August 30 2013 while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown Japan South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders 229 Cancer risks of Roundup Edit Monsanto has faced controversy in the United States over claims that its herbicide products might be carcinogens There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate as in agricultural work but no good evidence of such a risk from home use such as in domestic gardening 230 The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity 231 Organizations such as the World Health Organization WHO the Food and Agriculture Organization European Commission Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment 232 have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans citation needed However one international scientific organization the International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC affiliated with the WHO has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews in 2015 the IARC declared glyphosate probably carcinogenic 233 As of October 30 2019 there were 42 700 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer after the IARC report in 2015 linking glyphosate to cancer in humans 234 235 236 237 Monsanto denies that Roundup is carcinogenic 238 239 In March 2017 40 plaintiffs filed a lawsuit at the Alameda County Superior Court a branch of the California Superior Court asking for damages caused by the company s glyphosate based weed killers including Roundup and demanding a jury trial 240 On August 10 2018 Monsanto lost the first decided case Dewayne Johnson who has non Hodgkin s lymphoma was initially awarded 289 million in damages after a jury in San Francisco said that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide Pending appeal the award was later reduced to 78 5 million 241 242 In November 2018 Monsanto appealed the judgement asking an appellate court to consider a motion for a new trial 242 A verdict on the appeal was delivered in June 2020 upholding the verdict but further reducing the award to 21 5 million 243 On March 27 2019 Monsanto was found liable in a federal court for Edwin Hardeman s non Hodgkin s lymphoma and ordered to pay 80 million in damages A spokesperson for Bayer by this time the parent company of Monsanto said the company would appeal the verdict 244 On May 13 2019 a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay 2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup 245 On July 26 2019 an Alameda County judge cut the settlement to 86 7 million stating that the judgement by the jury exceeded legal precedent 246 In June 2020 Monsanto acquisitor Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup cancer lawsuits agreeing to pay 8 8 to 9 6 billion to settle those claims and 1 5 billion for any future claims The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed 16 Dicamba lawsuits Edit Following a lawsuit by a peach farmer alleging that Dicamba used as a weed killer drifted in the wind from adjacent crops to destroy his peach orchards a Missouri trial jury found in February 2020 that Monsanto and codefendant BASF were negligent in design of Dicamba and failed to warn farmers about the product awarding 15 million for losses and 250 million in punitive damages 247 On February 14 2020 the jury involved in a Missouri lawsuit involving tree damage caused by dicamba drift ruled against Bayer and its co defendant BASF and found in favor of Bader Farms owner Bill Bader 248 In June 2020 Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to 400 million for all 2015 2020 crop year dicamba claims not including the 250 million judgement which was issued to Bader 16 On November 25 2020 U S District Judge Stephen Limbaugh Jr reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to 60 million 249 Improper accounting for incentive rebates Edit From 2009 to 2011 Monsanto improperly accounted for incentive rebates The actions inflated Monsanto s reported profit by 31 million over the two years Monsanto paid 80 million in penalties pursuant to a subsequent settlement with the US Securities and Exchange Commission 250 Monsanto materially misstated its consolidated earnings in response to losing market share of Roundup to generic producers Monsanto overhauled its internal controls Two of their top CPAs were suspended and Monsanto was required to hire at their expense an independent ethics compliance consultant for two years 251 Alleged ghostwriting Edit A review of glyphosate s carcinogenic potential by four independent expert panels with a comparison to the IARC assessment was published in September 2016 Using emails released in August 2017 by plaintiffs lawyers who are suing Monsanto Bloomberg Business Week reported that Monsanto scientists were heavily involved in organizing reviewing and editing drafts submitted by the outside experts A Monsanto spokesperson responded that Monsanto had provided only non substantive cosmetic copyediting 252 In 2017 The New York Times reported that a 2015 article attributed to researcher and columnist Henry I Miller had been drafted by Monsanto 253 According to the report Monsanto asked Miller to write an article rebutting the findings of the International Agency for Research on Cancer and he indicated willingness to do it if he could start from a high quality draft 253 Forbes later removed Miller s blog from Forbes com and ended their relationship 254 Government relations EditUnited States Edit Monsanto regularly lobbied the US government with 255 expenses reaching 8 8 million in 2008 256 and 6 3 million in 2011 257 2 million was spent on matters concerning Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws Regulations and Trade Some US diplomats in Europe at other times worked directly for Monsanto 258 California s 2012 Proposition 37 would have mandated the disclosure of genetically modified crops used in the production of California food products Monsanto spent 8 1 million opposing passage making it the largest contributor against the initiative The proposition was rejected by a 53 7 majority 259 Labeling is not required in the US 260 261 In 2009 Michael R Taylor food safety expert and former Monsanto VP for Public Policy 262 263 264 became a senior advisor to the FDA Commissioner 265 Monsanto is a member of the Washington D C based Biotechnology Industry Organization BIO the world s largest biotechnology trade association which provides advocacy business development and communications services 266 267 Between 2010 and 2011 BIO spent a total of 16 43 million on lobbying 268 269 The Monsanto Company Citizenship Fund aka Monsanto Citizenship Fund is a political action committee that donated over 10 million to various candidates from 2003 to 2013 270 271 272 273 274 As of October 2013 Monsanto and DuPont Co continued backing an anti labeling campaign spending roughly 18 million The state of Washington along with 26 other states made proposals in November to require GMO labeling 275 Revolving door Edit In the US regulatory environment many individuals move back and forth between positions in the public and private sectors including at Monsanto Critics argued that the connections between the company and the government allowed Monsanto to obtain favorable regulations at the expense of consumer safety 276 277 278 Supporters of the practice point to the benefits of competent and experienced individuals in both sectors and to the importance of appropriately managing potential conflicts of interest 279 280 16 23 The list of such people includes Linda J Fisher EPA assistant administrator then Monsanto VP from 1995 to 2000 then EPA deputy administrator 281 Michael A Friedman MD FDA deputy commissioner 282 Earle H Harbison Jr Central Intelligence Agency Deputy Director then President Chief Operating Officer and Director from 1986 to 1993 283 Robert Holifield chief of staff of Senate Agriculture Committee then partner in Lincoln Policy Group 284 Mickey Kantor US trade representative then Monsanto board member 281 Blanche Lincoln US Senator and chair of Agriculture Committee then founder of lobbying firm Lincoln Policy Group William D Ruckelshaus EPA Administrator then acting Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and then Deputy Attorney General of the United States then EPA administrator then Monsanto Board member 285 Donald Rumsfeld Secretary of Defense and previous secretary of Searle a Monsanto subsidiary for eight years 286 Michael R Taylor assistant to the FDA commissioner then attorney for King amp Spalding 287 288 then FDA deputy commissioner for policy on food safety between 1991 and 1994 281 He was cleared of conflict of interest accusations Then he became Monsanto s VP for Public Policy 262 263 264 becoming Senior Advisor to the FDA Commissioner for the Obama administration 265 Clarence Thomas Supreme Court Justice who worked as an attorney for Monsanto in the 1970s then wrote the majority opinion in J E M Ag Supply Inc v Pioneer Hi Bred International Inc 289 finding that newly developed plant breeds are patentable under the general utility patent laws of the United States 281 286 289 290 Ann Veneman Secretary of the Department of Agriculture and member of the board of directors of Calgene 286 United Kingdom Edit During the late 1990s Monsanto lobbied to raise permitted glyphosate levels in soybeans and was successful in convincing Codex Alimentarius and both the UK and US governments to lift levels 200 times to 20 milligrams per kilogram of soya 291 265 When asked how negotiations with Monsanto were conducted Lord Donoughue then the Labour Party Agriculture minister in the House of Lords stated that all information relating to the matter would be kept secret 291 265 During the 24 months prior to the 1997 British election Monsanto representatives had 22 meetings at the departments of Agriculture and the Environment 291 266 Stanley Greenberg an election advisor to Tony Blair later worked as a Monsanto consultant 291 266 Former Labour spokesperson David Hill became Monsanto s media adviser at the lobbying firm Bell Pottinger 291 266 The Labour government was challenged in Parliament about trips facilities gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants but only acknowledged that Department of Trade and Industry had two working lunches with Monsanto 291 267 Peter Luff then a Conservative Party MP and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee received up to 10 000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto 291 266 292 293 European Union Edit In January 2011 WikiLeaks documents suggested that US diplomats in Europe responded to a request for help from the Spanish government One report stated In addition the cables show US diplomats working directly for GM companies such as Monsanto In response to recent urgent requests by Spanish rural affairs ministry state secretary Josep Puxeu and Monsanto post requests renewed US government support of Spain s science based agricultural biotechnology position through high level US government intervention 258 294 The leaked documents showed that in 2009 when the Spanish government s policy approving MON810 was under pressure from EU interests Monsanto s Director for Biotechnology for Spain and Portugal requested that the US government support Spain on the matter 258 295 296 The leaks indicated that Spain and the US had worked closely together to persuade the EU not to strengthen biotechnology laws 258 294 Spain was viewed as a key GMO supporter and a leading indicator of support across the continent 297 298 The leaks also revealed that in response to an attempt by France to ban MON810 in late 2007 then US ambassador to France Craig Roberts Stapleton asked Washington to calibrate a targeted retaliation list that would cause some pain across the EU targeting countries that did not support the use of GM crops 299 This activity transpired after the US Australia Argentina Brazil Canada India Mexico and New Zealand had brought an action against Europe via the World Trade Organization with respect to the EU s banning of GMOs in 2006 the WTO had ruled against the EU 298 300 301 Monsanto was a member of EuropaBio the leading biotechnology trade group in Europe One of EuropaBio s initiatives is Transforming Europe s position on GM food It found an urgent need to reshape the terms of the debate about GM in Europe 302 EuropaBio proposed the recruitment of high profile ambassadors to lobby EU officials 302 303 304 In September 2017 Monsanto lobbyists were banned from the European parliament after the Monsanto refused to attend a parliamentary hearing into allegations of regulatory interference 305 Haiti Edit After the 2010 Haiti earthquake Monsanto donated 255 000 for disaster relief 306 and 60 000 seed sacks 475 tons of hybrid non GM corn and vegetable seeds worth 4 million 307 However a Catholic Relief Services CRS rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the five most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds be introduced only on a small scale 308 Emmanuel Prophete head of Haiti s Ministry of Agriculture s Service National Semencier SNS stated that SNS was not opposed to the hybrid maize seeds because they at least double yields Louise Sperling Principal Researcher at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture CIAT told HGW that she was not opposed to hybrids but noted that most hybrids required extra water and better soils and that most of Haiti was not appropriate for hybrids Activists objected that some of the seeds were coated with the fungicides Maxim or thiram In the United States pesticides containing thiram are banned in home garden products because most home gardeners do not have adequate protection 309 Activists wrote that the coated seeds were handled in a dangerous manner by the recipients 310 The donated seeds were sold at a reduced price in local markets 307 However farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would threaten local varieties 306 and an estimated 8 000 12 000 farmers attended a protest of the donation on June 4 2010 organized by a Haitian farmers association the Peasant Movement of Papay where a small pile of seeds was symbolically burned 311 Public relations EditMonsanto has engaged in various public relations campaigns to improve its image and public perception of some of its products 312 313 These include developing a relationship with scientist Richard Doll with respect to Agent Orange 314 315 316 Other campaigns include the joint funding with other biotech companies for the website GMO Answers 317 Sponsorships Edit Disneyland attractions namely Hall of Chemistry 1955 to 1966 318 Monsanto House of the Future from 1957 to 1967 319 320 Fashions and Fabrics through the Years from 1965 to 1966 318 Adventure Thru Inner Space from 1967 to 1986 321 Monsanto has donated 10 million to the Missouri Botanical Garden in St Louis since the 1970s which named its 1998 plant science facility the Monsanto Center 322 Field Museum Gregor Mendel exhibit 323 and Underground Adventures since 2011 about the importance and fragility of the ecosystem within soil 324 Monsanto Environmental Education Initiative led by Gregory M Mueller Chair of the Department of Botany and Associate Curator of Mycology 325 Staff of the Field Museum such as Curator Mark W Westneat attended Monsanto meetings 326 Monsanto Insectarium at the St Louis Zoo in St Louis MissouriUniversity relationships Edit Monsanto was a major funder of science research at Washington University in St Louis for many years 327 This research was highlighted by the Washington University Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement which brought more than 100 million of research funding to the university 328 Washington University built the Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences in 1965 329 In 2015 Monsanto gave Washington University s Institute for School Partnership a 1 94 million grant to help better teach students in STEM fields 330 331 Awards EditIn 2009 Monsanto was chosen as Forbes magazine s company of the year 283 332 In 2010 Swiss research firm Covalence rated Monsanto least ethical 333 of 581 multinational corporations based on their EthicalQuote reputation tracking index which aggregates thousands of positive and negative news items published by the media companies and stakeholders 334 without attempt to validate sources 335 336 337 The journal Science ranked Monsanto in its Top 20 Employers list between 2011 and 2014 In 2012 it described the company as innovative leader in the industry makes changes needed and does important quality research 338 339 Monsanto executive Robert Fraley won the World Food Prize for breakthrough achievements in founding developing and applying modern agricultural biotechnology 340 341 Documentaries EditBitter Seeds Food Inc The Future of Food The World According to Monsanto 342 See also Edit Companies portal Agriculture and agronomy portalBiological patents in the United States DuPont Pioneer Genetically modified food controversies Industrial Bio Test Laboratories Monsanto legal cases Temporal analysis of productsReferences Edit US SEC Form 10 K Monsanto Company United States Securities and Exchange Commission Retrieved January 11 2018 Fortune 500 Companies 2018 fortune com Archived from the original on 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the harmful organisms Increasingly the aim in resistance research is to create modern breeding measures which breed polygenic resistant plants with resistance mechanisms that harmful organisms find it difficult to circumvent Monsanto admission has business motives The Hindu Chennai India March 12 2010 Archived from the original on March 14 2010 Ghosh Pallab June 17 2003 India s GM seed Piracy BBC News Jhabua on its way to becoming Vidarbha II The Hindu Chennai India August 25 2009 Archived from the original on August 28 2009 Monsanto Monsanto Vegetable Seeds Monsanto com Archived from the original on June 10 2012 Wired 2015 Monsanto is going organic in a quest for the perfect veggie Wired Erickson Mitchell D Kaley II Robert G 2011 Applications of polychlorinated biphenyls PDF Environmental Science and Pollution Research International Springer Verlag 18 2 135 51 doi 10 1007 s11356 010 0392 1 PMID 20848233 S2CID 25260209 Archived from the original PDF on April 2 2015 Retrieved March 3 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RAFI on new Terminator patent Ngin tripod com Context of July 20 1999 USDA and Delta amp Pine Land Secure New Patent for Improvements in Terminator Genetic Seed Sterilization Technology Historycommons org Archived from the original on February 5 2021 Retrieved July 24 2012 a b Warwick Hugh October 2000 Wijeratna Alex Meienberg Francois Meienberg eds Syngenta Switching off farmers rights PDF Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Archived from the original PDF on May 12 2011 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b Monsanto Is Monsanto Going to Develop or Sell Terminator Seeds Monsanto com November 3 2008 Archived from the original on June 5 2012 Retrieved July 24 2012 Introduction The Issues Ban Terminator June 1 2007 Archived from the original on July 9 2012 Retrieved August 3 2012 Farmers welcome halt of terminator BBC News October 5 1999 CAS 38 4 24 Oct 2006 vp PDF Archived from the original 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2010 Archived from the original on March 28 2010 a b FRONTLINE WORLD Rough Cut Seeds of Suicide PBS July 26 2005 India PM pledge over suicide farmers BBC News July 1 2004 The Hindu Business Line May 26 2005 Nuziveedu launches Bt cotton strains Angry Andhra uproots Monsanto financialexpress com Hyderabad June 23 2005 A P Government files contempt petition before MRTPC against Monsanto The Hindu June 27 2006 Gruere Guillaume Sengupta Debdatta 2011 Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India An Evidence based Assessment The Journal of Development Studies 47 2 316 37 doi 10 1080 00220388 2010 492863 PMID 21506303 S2CID 20145281 a b c Sheridan Cormac January 2009 Doubts surround link between Bt cotton failure and farmer suicide Article Nature Biotechnology Nature Biotechnology 27 1 9 10 doi 10 1038 nbt0109 9 PMID 19131979 S2CID 82412990 Retrieved May 6 2013 a b c Guillaume P Gruere Purvi Mehta Bhatt and Debdatta Sengupta 2008 Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India Reviewing the Evidence PDF 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5 2013 Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council RCTCBC Brofiscin site Archived September 2 2014 at the Wayback Machine Accessed September 1 2014 BBC February 12 2007 22 48 100m site clean up cost denied Spain William October 3 2006 Tiny Sauget Illinois likes business misfits Post gazette com Grunwald Michael January 1 2002 Monsanto Hid Decades Of Pollution The Washington Post Archived from the original on November 8 2020 Retrieved May 26 2013 Sack Kevin January 27 2002 PCB Pollution Suits Have Day in Court in Alabama The New York Times The Associated Press August 21 2003 700 Million Settlement in Alabama PCB Lawsuit The New York Times Rosenblatt Joel Chediak Mark December 1 2020 Bayer s 650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge Claims Journal Retrieved December 15 2020 dead link EPA superfund search engine Search for Monsanto in Alias Alternative Site Name field first in active sites then archived sites October 20 2012 Monsanto Held Liable For PCB Dumping The Washington Post February 22 2002 Archived from the original on April 2 2015 The Inside Story Anniston AL In depth Monsanto knew about PCB toxicity for decades Archived July 18 2005 at the Wayback Machine Chemicalindustryarchives org Alan Bjerga Monsanto Modified Wheat Not Approved by USDA Found in Field Bloomberg News May 29 2013 Andrew Pollack Modified Wheat Is Discovered in Oregon The New York Times May 29 2013 Andy Coghlan June 3 2013 Monsanto modified wheat mystery deepens in Oregon New Scientist Staff Food Safety News June 17 2013 GMO Wheat Found in Oregon Was Isolated Incident Says USDA Associated Press August 30 2013 Source of GMO wheat in Oregon remains mystery Archived September 14 2013 at the Wayback Machine Food Controversies Pesticides and organic foods Cancer Research UK 2016 Retrieved November 28 2017 Tarazona Jose V Court Marques Daniele Tiramani Manuela Reich Hermine Pfeil Rudolf Istace Frederique Crivellente Federica April 3 2017 Glyphosate toxicity and carcinogenicity a review of the scientific basis of the European Union assessment and its differences with IARC Archives of Toxicology 91 8 2723 2743 doi 10 1007 s00204 017 1962 5 PMC 5515989 PMID 28374158 The BfR has finalised its draft report for the re evaluation of glyphosate BfR Retrieved August 18 2018 Cressey Daniel 2015 Widely used herbicide linked to cancer Nature doi 10 1038 nature 2015 17181 S2CID 131732731 Retrieved April 1 2019 Bayer s Monsanto faces 8 000 lawsuits on glyphosate Reuters August 23 2018 Retrieved September 11 2018 Cressey D March 25 2015 Widely used herbicide linked to cancer Nature doi 10 1038 nature 2015 17181 S2CID 131732731 International Agency for Research on Cancer 2017 IARC Monographs Volume 112 Glyphosate in Some Organophosphate Insecticides and Herbicides PDF Lyon IARC WHO pp 321 412 Archived PDF from the original on August 8 2018 Bayer s Roundup Headache Grows as Plaintiffs Pile Into Court Bloomberg October 30 2019 Retrieved October 31 2019 Yan Holly Patients Roundup gave us cancer as EPA official helped the company Photographs by John Francis Peters for CNN Retrieved August 13 2018 Yan Holly Jurors give 289 million to a man they say got cancer from Monsanto s Roundup weedkiller CNN Retrieved August 13 2018 Breitler Alex March 27 2017 SJ Lode residents among those suing Monsanto claiming Roundup linked to cancer The Stockton Record Retrieved April 25 2017 Monsanto appeals Roundup cancer verdict Phys org Retrieved November 30 2018 a b Roundup maker Monsanto appeals 78 5 million verdict over Bay Area man s cancer ABC7 San Francisco November 21 2018 Retrieved November 30 2018 Egelko Bob July 21 2020 Award to Vallejo groundskeeper in Monsanto cancer case slashed again verdict upheld San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved March 3 2021 Levin Sam March 27 2019 Monsanto found liable for California man s cancer and ordered to pay 80m in damages The Guardian Retrieved March 28 2019 Bayer s 2 Billion Roundup Damages Boost Pressure to Settle Bloomberg News Retrieved May 14 2019 Telford Taylor July 26 2019 Judge cuts 2 billion award for couple with cancer to 86 7 million in Roundup lawsuit The Washington Post Retrieved July 27 2019 Corrine Ruff February 15 2020 Monsanto BASF Will Pay 250 Million In Punitive Damages In First Dicamba Trial St Louis Public Radio Retrieved February 15 2020 Jury finds in favor of Missouri peach grower in lawsuit against Bayer BASF Reeves J C December 15 2020 District Judge orders reduction of punitive damages in dicamba case Southeast Missourian Retrieved December 15 2020 dead link Morgenson Gretchen September 9 2016 Monsanto Whistle Blower 22 Million Richer but Not Satisfied The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved December 22 2017 ORDER INSTITUTING ADMINISTRATIVE AND CEASE AND DESIST PROCEEDINGS PURSUANT TO SECTION 8A OF THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933 SECTIONS 4C AND 21C OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934 AND RULE 102 e OF THE COMMISSION S RULES OF PRACTICE MAKING FINDINGS AND IMPOSING REMEDIAL SANCTIONS AND A CEASE AND DESIST ORDER PDF SEC gov Archived PDF from the original on April 5 2016 Retrieved October 4 2016 Monsanto Was Its Own Ghostwriter for Some Safety Reviews Bloomberg com August 9 2017 Retrieved October 26 2017 a b Monsanto s Sway Over Research Is Seen in Disclosed Emails The New York Times August 2 2017 Retrieved August 2 2017 Hakim Danny August 1 2017 Monsanto Emails Raise Issue of Influencing Research on Roundup Weed Killer The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved December 8 2019 Monsanto spent 2 million lobbying gov t in 3Q Associated Press December 15 2011 c 2012 BLOOMBERG L P Monsanto lobbying expenses Open Secrets Lobbying Spending Database Monsanto Co 2011 OpenSecrets September 17 2012 a b c d Vidal John January 3 2011 WikiLeaks US targets EU over GM crops The Guardian London UK Vaughan Adam November 7 2012 Prop 37 Californian voters reject GM food labelling The Guardian London California Heads for Vote on Modified Food Labeling Businessweek May 2 2012 Gillam Carey August 16 2012 Prop 37 California GMO Fight Pits Big Food Against Activists The Huffington Post a b Noted Food Safety Expert Michael R Taylor Named Advisor to FDA Commissioner Fda gov July 7 2009 a b Hoffmann Sandra Taylor Michael R September 30 2010 Toward Safer Food Perspectives on Risk and Priority Setting Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 52451 6 a b Woodrow Wilson Center bio PDF Archived from the original PDF on January 7 2019 Retrieved May 30 2013 a b FDA News Release July 7 2009 Noted Food Safety Expert Michael R Taylor Named Advisor to FDA Commissioner Modified crops increase herbicide use WSU researcher says Local News The Seattle Times About BIO BIO Archived from the original on November 12 2012 Retrieved November 7 2012 Lobbying Spending Database Biotechnology Industry Organization 2010 OpenSecrets Lobbying Spending Database Biotechnology Industry Organization 2011 OpenSecrets OpenSecrets Monsanto Archived February 25 2012 at the Wayback Machine Staff Monsanto Retrieved July 22 2013 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ctt183p5cm ISBN 9780745332222 JSTOR j ctt183p5cm Layton Lyndsey January 14 2010 New FDA deputy to lead food safety mandate The Washington Post Palast Gregory February 21 1999 Soured milk of Monsanto s kindness The Guardian a b J E M Ag Supply Inc V Pioneer Hi Bredinternational Inc Law cornell edu Key Supreme Court ruling on plant patents McEowen Harl March 2002 Extension iastate edu January 18 2002 Archived from the original on December 2 2008 Retrieved May 19 2008 a b c d e f g Monbiot George July 11 2013 Captive State The Corporate Takeover of Britain Pan Macmillan ISBN 978 1 4472 5247 4 Barnett Antony July 4 1999 Monsanto s lobby firm pays key MP The Guardian London Barnett Antony July 11 1999 Resign call over MP s link with GM food firm The Guardian London a b U S targeted EU on GM foods WikiLeaks Canadian Broadcasting Corporation March 9 2011 Spain s biotech crop under threat Wikileaks telegram 09MADRID482 U S Department of State May 19 2009 Archived from the original on July 21 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BBC December 8 2006 Tweedale Geoffrey April 1 2007 Hero or Villain Sir Richard Doll and Occupational Cancer International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 13 2 233 235 doi 10 1179 oeh 2007 13 2 233 ISSN 1077 3525 PMID 17718181 S2CID 40438560 Eric Lipton Food Industry Enlisted Academics in G M O Lobbying War Emails Show The New York Times September 9 2015 a b Monsanto Hall of Chemistry Yesterland com Houses Make Mine Small Modular and Made of Plastic Archived August 29 2012 at the Wayback Machine Alum mit edu April 30 2010 The Future Won t Wait Yesterland com Adventure Thru Inner Space Yesterland com Press release Missouri Botanical Garden receives 3 million gift from Monsanto Company toward development of a World Flora Online Missouri Botanical Garden June 5 2012 2007 Annual Report permanent dead link Field Museum page 10 2007 Restricted gifts and grants 100 000 to 249 999 Press Release Underground Adventure Field Museum 2011 FIELD MUSEUM 1999 ANNUAL REPORT TO THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES permanent dead link Office of Academic Affairs The Field Museum March 20 2000 page 53 Office of Collections and Research The Field Museum The field museum 2012 annual report to the board of trustees page 64 Culliton Barbara J March 2 1990 Monsanto WashU Science 247 4946 1027 doi 10 1126 science 247 4946 1027 PMID 17800050 WU Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement Vertical File Collection Bernard Becker Medical Library Archives beckerarchives wustl edu Retrieved August 19 2019 Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences Washington University in St Louis Archived from the original on August 22 2019 Retrieved August 19 2019 Monsanto Fund Awards 1 9 Million Grant to Institute for School Partnership Monsanto August 18 2015 Archived from the original on August 20 2019 Retrieved August 20 2019 Monsanto WashU Stem Initiative www bizjournals com Retrieved August 19 2019 Weiner Juli October 7 2010 How Seed Giant Monsanto Went from 2009 Company of the Year to Worst Stock of 2010 The Hive Retrieved September 20 2018 Covalence Ethical Rankings 2009 January 26 2010 Archived from the original on March 17 2010 Retrieved March 29 2016 About Us Covalence EthicalQuote January 12 2007 Retrieved March 29 2016 Methodology Archived from the original on April 20 2010 Retrieved March 29 2016 Covalence does not see some sources as more reliable than others Any source is considered equally Covalence does not validate information sources neither the content of information Across Sectors January 26 2010 Archived from the original on March 25 2010 Retrieved March 29 2016 Cesca Bob April 9 2010 Monsanto leads in genetically modified agriculture trails in ethics Daily Finance Retrieved March 29 2016 And where was Monsanto on the list Dead last 581 out of 581 Annual Top Employers Survey Stability in the Face of Change Science Careers September 21 2012 Archived from the original on September 5 2015 Retrieved June 15 2015 Unglesbee Ben October 14 2014 Monsanto makes top 10 on Science s list of best employers www bizjournals com Retrieved September 20 2018 2013 Van Montagu Chilton Fraley Archived from the original on July 14 2015 Retrieved June 15 2015 Pollack Andrew June 20 2013 Executive at Monsanto Wins Global Food Honor The New York Times The World According to Monsanto on YouTubeBibliography EditEhrlich Walter 1997 Zion in the Valley 1807 1907 Volume I The Jewish Community of St Louis University of Missouri Press ISBN 0826210988 Forrestal Dan J 1977 Faith Hope amp 5000 The Story of Monsanto Simon amp Schuster ISBN 0 671 22784 X Pechlaner Gabriela Corporate Crops Biotechnology Agriculture and the Struggle for Control University of Texas Press 2012 ISBN 0292739451 Robin Marie Monique The World According to Monsanto Pollution Corruption and the Control of the World s Food Supply New Press 2009 ISBN 1595584269 Spears Ellen Griffith Baptized in PCBs Race Pollution and Justice in an All American Town The University of North Carolina Press 2014 ISBN 1469611716 Shiva Vandana Stolen Harvest The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply South End Press 2000 ISBN 0896086070 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Monsanto Company Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Monsanto amp oldid 1153236171, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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