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Wikipedia

Palm oil

February 04, 2023

For oil created from the palm kernel, rather than the palm fruit, see Palm kernel oil.

Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms.[1] The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 33% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014.[2] Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in processed foods, so are frequently favored by food manufacturers.[3] On average globally, humans consumed 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015.[4] Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, creating more demand on the supply encouraging the growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries.

Palm oil block showing the lighter color that results from boiling

The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental groups due to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown, and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers.[5] An industry group formed in 2004 to create more sustainable and ethical palm oil, through the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil. However, very little palm oil is certified through the organization, and some groups have criticized it as greenwashing.[6] In 2018, a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage, however deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils.[7]

The biggest producers of palm oil are Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Nigeria. Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil. Since agricultural land is limited, in order to plant monocultures of oil palms, land used for other cultivations or the tropical forest need to be cleared. A major environmental threat is then the destruction of rainforests in Indonesia.[8]

History

 
Oil palms (Elaeis guineensis)

Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In the late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE.[9]

Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe.

Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.[10] Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight" soap, and the American Palmolive brand.[11]

By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations.[12][13]

Processing

 
Oil palm fruits on the tree
 
An oil palm stem, weighing about 10 kg (22 lb), with some of its fruits picked

Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit[14] or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids.[15] Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%;[16] these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated.

The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels.[17]

Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature.[18] Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost[19] and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying.[20][21] One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of palm oil per person in 2015.[4]

Many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients made from it.[22]

Refining

See also: Cooking oil refinement

After milling, various palm oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid (palm stearin), and liquid (olein) fractions.[23] Then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached. Physical refining[clarification needed] removes smells and coloration to produce "refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil" (RBDPO) and free fatty acids,[clarification needed] which are used in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and other products. RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the world's commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm oil for cooking oil, or process it into other products.[23]

Red palm oil

Since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed from the fruit of the oil palm and bottled for use as a cooking oil, in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil.[15]

Oil produced from palm fruit is called red palm oil or just palm oil. It is around 50% saturated fat—considerably less than palm kernel oil—and 40% unsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat. In its unprocessed state, red palm oil has an intense deep red color because of its abundant carotene content. Red palm oil also contains sterols, vitamin E, and carotenoids such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lycopene.[24]

White palm oil

White palm oil is the result of processing and refining. When refined, the palm oil loses its deep red color. It is extensively used in food manufacture and can be found in a variety of processed foods including peanut butter and chips. It is often labeled as palm shortening and is used as a replacement ingredient for hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products.

Uses

In food

The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it a cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup.[25] The health concerns related to trans fats in hydrogenated vegetable oils may have contributed to the increasing use of palm oil in the food industry.[26]

Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer.[27][28][citation needed]

Non-food consumer products

Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include the word “palm".[29]

Biomass and biofuels

Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel.[30] Palm oil methyl ester is created through a process called transesterification. Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends.[31] Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels.[30] Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore, which opened in 2011 with a capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia.[32][33]

Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%).[34][35] In 2014, almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel.[36] As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel.[37] Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times the carbon emissions as using fossil fuel,[38] and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better."[39]

There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains a 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands.[40]

The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel.[41] Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel.[42]

In wound care

Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness.[43]

Production

In 2018–2019, world production of palm oil was 73.5 million metric tons (81.0 million short tons).[44] The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million metric tons (260 million short tons) by 2050.[45] During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change, the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil.[46] This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain.[46] On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies.[47]

Indonesia

Main article: Palm oil production in Indonesia
 
A palm oil plantation in Indonesia

Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, surpassing Malaysia in 2006, producing more than 20.9 million metric tons (23.0 million short tons),[48][49] a number that has since risen to over 34.5 million metric tons (38.0 million short tons) (2016 output).[50][51][52][53] Indonesia expects to double production by the end of 2030.[54] By 2019, this number was 51.8 million metric tons (57.1 million short tons).[55] At the end of 2010, 60% of the output was exported in the form of crude palm oil.[56] FAO data shows production increased by over 400% between 1994 and 2004, to over 8.7 million metric tons (9.6 million short tons).

Malaysia

Main article: Palm oil production in Malaysia
 
A palm oil plantation in Malaysia
 
A satellite image showing deforestation in Malaysian Borneo to allow the plantation of oil palm

Malaysia is the world's second largest producer of palm oil. In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation, the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover.[57][58]

In 2012, the country [59] produced 18.8 million metric tons (20.7 million short tons) of crude palm oil on roughly 5,000,000 hectares (19,000 sq mi) of land.[60][61] Though Indonesia produces more palm oil, Malaysia is the world's largest exporter of palm oil having exported 18 million metric tons (20 million short tons) of palm oil products in 2011. India, China, Pakistan, the European Union and the United States are the primary importers of Malaysian palm oil products.[62] In 2016, palm oil prices jumped to a four-year high days after Trump's election victory in the US.[63]

Nigeria

As of 2018, Nigeria was the third-largest producer, with approximately 2.3 million hectares (5.7 million acres) under cultivation. Until 1934, Nigeria had been the world's largest producer. Both small- and large-scale producers participated in the industry.[64][65]

Thailand

Thailand is the world's third largest producer of crude palm oil, producing approximately 2 million metric tons (2.2 million short tons) per year, or 1.2% of global output. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai (750,000 to 930,000 hectares, 1,900,000 to 2,300,000 acres) were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai (3.2 hectares, 7.9 acres). ASEAN as a region accounts for 52.5 million metric tons (57.9 million short tons) of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets the price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations.[66]

Colombia

In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached 1.6 million metric tons (1.8 million short tons), representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector).[67][68] According to a study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation.[69] In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca.[70]

Ecuador

Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries.[71]

Benin

Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land, whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact. They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops.[72][73]

According to recent article by National Geographic, most palm oil in Benin is still produced by women for domestic use.[74] The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology.[75] They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption.

Cameroon

Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the US.[76] However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before the project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations.[77] The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity.

Kenya

Kenya's domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand, estimated at around 380,000 metric tons (420,000 short tons). The rest is imported at a cost of around US$140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating the country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil.[78]

Ghana

Ghana has a lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations, because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil.

Social and environmental impacts

Main article: Social and environmental impact of palm oil

Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture.[79] This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss. For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan. One species in particular, the Sumatran orangutan, has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation.[80][54]

Social

 
In Borneo, the forest (F), is being replaced by oil palm plantations (G). These changes are irreversible for all practical purposes (H).

In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict. Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations.

The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil-producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure, social services and reduce poverty.[81][82][83] However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of the indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict.[84][85][86] The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry.[87][88][89]

Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations,[90] and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development.[91]

Food vs. fuel

Main article: Food vs. fuel

The use of palm oil in the production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose a threat to edible palm oil supplies.[92] According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food.[93]

Human rights

One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides, child labor, and rape and sexual abuse, and unsafe carrying loads. These incidents may receive no response by the company or police, or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser. The chemicals used in the pesticides, such as paraquat and glyphosate, have been linked to diseases such as Parkinson's disease and cancer.[94]

Reports of Indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion. In 2017, there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and Indigenous land owners.[95] Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources, such as wild rubber, reed, and adat forests (communal forests).[95] Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes, either through protest or legal means.[95][96]

Other concerns when it comes to Indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations, political corruption, or the lacking of enforcement on laws meant to protect Indigenous lands.[97] In countries such as Guatemala, palm oil plantation have significant pressure on local police forces, leading to local police to disregard land claims, going as far as using force to break up protests, and even murdering local leaders.[98]

Environmental

See also: 2015 Southeast Asian haze

While only 5% of the world's vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations, palm cultivation produces 38% of the world's total vegetable oil supply.[99] In terms of oil yield, a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean, sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil.[99] Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown. However, it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil-producing plants. In 2016, it was found that palm oil farms produce around 4.17 metric tons of oil per hectare. Whereas other oils such as sunflower, soybean, or peanut only produce 0.56, 0.39, and 0.16 metric tons respectively per hectare.[100] Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield, requiring one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops.[101] In the future, laboratory-grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices.[102][103]

However, palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on the natural environment,[104][105] including deforestation, loss of natural habitats,[106] and greenhouse gas emissions[107][108] which have threatened critically endangered species, such as the orangutan[109] and Sumatran tiger.[110] Slash-and-burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries. From January to September 2019, 857 000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia; peatlands accounted for more than a quarter of the burned area.[111]

 
Deforestation in Indonesia, to make way for an oil palm plantation.[8]

Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels, claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for the climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel and using the palms as carbon sinks.[112]

A 2018 study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) concluded that palm oil is "here to stay" due to its higher productivity compared with many other vegetable oils. The IUCN maintains that replacing palm oil with other vegetable oils would necessitate greater amounts of agricultural land, negatively affecting biodiversity.[101][113] The IUCN advocates better practices in the palm oil industry, including the prevention of plantations from expanding into forested regions and creating a demand for certified and sustainable palm oil products.[113]

In 2019, the Rainforest Action Network surveyed eight global brands involved in palm oil extraction in the Leuser Ecosystem, and said that none was performing adequately in avoiding “conflict palm oil”.[114] Many of the companies told the Guardian they were working to improve their performance.[115] A WWF scorecard rated only 15 out of 173 companies as performing well.[116]

In 2020 a study by Chain Reaction Research concluded that NDPE (No Deforestation, No Peat, No Exploitation) policies cover 83% of palm oil refineries. NDPE policies are according to the Chain Reaction Research the most effective private mechanism to cut the direct link with deforestation, due to the economic leverage refineries have over palm oil growers.[117]

Markets

According to the Hamburg-based Oil World trade journal,[118] in 2008 global production of oils and fats stood at 160 million tonnes. Palm oil and palm kernel oil were jointly the largest contributor, accounting for 48 million tonnes, or 30% of the total output. Soybean oil came in second with 37 million tonnes (23%). About 38% of the oils and fats produced in the world were shipped across oceans. Of the 60 million tonnes of oils and fats exported around the world, palm oil and palm kernel oil made up close to 60%; Malaysia, with 45% of the market share, dominated the palm oil trade.

Production of palm oil that complies with voluntary sustainability standards is growing at a faster rate than conventional production. Standard-compliant production increased by 110% from 2008 to 2016, while conventional production increased by 2%.[119]

Food label regulations

Previously, palm oil could be listed as "vegetable fat" or "vegetable oil" on food labels in the European Union (EU). From December 2014, food packaging in the EU is no longer allowed to use the generic terms "vegetable fat" or "vegetable oil" in the ingredients list. Food producers are required to list the specific type of vegetable fat used, including palm oil. Vegetable oils and fats can be grouped together in the ingredients list under the term "vegetable oils" or "vegetable fats" but this must be followed by the type of vegetable origin (e.g., palm, sunflower, or rapeseed) and the phrase "in varying proportions".[120]

Supply chain institutions

Consumer Goods Forum

In 2010, the Consumer Goods Forum passed a resolution that its members would reduce deforestation through their palm oil supply to net zero by 2020.[121]

Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

Main article: Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was established in 2004[122] following concerns raised by non-governmental organizations about environmental impacts resulting from palm oil production. The organization has established international standards for sustainable palm oil production.[123] Products containing Certified Sustainable Palm Oil (CSPO) can carry the RSPO trademark.[124] Members of the RSPO include palm oil producers, environmental groups, and manufacturers who use palm oil in their products.[122][123] In 2014, Indonesia accounted for 40% of global palm oil production and 44% of the total RSPO-certified areas.[125]

The RSPO is applying different types of programmes to supply palm oil to producers.[126]

  • Book and claim: no guarantee that the end product contains certified sustainable palm oil, supports RSPO-certified growers and farmers
  • Identity preserved: the end user is able to trace the palm oil back to a specific single mill and its supply base (plantations)
  • Segregated: this option guarantees that the end product contains certified palm oil
  • Mass balance: the refinery is only allowed to sell the same amount of mass balance palm oil as the amount of certified sustainable palm oil purchased

GreenPalm is one of the retailers executing the book and claim supply chain and trading programme. It guarantees that the palm oil producer is certified by the RSPO. Through GreenPalm the producer can certify a specified amount with the GreenPalm logo. The buyer of the oil is allowed to use the RSPO and the GreenPalm label for sustainable palm oil on their products.[126]

 
Roundtable No 2 (RT2) in Zurich in 2005

After the meeting in 2009, a number of environmental organisations were critical of the scope of the agreements reached.[122] Palm oil growers who produce CSPO have been critical of the organization because, though they have met RSPO standards and assumed the costs associated with certification, the market demand for certified palm oil remains low.[123][124] Low market demand has been attributed to the higher cost of CSPO, leading palm oil buyers to purchase cheaper non-certified palm oil. Palm oil is mostly fungible. In 2011, 12% of palm oil produced was certified "sustainable", though only half of that had the RSPO label.[127] Even with such a low proportion being certified, Greenpeace has argued that confectioners are avoiding responsibilities on sustainable palm oil, because it says that RSPO standards fall short of protecting the environment.[128] Even though deforestation has decreased in RSPO-certified oil palm plantations, peatlands continue to be drained and burned for the creation of new RSPO-certified palm plantations.[125]

Composition

 
Left, reddish palm oil made from the pulp of oil palm fruit. Right, clear palm kernel oil made from the kernels

Fatty acids

Main article: Fatty acid

Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol. Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a major constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family.[129][130]

The approximate concentration of esterified fatty acids in palm oil is:[131]

Fatty acid content of palm oil (present as triglyceride esters)
Type of fatty acid Fraction
Myristic saturated C14
 
 1.0%
Palmitic saturated C16
 
 43.5%
Stearic saturated C18
 
 4.3%
Oleic monounsaturated C18:1
 
 36.6%
Linoleic polyunsaturated C18:2
 
 9.1%
Other/unknown
 
 5.5%
black: saturated
grey: monounsaturated
blue: polyunsaturated

Carotenes

Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, which give it a characteristic dark red color.[130][132] However, palm oil that has been refined, bleached and deodorized from crude palm oil (called "RBD palm oil") does not contain carotenes.[15]

Comparison to other vegetable oils

Properties of vegetable oils[133][134]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type Processing
treatment[135]		 Saturated
fatty acids		 Monounsaturated
fatty acids		 Polyunsaturated
fatty acids		 Smoke point
Total[133] Oleic
acid
(ω-9)		 Total[133] α-Linolenic
acid
(ω-3)		 Linoleic
acid
(ω-6)		 ω-6:3
ratio
Avocado[136] 11.6 70.6 52–66[137] 13.5 1 12.5 12.5:1 250 °C (482 °F)[138]
Brazil nut[139] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9 419:1 208 °C (406 °F)[140]
Canola[141] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6 2:1 204 °C (400 °F)[142]
Coconut[143] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7 175 °C (347 °F)[140]
Corn[144] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58 58:1 232 °C (450 °F)[142]
Cottonseed[145] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54 54:1 216 °C (420 °F)[142]
Cottonseed[146] hydrogenated 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[147] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13 0.2:1 107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed   10.5 14.3 14.3   74.7 – 74.7 very high 216 °C (421 °F)[148]
Hemp seed[149] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0 2.5:1 166 °C (330 °F)[150]
High-oleic safflower oil[151] 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8 very high 212 °C (414 °F)[140]
Olive, Extra Virgin[152] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8 14:1 193 °C (380 °F)[140]
Palm[153] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1 45.5:1 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[154] hydrogenated 88.2 5.7 0
Peanut[155] 16.2 57.1 55.4 19.9 0.318 19.6 61.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[142]
Rice bran oil 25 38.4 38.4 36.6 2.2 34.4[156] 15.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[157]
Sesame[158] 14.2 39.7 39.3 41.7 0.3 41.3 138:1
Soybean[159] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51 7.3:1 238 °C (460 °F)[142]
Soybean[160] partially hydrogenated 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9 13.4:1
Sunflower[161] 8.99 63.4 62.9 20.7 0.16 20.5 128:1 227 °C (440 °F)[142]
Walnut oil[162] unrefined 9.1 22.8 22.2 63.3 10.4 52.9 5:1 160 °C (320 °F)[163]

Nutrition and health

Contributing significant calories as a source of fat, palm oil is a food staple in many cuisines.[164][165][166] On average globally, humans consumed 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015.[4] Although the relationship of palm oil consumption to disease risk has been previously assessed, the quality of the clinical research specifically assessing palm oil effects has been generally poor.[167] Consequently, research has focused on the deleterious effects of palm oil and palmitic acid consumption as sources of saturated fat content in edible oils, leading to conclusions that palm oil and saturated fats should be replaced with polyunsaturated fats in the diet.[168][169]

A 2015 meta-analysis and 2017 advisory from the American Heart Association indicated that palm oil is among foods supplying dietary saturated fat which increases blood levels of LDL cholesterol and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, leading to recommendations for reduced use or elimination of dietary palm oil in favor of consuming unhydrogenated vegetable oils.[170][171]

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE), 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD, are found especially in palm oils and palm fats because of their refining at high temperatures (approx. 200 °C (392 °F)).[172] Since glycidol, the parent compound of GE, is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic, the EFSA didn't set a safe level for GE. According to the chair of the CONTAM (EFSA’s expert Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain), "The exposure to GE of babies consuming solely infant formula is a particular concern as this is up to ten times what would be considered of low concern for public health".[172] The EFSA's tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 3-MCPD and its fatty acid esters was set to 0.8 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day (µg/kg bw/day) in 2016 and increased to 2 µg/kg bw/day in 2017, based on evidence linking this substance to organ damage in animal tests and on possible adverse effects on the kidney and on male fertility.[172][173] According to the EFSA, there is not enough data to set a safe level for 2-MCPD.[172]

Palmitic acid

Excessive intake of palmitic acid, which makes up 44% of palm oil, increases blood levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total cholesterol, and so increases risk of cardiovascular diseases.[168][169][174] Other reviews, the World Health Organization, and the US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute have encouraged consumers to limit the consumption of palm oil, palmitic acid and foods high in saturated fat.[164][168][174][175]

See also

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palm oil.

Further reading

  • Zuckerman, Jocelyn C. (2021). Planet Palm: How Palm Oil Ended Up in Everything―and Endangered the World. The New Press. ISBN 978-1620975237.

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February 04, 2023
palm, created, from, palm, kernel, rather, than, palm, fruit, palm, kernel, edible, vegetable, derived, from, mesocarp, reddish, pulp, fruit, palms, used, food, manufacturing, beauty, products, biofuel, accounted, about, global, oils, produced, from, crops, 20. For oil created from the palm kernel rather than the palm fruit see Palm kernel oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp reddish pulp of the fruit of the oil palms 1 The oil is used in food manufacturing in beauty products and as biofuel Palm oil accounted for about 33 of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014 2 Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in processed foods so are frequently favored by food manufacturers 3 On average globally humans consumed 7 7 kg 17 lb of palm oil per person in 2015 4 Demand has also increased for other uses such as cosmetics and biofuels creating more demand on the supply encouraging the growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries Palm oil block showing the lighter color that results from boiling The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental groups due to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers 5 An industry group formed in 2004 to create more sustainable and ethical palm oil through the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil However very little palm oil is certified through the organization and some groups have criticized it as greenwashing 6 In 2018 a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage however deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils 7 The biggest producers of palm oil are Indonesia Malaysia Thailand and Nigeria Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil Since agricultural land is limited in order to plant monocultures of oil palms land used for other cultivations or the tropical forest need to be cleared A major environmental threat is then the destruction of rainforests in Indonesia 8 Contents 1 History 2 Processing 2 1 Refining 2 1 1 Red palm oil 2 1 2 White palm oil 3 Uses 3 1 In food 3 2 Non food consumer products 3 3 Biomass and biofuels 3 4 In wound care 4 Production 4 1 Indonesia 4 2 Malaysia 4 3 Nigeria 4 4 Thailand 4 5 Colombia 4 6 Ecuador 4 7 Benin 4 8 Cameroon 4 9 Kenya 4 10 Ghana 5 Social and environmental impacts 5 1 Social 5 1 1 Food vs fuel 5 1 2 Human rights 5 2 Environmental 6 Markets 6 1 Food label regulations 6 2 Supply chain institutions 6 2 1 Consumer Goods Forum 6 2 2 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil RSPO 7 Composition 7 1 Fatty acids 7 2 Carotenes 7 3 Comparison to other vegetable oils 8 Nutrition and health 8 1 Palmitic acid 9 See also 10 Further reading 11 ReferencesHistory Edit Oil palms Elaeis guineensis Humans used oil palms as far back as 5 000 years In the late 1800s archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3 000 BCE 9 Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries used widely as a cooking oil European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe Palm oil became a highly sought after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain s Industrial Revolution 10 Palm oil formed the basis of soap products such as Lever Brothers now Unilever Sunlight soap and the American Palmolive brand 11 By around 1870 palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations 12 13 Processing Edit Oil palm fruits on the tree An oil palm stem weighing about 10 kg 22 lb with some of its fruits picked Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta carotene content It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit 14 or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm Cocos nucifera The differences are in color raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red and in saturated fat content palm mesocarp oil is 49 saturated while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81 and 86 saturated fats respectively However crude red palm oil that has been refined neutralized bleached and deodorized a common commodity called RBD refined bleached and deodorized palm oil does not contain carotenoids 15 Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil often listed as modified palm oil whose saturation levels can reach 90 16 these modified palm oils can become highly saturated but are not necessarily hydrogenated The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell The FAO considers palm oil coming from the pulp and palm kernels to be primary products The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27 for palm oil and from 4 to 10 for palm kernels 17 Along with coconut oil palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature 18 Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost 19 and the high oxidative stability saturation of the refined product when used for frying 20 21 One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds 7 7 kg of palm oil per person in 2015 4 Many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients made from it 22 Refining Edit See also Cooking oil refinement After milling various palm oil products are made using refining processes First is fractionation with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid palm stearin and liquid olein fractions 23 Then melting and degumming removes impurities Then the oil is filtered and bleached Physical refining clarification needed removes smells and coloration to produce refined bleached and deodorized palm oil RBDPO and free fatty acids clarification needed which are used in the manufacture of soaps washing powder and other products RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the world s commodity markets Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm oil for cooking oil or process it into other products 23 Red palm oil Edit Since the mid 1990s red palm oil has been cold pressed from the fruit of the oil palm and bottled for use as a cooking oil in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil 15 Oil produced from palm fruit is called red palm oil or just palm oil It is around 50 saturated fat considerably less than palm kernel oil and 40 unsaturated fat and 10 polyunsaturated fat In its unprocessed state red palm oil has an intense deep red color because of its abundant carotene content Red palm oil also contains sterols vitamin E and carotenoids such as alpha carotene beta carotene and lycopene 24 White palm oil Edit White palm oil is the result of processing and refining When refined the palm oil loses its deep red color It is extensively used in food manufacture and can be found in a variety of processed foods including peanut butter and chips It is often labeled as palm shortening and is used as a replacement ingredient for hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products Uses EditIn food Edit The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions making it a cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup 25 The health concerns related to trans fats in hydrogenated vegetable oils may have contributed to the increasing use of palm oil in the food industry 26 Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer 27 28 citation needed Non food consumer products Edit Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap shampoo or detergent Around 70 of personal care products including soap shampoo makeup and lotion contain ingredients derived from palm oil However there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10 of them include the word palm 29 Biomass and biofuels Edit Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel 30 Palm oil methyl ester is created through a process called transesterification Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends 31 Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels 30 Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane The world s largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the 550 million Finnish operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore which opened in 2011 with a capacity of 800 000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia 32 33 Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel as of early 2018 Indonesia 40 Malaysia 30 34 35 In 2014 almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel 36 As of 2018 one half of Europe s palm oil imports were used for biodiesel 37 Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times the carbon emissions as using fossil fuel 38 and for example biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse not better 39 There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm based biodiesel programs The biodiesel currently contains a 30 70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio known as B30 at the gas pumps The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100 palm oil biodiesel or B100 to transition out of using conventional diesel The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands 40 The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil palm including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches can also be used to produce energy This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel 41 Additionally palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel 42 In wound care Edit Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects research does not confirm its effectiveness 43 Production EditIn 2018 2019 world production of palm oil was 73 5 million metric tons 81 0 million short tons 44 The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million metric tons 260 million short tons by 2050 45 During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil 46 This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain 46 On 23 May 2022 the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies 47 Indonesia Edit Main article Palm oil production in Indonesia A palm oil plantation in Indonesia Indonesia is the world s largest producer of palm oil surpassing Malaysia in 2006 producing more than 20 9 million metric tons 23 0 million short tons 48 49 a number that has since risen to over 34 5 million metric tons 38 0 million short tons 2016 output 50 51 52 53 Indonesia expects to double production by the end of 2030 54 By 2019 this number was 51 8 million metric tons 57 1 million short tons 55 At the end of 2010 60 of the output was exported in the form of crude palm oil 56 FAO data shows production increased by over 400 between 1994 and 2004 to over 8 7 million metric tons 9 6 million short tons Malaysia Edit Main article Palm oil production in Malaysia A palm oil plantation in Malaysia A satellite image showing deforestation in Malaysian Borneo to allow the plantation of oil palm Malaysia is the world s second largest producer of palm oil In 1992 in response to concerns about deforestation the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation s land as forest cover 57 58 In 2012 the country 59 produced 18 8 million metric tons 20 7 million short tons of crude palm oil on roughly 5 000 000 hectares 19 000 sq mi of land 60 61 Though Indonesia produces more palm oil Malaysia is the world s largest exporter of palm oil having exported 18 million metric tons 20 million short tons of palm oil products in 2011 India China Pakistan the European Union and the United States are the primary importers of Malaysian palm oil products 62 In 2016 palm oil prices jumped to a four year high days after Trump s election victory in the US 63 Nigeria Edit As of 2018 Nigeria was the third largest producer with approximately 2 3 million hectares 5 7 million acres under cultivation Until 1934 Nigeria had been the world s largest producer Both small and large scale producers participated in the industry 64 65 Thailand Edit Thailand is the world s third largest producer of crude palm oil producing approximately 2 million metric tons 2 2 million short tons per year or 1 2 of global output Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally Almost 85 of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand At year end 2016 4 7 to 5 8 million rai 750 000 to 930 000 hectares 1 900 000 to 2 300 000 acres were planted in oil palms employing 300 000 farmers mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai 3 2 hectares 7 9 acres ASEAN as a region accounts for 52 5 million metric tons 57 9 million short tons of palm oil production about 85 of the world total and more than 90 of global exports Indonesia accounts for 52 of world exports Malaysian exports total 38 The biggest consumers of palm oil are India the European Union and China with the three consuming nearly 50 of world exports Thailand s Department of Internal Trade DIT usually sets the price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia Thai palm oil crops yield 4 17 oil compared to around 20 in competing countries In addition Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations 66 Colombia Edit In 2018 total palm oil production in Colombia reached 1 6 million metric tons 1 8 million short tons representing some 8 of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders 65 of Colombia s palm oil sector 67 68 According to a study from the Environmental Science and Policy Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation 69 In addition palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops like coca 70 Ecuador Edit Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries 71 Benin Edit Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations Its Agricultural Revival Programme has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations In spite of the economic benefits Non governmental organisations NGOs such as Nature Tropicale claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites Other areas comprise peat land whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non GM crops 72 73 According to recent article by National Geographic most palm oil in Benin is still produced by women for domestic use 74 The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology 75 They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption Cameroon Edit Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the US 76 However the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon Before the project was halted Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations 77 The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity Kenya Edit Kenya s domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand estimated at around 380 000 metric tons 420 000 short tons The rest is imported at a cost of around US 140 million a year making edible oil the country s second most important import after petroleum Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold tolerant high yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya As well as alleviating the country s deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil 78 Ghana Edit Ghana has a lot of palm nut species which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region Although Ghana has multiple palm species ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil Social and environmental impacts EditMain article Social and environmental impact of palm oil Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil palm monoculture 79 This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss For example these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan One species in particular the Sumatran orangutan has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation 80 54 Social Edit In Borneo the forest F is being replaced by oil palm plantations G These changes are irreversible for all practical purposes H In addition to environmental concerns palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices and other alleged related human rights violations The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil producing communities Palm oil production provides employment opportunities and has been shown to improve infrastructure social services and reduce poverty 81 82 83 However in some cases oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of the indigenous people inhabiting the land resulting in social conflict 84 85 86 The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry 87 88 89 Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation s hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya which improves incomes and diets of local populations 90 and Malaysia s Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority which both support rural development 91 Food vs fuel Edit Main article Food vs fuel The use of palm oil in the production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food leading to malnutrition in developing nations This is known as the food versus fuel debate According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose a threat to edible palm oil supplies 92 According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future resulting in the expansion of palm oil production and therefore an increased supply of food 93 Human rights Edit One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia including exposure to hazardous pesticides child labor and rape and sexual abuse and unsafe carrying loads These incidents may receive no response by the company or police or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser The chemicals used in the pesticides such as paraquat and glyphosate have been linked to diseases such as Parkinson s disease and cancer 94 Reports of Indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion In 2017 there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and Indigenous land owners 95 Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources such as wild rubber reed and adat forests communal forests 95 Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes either through protest or legal means 95 96 Other concerns when it comes to Indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations political corruption or the lacking of enforcement on laws meant to protect Indigenous lands 97 In countries such as Guatemala palm oil plantation have significant pressure on local police forces leading to local police to disregard land claims going as far as using force to break up protests and even murdering local leaders 98 Environmental Edit See also 2015 Southeast Asian haze While only 5 of the world s vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations palm cultivation produces 38 of the world s total vegetable oil supply 99 In terms of oil yield a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil 99 Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown However it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil producing plants In 2016 it was found that palm oil farms produce around 4 17 metric tons of oil per hectare Whereas other oils such as sunflower soybean or peanut only produce 0 56 0 39 and 0 16 metric tons respectively per hectare 100 Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield requiring one ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops 101 In the future laboratory grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices 102 103 However palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on the natural environment 104 105 including deforestation loss of natural habitats 106 and greenhouse gas emissions 107 108 which have threatened critically endangered species such as the orangutan 109 and Sumatran tiger 110 Slash and burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries From January to September 2019 857 000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia peatlands accounted for more than a quarter of the burned area 111 Deforestation in Indonesia to make way for an oil palm plantation 8 Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for the climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel and using the palms as carbon sinks 112 A 2018 study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN concluded that palm oil is here to stay due to its higher productivity compared with many other vegetable oils The IUCN maintains that replacing palm oil with other vegetable oils would necessitate greater amounts of agricultural land negatively affecting biodiversity 101 113 The IUCN advocates better practices in the palm oil industry including the prevention of plantations from expanding into forested regions and creating a demand for certified and sustainable palm oil products 113 In 2019 the Rainforest Action Network surveyed eight global brands involved in palm oil extraction in the Leuser Ecosystem and said that none was performing adequately in avoiding conflict palm oil 114 Many of the companies told the Guardian they were working to improve their performance 115 A WWF scorecard rated only 15 out of 173 companies as performing well 116 In 2020 a study by Chain Reaction Research concluded that NDPE No Deforestation No Peat No Exploitation policies cover 83 of palm oil refineries NDPE policies are according to the Chain Reaction Research the most effective private mechanism to cut the direct link with deforestation due to the economic leverage refineries have over palm oil growers 117 Markets EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed January 2015 Learn how and when to remove this template message According to the Hamburg based Oil World trade journal 118 in 2008 global production of oils and fats stood at 160 million tonnes Palm oil and palm kernel oil were jointly the largest contributor accounting for 48 million tonnes or 30 of the total output Soybean oil came in second with 37 million tonnes 23 About 38 of the oils and fats produced in the world were shipped across oceans Of the 60 million tonnes of oils and fats exported around the world palm oil and palm kernel oil made up close to 60 Malaysia with 45 of the market share dominated the palm oil trade Production of palm oil that complies with voluntary sustainability standards is growing at a faster rate than conventional production Standard compliant production increased by 110 from 2008 to 2016 while conventional production increased by 2 119 Food label regulations Edit Previously palm oil could be listed as vegetable fat or vegetable oil on food labels in the European Union EU From December 2014 food packaging in the EU is no longer allowed to use the generic terms vegetable fat or vegetable oil in the ingredients list Food producers are required to list the specific type of vegetable fat used including palm oil Vegetable oils and fats can be grouped together in the ingredients list under the term vegetable oils or vegetable fats but this must be followed by the type of vegetable origin e g palm sunflower or rapeseed and the phrase in varying proportions 120 Supply chain institutions Edit Consumer Goods Forum Edit In 2010 the Consumer Goods Forum passed a resolution that its members would reduce deforestation through their palm oil supply to net zero by 2020 121 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil RSPO Edit Main article Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil RSPO was established in 2004 122 following concerns raised by non governmental organizations about environmental impacts resulting from palm oil production The organization has established international standards for sustainable palm oil production 123 Products containing Certified Sustainable Palm Oil CSPO can carry the RSPO trademark 124 Members of the RSPO include palm oil producers environmental groups and manufacturers who use palm oil in their products 122 123 In 2014 Indonesia accounted for 40 of global palm oil production and 44 of the total RSPO certified areas 125 The RSPO is applying different types of programmes to supply palm oil to producers 126 Book and claim no guarantee that the end product contains certified sustainable palm oil supports RSPO certified growers and farmers Identity preserved the end user is able to trace the palm oil back to a specific single mill and its supply base plantations Segregated this option guarantees that the end product contains certified palm oil Mass balance the refinery is only allowed to sell the same amount of mass balance palm oil as the amount of certified sustainable palm oil purchasedGreenPalm is one of the retailers executing the book and claim supply chain and trading programme It guarantees that the palm oil producer is certified by the RSPO Through GreenPalm the producer can certify a specified amount with the GreenPalm logo The buyer of the oil is allowed to use the RSPO and the GreenPalm label for sustainable palm oil on their products 126 Roundtable No 2 RT2 in Zurich in 2005 After the meeting in 2009 a number of environmental organisations were critical of the scope of the agreements reached 122 Palm oil growers who produce CSPO have been critical of the organization because though they have met RSPO standards and assumed the costs associated with certification the market demand for certified palm oil remains low 123 124 Low market demand has been attributed to the higher cost of CSPO leading palm oil buyers to purchase cheaper non certified palm oil Palm oil is mostly fungible In 2011 12 of palm oil produced was certified sustainable though only half of that had the RSPO label 127 Even with such a low proportion being certified Greenpeace has argued that confectioners are avoiding responsibilities on sustainable palm oil because it says that RSPO standards fall short of protecting the environment 128 Even though deforestation has decreased in RSPO certified oil palm plantations peatlands continue to be drained and burned for the creation of new RSPO certified palm plantations 125 Composition Edit Left reddish palm oil made from the pulp of oil palm fruit Right clear palm kernel oil made from the kernels Fatty acids Edit Main article Fatty acid Palm oil like all fats is composed of fatty acids esterified with glycerol Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat specifically the 16 carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid to which it gives its name Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a major constituent of palm oil Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol part of the vitamin E family 129 130 The approximate concentration of esterified fatty acids in palm oil is 131 Fatty acid content of palm oil present as triglyceride esters Type of fatty acid FractionMyristic saturated C14 1 0 Palmitic saturated C16 43 5 Stearic saturated C18 4 3 Oleic monounsaturated C18 1 36 6 Linoleic polyunsaturated C18 2 9 1 Other unknown 5 5 black saturated grey monounsaturated blue polyunsaturatedCarotenes Edit Red palm oil is rich in carotenes such as alpha carotene beta carotene and lycopene which give it a characteristic dark red color 130 132 However palm oil that has been refined bleached and deodorized from crude palm oil called RBD palm oil does not contain carotenes 15 Comparison to other vegetable oils Edit Properties of vegetable oils 133 134 The nutritional values are expressed as percent by mass of total fat Type Processingtreatment 135 Saturatedfatty acids Monounsaturatedfatty acids Polyunsaturatedfatty acids Smoke pointTotal 133 Oleicacid w 9 Total 133 a Linolenicacid w 3 Linoleicacid w 6 w 6 3ratioAvocado 136 11 6 70 6 52 66 137 13 5 1 12 5 12 5 1 250 C 482 F 138 Brazil nut 139 24 8 32 7 31 3 42 0 0 1 41 9 419 1 208 C 406 F 140 Canola 141 7 4 63 3 61 8 28 1 9 1 18 6 2 1 204 C 400 F 142 Coconut 143 82 5 6 3 6 1 7 175 C 347 F 140 Corn 144 12 9 27 6 27 3 54 7 1 58 58 1 232 C 450 F 142 Cottonseed 145 25 9 17 8 19 51 9 1 54 54 1 216 C 420 F 142 Cottonseed 146 hydrogenated 93 6 1 5 0 6 0 2 0 3 1 5 1Flaxseed linseed 147 9 0 18 4 18 67 8 53 13 0 2 1 107 C 225 F Grape seed 10 5 14 3 14 3 74 7 74 7 very high 216 C 421 F 148 Hemp seed 149 7 0 9 0 9 0 82 0 22 0 54 0 2 5 1 166 C 330 F 150 High oleic safflower oil 151 7 5 75 2 75 2 12 8 0 12 8 very high 212 C 414 F 140 Olive Extra Virgin 152 13 8 73 0 71 3 10 5 0 7 9 8 14 1 193 C 380 F 140 Palm 153 49 3 37 0 40 9 3 0 2 9 1 45 5 1 235 C 455 F Palm 154 hydrogenated 88 2 5 7 0Peanut 155 16 2 57 1 55 4 19 9 0 318 19 6 61 6 1 232 C 450 F 142 Rice bran oil 25 38 4 38 4 36 6 2 2 34 4 156 15 6 1 232 C 450 F 157 Sesame 158 14 2 39 7 39 3 41 7 0 3 41 3 138 1Soybean 159 15 6 22 8 22 6 57 7 7 51 7 3 1 238 C 460 F 142 Soybean 160 partially hydrogenated 14 9 43 0 42 5 37 6 2 6 34 9 13 4 1Sunflower 161 8 99 63 4 62 9 20 7 0 16 20 5 128 1 227 C 440 F 142 Walnut oil 162 unrefined 9 1 22 8 22 2 63 3 10 4 52 9 5 1 160 C 320 F 163 Nutrition and health EditContributing significant calories as a source of fat palm oil is a food staple in many cuisines 164 165 166 On average globally humans consumed 7 7 kg 17 lb of palm oil per person in 2015 4 Although the relationship of palm oil consumption to disease risk has been previously assessed the quality of the clinical research specifically assessing palm oil effects has been generally poor 167 Consequently research has focused on the deleterious effects of palm oil and palmitic acid consumption as sources of saturated fat content in edible oils leading to conclusions that palm oil and saturated fats should be replaced with polyunsaturated fats in the diet 168 169 A 2015 meta analysis and 2017 advisory from the American Heart Association indicated that palm oil is among foods supplying dietary saturated fat which increases blood levels of LDL cholesterol and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases leading to recommendations for reduced use or elimination of dietary palm oil in favor of consuming unhydrogenated vegetable oils 170 171 Glycidyl fatty acid esters GE 3 MCPD and 2 MCPD are found especially in palm oils and palm fats because of their refining at high temperatures approx 200 C 392 F 172 Since glycidol the parent compound of GE is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic the EFSA didn t set a safe level for GE According to the chair of the CONTAM EFSA s expert Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain The exposure to GE of babies consuming solely infant formula is a particular concern as this is up to ten times what would be considered of low concern for public health 172 The EFSA s tolerable daily intake TDI of 3 MCPD and its fatty acid esters was set to 0 8 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day µg kg bw day in 2016 and increased to 2 µg kg bw day in 2017 based on evidence linking this substance to organ damage in animal tests and on possible adverse effects on the kidney and on male fertility 172 173 According to the EFSA there is not enough data to set a safe level for 2 MCPD 172 Palmitic acid Edit Excessive intake of palmitic acid which makes up 44 of palm oil increases blood levels of low density lipoprotein LDL and total cholesterol and so increases risk of cardiovascular diseases 168 169 174 Other reviews the World Health Organization and the US National Heart Lung and Blood Institute have encouraged consumers to limit the consumption of palm oil palmitic acid and foods high in saturated fat 164 168 174 175 See also Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palm oil Coconut oil Palm sugar Tropical agricultureFurther reading EditZuckerman Jocelyn C 2021 Planet Palm How Palm Oil Ended Up in Everything and Endangered the World The New Press ISBN 978 1620975237 References Edit Reeves James B Weihrauch John L Consumer and Food Economics Institute 1979 Composition of foods fats and oils Agriculture handbook 8 4 Washington D C U S Dept of Agriculture 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