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Wikipedia

Chinese Filipino

August 17, 2023

Chinese Filipinos[a] (incorrectly termed as Filipino Chinese in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent with ancestry mainly from Fujian province,[4] but are born and raised in the Philippines.[4] Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[5] Chinese immigration to the Philippines occurred mostly during the Spanish colonization of the islands between the 16th and 19th centuries, attracted by the lucrative trade of the Manila galleons and since the late 20th century. In 2013, according to the Senate of the Philippines, there were approximately 1.35 million ethnic (or pure) Chinese within the Philippine population, while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22.8 million of the population.[1][6] However, the actual current figures are not known since the Philippine census does not usually take into account questions about ethnicity.[7][6] Accordingly, the oldest Chinatown in the world is located in Binondo, Manila founded on 8 December 1594.

Chinese Filipinos
咱儂 / 咱人 / 華菲人
Chinito / Chinita / Intsik
Tsinong Pilipino
Lannang / Chinoy / Tsinoy
A Chinese Filipina maiden wearing the Maria Clara gown called Traje de Mestiza, dated 4 November 1913.
Total population
'Ethnic (or pure) Chinese' [sic] Filipinos: '1.35 million' [sic] (as of 2013, according to the Senate)[1][2]
'Filipinos with Chinese descent' [sic]: '22.8 million' [sic] (as of 2013, according to the Senate)[3]
Regions with significant populations
Metro Manila, Baguio, Metro Cebu, Metro Bacolod, Metro Davao, Bohol, Cagayan de Oro, Iloilo, Leyte, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Vigan, Laoag, Laguna, Rizal, Lucena, Bicol, Zamboanga City, Sulu, Cotabato
Languages
Filipino (Tagalog), Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Bikol, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Chavacano, English and other languages of the Philippines
Hokkien, Mandarin, Cantonese, Taishanese, Teochew, Hakka and various other varieties of Chinese
Religion
Predominantly Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, P.I.C, Iglesia ni Cristo)
Minority Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Mazuism, Traditional Chinese Folk Religion
Related ethnic groups
Sangley, Mestizo de Sangley
Overseas Chinese
Chinese Filipino
Traditional Chinese咱儂
Simplified Chinese咱人
Hokkien POJLán-nâng / Nán-nâng / Lán-lâng
Transcriptions
Southern Min
Hokkien POJLán-nâng / Nán-nâng / Lán-lâng
Tâi-lôLán-nâng / Nán-nâng / Lán-lâng
Chinese Filipino
Traditional Chinese華菲人
Simplified Chinese华菲人
Wade–GilesHua²-fei¹-jên²
Hanyu PinyinHuáfēirén
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHuáfēirén
Wade–GilesHua²-fei¹-jên²
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationWàh fēi yàhn
JyutpingWaa⁴ fei¹ jan⁴
Canton RomanizationWa⁴ féi¹ yen⁴
Southern Min
Hokkien POJHôa-hui-lîn
Tâi-lôHuâ-hui-lîn

Chinese Filipinos are a well established middle class ethnic group and are well represented in all levels of Filipino society.[8] Chinese Filipinos also play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and dominate the Philippine economy today.[9][8][10][11][12] Most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprise Taipan billionaires of Chinese Filipino background.[13] Some in the list of the political families in the Philippines are also of Chinese Filipino background, meanwhile the bulk are also of Spanish-colonial-era Chinese mestizo (mestizo de Sangley) descent, of which, many families of such background also compose a considerable part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeois,[14][15] who during the late Spanish Colonial Era in the late 19th century, produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines, that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution as part of the foundation of the First Philippine Republic and subsequent sovereign independent Philippines.[16]

Identity

The term "Chinese Filipino" may or may not be hyphenated.[17][18] The website of the organization Kaisa para sa Kaunlaran (Unity for Progress) omits the hyphen, adding that the former is the adjective where the latter is the noun, depending on whichever perspective logic one understands that identity. The Chicago Manual of Style and the APA, among others, also recommend dropping the hyphen. When used as an adjective as a whole, it may take on a hyphenated form or may remain unchanged.[19][20][21]

There are various universally accepted terms used in the Philippines to refer to Chinese Filipinos:[citation needed]

 
Example of a Chinese influence in Filipino Spanish Architecture in St. Jerome Parish Church (Morong, Rizal)

Other terms being used with reference to China include:

  • 華人 – Hoâ-jîn or Huárén—a generic term for referring to Chinese people, without implication as to nationality
  • 華僑 – Hoâ-kiâo or Huáqiáo—Overseas Chinese, usually China-born Chinese who have emigrated elsewhere
  • 華裔 – Hoâ-è or Huáyì—People of Chinese ancestry who were born in, residents of and citizens of another country

"Indigenous Filipino" or simply "Filipino", is used in this article to refer to the Austronesian inhabitants prior to the Spanish Conquest of the islands. During the Spanish Colonial Period, the term indio was used.[citation needed]

However, intermarriages occurred mostly during the Spanish colonial period because Chinese immigrants to the Philippines up to the 19th century were predominantly male.[citation needed] It was only in the 20th century that Chinese women and children came in comparable numbers.[citation needed] Today, Chinese Filipino male and female populations are practically equal in numbers. These Chinese mestizos, products of intermarriages during the Spanish colonial period, then often opted to marry other Chinese or Chinese mestizos.[citation needed] Generally, Chinese mestizos is a term referring to people with one Chinese parent.

By this definition, the ethnically Chinese Filipino comprise 1.8% (1.35 million) of the population.[22] This figure however does not include the Chinese mestizos who since Spanish times have formed a part of the middle class in Philippine society[citation needed] nor does it include Chinese immigrants from the People's Republic of China since 1949.

History

Early interactions

Ethnic Han Chinese sailed around the Philippine Islands from the 9th century onward and frequently interacted with the local Austronesian people.[23] Chinese and Austronesian interactions initially commenced as bartering and items.[24] This is evidenced by a collection of Chinese artifacts found throughout Philippine waters, dating back to the 10th century.[24] Since Song dynasty times in China and precolonial times in the Philippines, evidence of trade contact can already be observed in the Chinese ceramics found in archaeological sites, like in Santa Ana, Manila.[24]

Spanish colonization of the Philippines (16th century–1898)

Main article: Sangley
 
A Chinese mestiza in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875.[citation needed]
 
Sangleys of different social classes in the Spanish era, as depicted in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)
 
Mestizos Sangley y Chino (Sangley Chinese-Filipino Mestizos), c. 1841 Tipos del País Watercolor by Justiniano Asuncion

When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, there was already a significant population of migrants from China all of whom were male due to the relationship between the barangays (city-states) of the island of Luzon and the Ming dynasty.[citation needed]

The first encounter of the Spanish authorities with the Chinese occurred when several Chinese pirates under the leadership of Limahong attacked and besieged the newly established capital of Manila in 1574. The pirates tried to capture the city but were defeated by the combined Spanish and native forces under the leadership of Juan de Salcedo in 1575. Almost simultaneously, the Chinese imperial admiral Homolcong arrived in Manila where he was well received. On his departure he took with him two priests, who became the first Catholic missionaries in China sent from the Philippines. This visit was followed by the arrival of Chinese ships in Manila in May 1603 bearing Chinese officials with the seal of the Ming Empire. This led to suspicions that the Chinese had sent a fleet to try to conquer the islands. However, seeing the city's strong defenses, the Chinese made no hostile moves.[citation needed] They returned to China without showing any particular motive for the journey and without either side mentioning the apparent motive.[citation needed] Fortifications of Manila were started, with a Chinese settler in Manila named Engcang, who offered his services to the governor.[citation needed] He was refused and a plan to massacre the Spaniards quickly spread among the Chinese inhabitants of Manila. The revolt was quickly crushed by the Spaniards, ending in a large-scale massacre of the non-Catholic Sangley in Manila.

The Spanish authorities started restricting the activities of the Chinese immigrants and confined them to the Parían near Intramuros. With low chances of employment and prohibited from owning land, most of them engaged in small businesses or acted as skilled artisans to the Spanish colonial authorities.

The Spanish authorities differentiated the Chinese immigrants into two groups: Parían (unconverted) and Binondo (converted).[citation needed] Many immigrants converted to Catholicism and due to the lack of Chinese women, intermarried with indigenous women and adopted Hispanized names and customs. The children of unions between indigenous Filipinos and Chinese were called Mestizos de Sangley or Chinese mestizos, while those between Spaniards and Chinese were called Tornatrás.[citation needed] The Chinese population originally occupied the Binondo area although eventually they spread all over the islands, and became traders, moneylenders and landowners.[15]

Chinese mestizos as Filipinos

 
French Illustration of a Chinese mestizo couple c.1846 by Jean Mallat de Bassilan

During the Philippine Revolution of 1898, Mestizos de Sangley (Chinese mestizos) would eventually refer to themselves as Filipino,[citation needed] which during that time referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The Chinese mestizos would later fan the flames of the Philippine Revolution.[citation needed] Many leaders of the Philippine Revolution themselves have substantial Chinese ancestry. These include Emilio Aguinaldo, Andrés Bonifacio, Marcelo del Pilar, Antonio Luna, José Rizal and Manuel Tinio.[25]

Chinese mestizos in the Visayas

Sometime in the year 1750, an adventurous young man named Wo Sing Lok, also known as "Sin Lok" arrived in Manila, Philippines. The 12-year-old traveler came from Amoy, the old name for Xiamen, an island known in ancient times as "Gateway to China"—near the mouth of Jiulong "Nine Dragon" River in the southern part of Fujian Province.

Earlier in Manila, immigrants from China were herded to stay in the Chinese trading center called "Parian". After the Sangley Revolt of 1603, this was destroyed and burned by the Spanish authorities. Three decades later, Chinese traders built a new and bigger Parian near Intramuros.

For fear of a Chinese uprising similar to that in Manila, the Spanish authorities implementing the royal decree of Gov. Gen. Juan de Vargas dated July 17, 1679, rounded up the Chinese in Iloilo and hamletted them in the parian (now Avanceña Street). It compelled all local unmarried Chinese to live in the Parian and all married Chinese to stay in Binondo. Similar Chinese enclaves or "Parian" were later established in Camarines Sur, Cebu and Iloilo.[26]

Sin Lok together with the progenitors of the Lacson, Sayson, Ditching, Layson, Ganzon, Sanson and other families who fled Southern China during the reign of the despotic Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in the 18th century and arrived in Maynilad; finally, decided to sail farther south and landed at the port of Batiano river to settle permanently in "Parian" near La Villa Rica de Arevalo in Iloilo.[27][28]

American colonial era (1898–1946)

 
Binondo Church, the main church of the district of Binondo

During the American colonial period, the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States was also put into effect in the Philippines.[29] Nevertheless, the Chinese were able to settle in the Philippines with the help of other Chinese Filipinos, despite strict American law enforcement, usually through "adopting" relatives from Mainland or by assuming entirely new identities with new names.

 
Ongpin St., Binondo, Manila (1949)

The privileged position of the Chinese as middlemen of the economy under Spanish colonial rule[30] quickly fell, as the Americans favored the principalía (educated elite) formed by Chinese mestizos and Spanish mestizos. As American rule in the Philippines started, events in Mainland China starting from the Taiping Rebellion, Chinese Civil War and Boxer Rebellion led to the fall of the Qing dynasty, which led thousands of Chinese from Fujian Province in China to migrate en masse to the Philippines to avoid poverty, worsening famine and political persecution. This group eventually formed the bulk of the current population of unmixed Chinese Filipinos.[25]

 
Arm-tag of the Wha-Chi Battalion or Squadron 48

Formation of the Chinese Filipino identity (1946–1975)

Beginning in World War II, Chinese soldiers and guerrillas joined in the fight against the Japanese Imperial Forces during the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines (1941–1945).[citation needed] On April 9, 1942, many Chinese Filipino Prisoners of War were killed by Japanese Forces during the Bataan Death March after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942.[citation needed] Chinese Filipinos were integrated in the U.S. Armed Forces of the First & Second Filipino Infantry Regiments of the United States Army.[citation needed] After the Fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942, Chinese Filipinos joined as soldiers in a military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army under the U.S. military command as a ground arm of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) which started the battles between the Japanese Counter-Insurgencies and Allied Liberators from 1942 to 1945 to fight against the Japanese Imperial forces. Some Chinese Filipinos who joined as soldiers were integrated into the 11th, 14th, 15th, 66th & 121st Infantry Regiment of the U.S. Armed Forces in the Philippines[citation needed] – Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL) under the military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army started the Liberation in Northern Luzon and aided the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Abra, Mountain Province, Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya in attacking Imperial Japanese forces. Many Chinese Filipinos joined the guerrilla movement of the Philippine-Chinese Anti-Japanese guerrilla resistance fighter unit or Wha-Chi Movement,[citation needed] the Ampaw Unit under Colonel Chua Sy Tiao[citation needed] and the Chinese Filipino 48th Squadron since 1942 to 1946 in attacking Japanese forces.[citation needed] Thousands of Chinese Filipino soldiers and guerrillas died of heroism in the Philippines from 1941 to 1945 during World War II.[citation needed] Thousands of Chinese Filipino veterans are interred in the Shrine of Martyr's Freedom of the Filipino Chinese in World War II located in Manila.[citation needed] The new-found unity between the ethnic Chinese migrants and the indigenous Filipinos against a common enemy – the Japanese, served as a catalyst in the formation of a Chinese Filipino identity who started to regard the Philippines as their home.[31]

Chinese as aliens under the Marcos regime (1975–1986)

Under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, Chinese Filipinos called "lao cao" (Philippine Hokkien Chinese: 老猴; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: lāu-kâu, meaning "old people" or literally, "old monkey" (a comedic reference to the Monkey King (Sun Wukong) from the old famous Chinese classical novel, Journey to the West)), i.e., Chinese in the Philippines who acquired citizenship, referred only to those who arrived in the country before World War II. Those who arrived after the war were called the "jiu qiao" (Mandarin simplified Chinese: 旧侨; traditional Chinese: 舊僑; pinyin: jiù qiáo; lit. 'old sojourner'). They were residents who came from China (also usually southern Fujian) via British Hong Kong, such as through North Point, Causeway Bay, or Kowloon Bay, between the 1950s to 1980s.[32]

Chinese schools in the Philippines, which were governed by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China (Taiwan), were transferred under the jurisdiction of the Philippine government's Department of Education. Virtually all Chinese schools were ordered closed or else to limit the time allotted for Chinese language, history and culture subjects from four hours to two hours and instead devote them to the study of Filipino languages and culture.[citation needed] Marcos' policies eventually led to the formal assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into mainstream Filipino society,[33] the majority were granted citizenship, under the administration of Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos.[32]

Following the February 1986 People Power Revolution (EDSA 1), the Chinese Filipinos quickly gained national spotlight as Cory Aquino, a Tarlac Chinese mestiza from the influential Cojuangco family took up the Presidency.[34]

Return of democracy (1986–2000)

 
Corazon Aquino, of Sangley Chinese mestizo ancestry of Tarlac, is the third Philippine president to have ethnic Chinese ancestry through the Cojuangco family.

Despite getting better protections, crimes against Chinese Filipinos were still present, the same way as crimes against other ethnic groups in the Philippines, as the country was still battling the lingering economic effects of the Marcos regime.[citation needed][35][36] All these led to the formation of the first Chinese Filipino organization, Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran, Inc. (Unity for Progress) by Teresita Ang-See[b] which called for mutual understanding between the ethnic Chinese and the native Filipinos. Aquino encouraged free press and cultural harmony, a process which led to the burgeoning of the Chinese-language media[37] During this time, the third wave of Chinese migrants came. They are known as the "xin qiao" (Mandarin simplified Chinese: 新侨; traditional Chinese: 新僑; pinyin: xīn qiáo; lit. 'new sojourner'), tourists or temporary visitors with fake papers, fake permanent residencies or fake Philippine passports that started coming starting the 1990s during the administration of Fidel Ramos and Joseph Estrada.[32]

21st century (2001–present)

More Chinese Filipinos were given Philippine citizenship during the 21st century. Chinese influence in the country increased during the pro-China presidency of Gloria Arroyo.[38] Businesses by Chinese Filipinos were said to have improved under Benigno Aquino's presidency, while mainland Chinese migration into the Philippines decreased due to Aquino's pro-Filipino and pro-American approach in handling disputes with China.[39] "Xin qiao" Chinese migration from mainland China into the Philippines intensified from 2016 up to the present,[32] due to controversial pro-China policies by the Rodrigo Duterte presidency, prioritizing Chinese POGO businesses.[40]

The Chinese Filipino community have expressed concerns over the ongoing disputes between China and the Philippines, which majority preferring peaceful approaches to the dispute to safeguard their own private businesses.[32][41]

Origins

 
Ethnicity of Chinese Filipinos, including Chinese mestizos

Virtually most all Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines belong to Hokkien-speaking group of the Han Chinese ethnicity. Many Chinese Filipinos are either third, fourth or second generation or in general natural-born Philippine citizens who can still look back to their Chinese roots and have Chinese relatives both in China as well as in other Southeast Asian or Australasian or North American countries.

Hokkien (Fujianese / Hokkienese / Fukienese / Fookienese) people

Chinese Filipinos who have roots as Hokkien people (福建人/閩南人) predominantly have ancestors who came from Southern Fujian and usually speak or at least have Philippine Hokkien as heritage language. They form the bulk of Chinese settlers in the Philippines during or after the Spanish Colonial Period, and settled or spread primarily from Metro Manila and key cities in Luzon such as Angeles City, Baguio, Dagupan, Ilagan, Laoag, Lucena, Tarlac and Vigan, as well as in major Visayan and Mindanao cities such as Bacolod, Cagayan de Oro, Cotabato, Metro Cebu, Metro Davao, Dumaguete, General Santos, Iligan, Metro Iloilo, Ormoc, Tacloban, Tagbilaran and Zamboanga.

Hokkien peoples, also known in English: Fukienese / Hokkienese / Fookienese / Fujianese or in Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese: 咱人 / 福建人 / 闽南人; traditional Chinese: 咱儂 / 福建儂 / 閩南儂; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng / Hok-kiàn-lâng / Bân-lâm-lâng or in Mandarin simplified Chinese: 福建人 / 闽南人; traditional Chinese: 福建人 / 閩南人; pinyin: Fújiànren / Mǐnnánrén, form 98.7% of all unmixed ethnic Chinese in the Philippines. Of the Hokkien peoples, about 75% are from Quanzhou Prefecture (especially around Jinjiang City), 23% are from Zhangzhou Prefecture and 2% are from Xiamen City.[42]

According to a study of around 30,000 gravestones in the Manila Chinese Cemetery which writes the birthplace or family ancestral origins of those buried there, 66.46% were from Jinjiang City (Quanzhou), 17.63% from Nan'an, Fujian (Quanzhou), 8.12% from Xiamen in general, 2.96% from Hui'an County (Quanzhou), 1.55% from Longxi County (now part of Longhai City, Zhangzhou), 1.24% from Enming (Siming District, Xiamen), 1.17% from Quanzhou in general, 1.12% from Tong'an District (Xiamen), 0.85% from Shishi City (Quanzhou), 0.58% from Yongchun County (Quanzhou) and 0.54% from Anxi County (Quanzhou).[43]

The Hokkien-descended Chinese Filipinos currently dominate the light industry and heavy industry, as well as the entrepreneurial and real estate sectors of the Philippine economy. Many younger Hokkien-descended Chinese Filipinos are also entering the fields of banking, computer science, engineering, finance and medicine.

To date, most emigrants and permanent residents from Mainland China, as well as the vast majority of Taiwanese people in the Philippines are also of Hokkien background.

Teochews

Linguistically related to the Hokkien people are the Teochew (Philippine Hokkien Chinese: 潮州人; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tiô-chiu-lâng or in Mandarin Chinese: 潮州人; pinyin: Cháozhōurén).

They migrated in large numbers to the Philippines during the Spanish Period to the main Luzon island of the Philippines, such as the famed smuggler, Limahong (林阿鳳), and his followers who were originally from Raoping, Chaozhou,[44] but later on were eventually assimilated by intermarriage with the mainstream Hokkien.

The Teochews are often mistaken for being Hokkien.

Cantonese people

Chinese Filipinos who have roots as Cantonese people (Cantonese Chinese: 廣府人; Cantonese Yale: Gwóng fú yàhn) have ancestors who came from Guangdong Province and speak or at least have Cantonese or Taishanese as heritage language. They settled down in Metro Manila, as well as in major cities of Luzon such as Baguio City, Angeles City, Naga and Olongapo. Many also settled in the provinces of Northern Luzon (e.g., Benguet, Cagayan, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte) especially around Baguio.[45]

The Cantonese people (Philippine Hokkien Chinese: 廣東人 / 鄉親; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kńg-tang-lâng / Hiong-chhin, Mandarin simplified Chinese: 广东人; traditional Chinese: 廣東人; pinyin: Guǎngdōngrén) form roughly 1.2% of the unmixed ethnic Chinese population of the Philippines, with large numbers of descendants originally from either Taishan, Kaiping,[45] Macau, Hong Kong, Canton (Guangzhou), or nearby areas transiting from either Macau,[45] Hong Kong,[46] Guangzhou (Canton). Many were/are not as economically prosperous as the Hokkien Chinese Filipinos.[45] Barred from owning land during the Spanish Colonial Period, most Cantonese were into the service industry, working as artisans, miners, househelpers, bakers, shoemakers, metal workers, barbers, herbal physicians, porters (cargadores / coulis), soap makers and tailors. They also intermarried with other local Filipinos during the Spanish Colonial Era and many of their descendants are now assimilated as Chinese mestizos. There are also those that came during the American Colonial Period before WW2 especially in Baguio as part of the 700 Chinese (Cantonese) coolie laborers recruited from British Hong Kong by the British managing the Manila Railroad Company for the construction of the Benguet Road (Kennon Road) along with the Japanese (who also later stayed to become Japanese Filipinos) and other lowland Filipinos. In Baguio, Cantonese Chinese were known for their carpentry, masonry, and culinary skills, where they were employed in hotels and places like Camp John Hay and they set up businesses like restaurants, grocery stores, bazaars, hardware stores, sari-sari stores and dried fish stalls. The logging, mining, and agribusiness industry during the 1930s in Baguio was also big among the Cantonese Chinese Filipinos there and it was only at such time during 1930s and after WW2 when Hokkien Chinese Filipinos started to establish themselves in Baguio.[46] Presently, they are into small-scale entrepreneurship and in education. There are also about 30 or so Filipino Cantonese associations in the Philippines, such as the Baguio Filipino Cantonese Association CAR (BFCA-CAR), which was merged from The Baguio Cantonese Association and the Brotherhood of Filipino-Cantonese Mestizos during 1999.[45] There are also schools such as Baguio Patriotic School and Manila Patriotic School.

Others

There are also some ethnic Chinese from neighboring Asian countries and territories, most notably from Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Taiwan and Hong Kong who are naturalized Philippine citizens and have since formed part of the Chinese Filipino community. Many of them are also Hokkien speakers, with a sizeable number of Cantonese and Teochew speakers.

Temporary resident Chinese businessmen and envoys include people from Beijing, Shanghai and other major cities and provinces throughout China.

Chinese Moro mestizos

The Chinese Moro mestizos are of paternal Han Chinese descent who married Moro Muslim women from Tausug, Sama and Maguindanaon ethnicities and are not descendants of Hui Muslims. The Moros did not follow Sharia prohibitions on marriage of Muslim women to non-Muslims. So, Han Chinese men from the Straits Settlements and the Chinese mainland migrated to Mindanao (and the islands of Sulu) and founded families. These mestizos celebrated Chinese New Year and Chinese holidays including ones of pagan origin and practice Han cultural taboos; like the taboo against patrilineal cousin marriage. Hui in China practice marriage of patrilineal cousins of the same surname to each other, which the Han-descended Chinese Moro mestizos do not. Observant Hui Muslims also do not practice Chinese pagan holidays. The Han men continued practicing their own pagan religions and holidays when married to Moro Muslim women. As late as the 1970s, Professor Samuel Kong Tan said among the Chinese and Moros of Sulu, it was still normal for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women.

The Han who became part of the Chinese-Moro mestizo community are mostly of Minnan background, either directly from southern Fujian like Xiamen (Amoy) or the Peranakans who are descendants of Minnan speaking Han men and Malay women, with a small minority of them being descendants of other Han like one northern Han family who married into the Tausug. Some Han of either Hakka or Cantonese background in Sabah, Borneo married Tausug women there before World War II ended.

The Chinese families among the Tausug include the Kho, Lim, Teo, Kong and multiple families with the surname Tan, including the family of Tuchay Tan and Hadji Suug Tan. These families maintain the Chinese practice of not permitting marriages in the same paternal families with the same surname, and even though the Tans are multiple families, they still adhere to the rule of avoiding marriage to each other believing they were related far in the past.

The assimilation and intermarriages between the local Muslim Moro Tausug and Sama in Sulu and the Han Chinese immigrants, in contrast to Chinese living in Filipino Catholic areas, was facilitated by the good relations throughout history between China and Sulu.[47][48]

The Chinese mestizo descendants of Han Chinese men and Moro Muslim Tausug and Sama women are integrating and dissolving into the Tausug and Sama population as they lose practice of Chinese culture except celebrating some festivals and their Chinese names.[49][50][51][52][53]

Demographics

Dialect Population[citation needed][54][55]
Hokkienese 1,044,000
Cantonese 13,000
Mandarin 550
Chinese mestizo* 486,000
  • The figure above denotes first-generation Chinese mestizos – namely, those with one Chinese and one Filipino parent. This figure does not include those who have less than 50% Chinese ancestry, who are mostly classified as "Filipino".

The exact number of all Filipinos with some Chinese ancestry is unknown. Various estimates have been given from the start of the Spanish Colonial Period up to the present ranging from as low as 1% to as large as 18–27%. The National Statistics Office does not conduct surveys of ethnicity.[56]

According to a research report by historian Austin Craig who was commissioned by the United States in 1915 to ascertain the total number of the various races of the Philippines, the pure Chinese, referred to as Sangley, number around 20,000 (as of 1918), and that around one-third of the population of Luzon have partial Chinese ancestry. This comes with a footnote about the widespread concealing and de-emphasising of the exact number of Chinese in the Philippines.[57]

Another source dating from the Spanish Colonial Period shows the growth of the Chinese and the Chinese mestizo population to nearly 10% of the Philippine population by 1894.

Race Population (1810) Population (1850) Population (1894)
Malay (i.e., indigenous Filipino) 2,395,677 4,725,000 6,768,000
mestizo de sangley (i.e., Chinese mestizo) 120,621 240,000 500,000
sangley (i.e., Unmixed Chinese) 7,000 25,000 100,000
Peninsular (i.e., Spaniard) 4,000 10,000 35,000
Total 2,527,298 5,000,000 7,403,000

[citation needed]

Language

See also: Language and overseas Chinese communities § Philippines
 
Languages spoken by Chinese Filipinos at home

The vast majority (74.5%) of Chinese Filipinos, especially those in Metro Manila and surrounding regions, speak Filipino (Tagalog) and/or Philippine English as their native language. Most Chinese Filipinos (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language.[58]

The use of Hokkien as a first language is seemingly confined to the older generation and to Chinese Filipino families living in traditional Chinese Filipino centers, such as Caloocan, Davao Chinatown, and the Binondo district of Manila. In part due to the increased adoption of Philippine nationality during the Marcos era, most Chinese Filipinos born from the 1970s to the mid-1990s tend to use English, Filipino (Tagalog) and perhaps other Philippine regional languages, which they frequently code-switch between as Taglish or mix together with Hokkien as Hokaglish. Among the younger generation (born from the mid-1990s onward), the preferred language is often English besides also, of course, knowing Filipino (Tagalog) and, in most regions of the Philippines, other regional languages.[59] Recent arrivals from Mainland China or Taiwan, despite coming mostly from traditionally Hokkien-speaking areas, typically use Mandarin among themselves.

Unlike other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, which feature an assortment of dialect groups, Chinese Filipinos descend overwhelmingly from Hokkien-speaking regions in Southern Fujian. Hence, Hokkien remains the main heritage language among Chinese Filipinos. Mandarin, however, is perceived as the most prestigious Chinese language, so it is taught in Chinese Filipino schools and used in all official and formal functions within the Chinese Filipino community despite the fact that very few Chinese Filipinos are conversant in Mandarin or have it as a heritage language.[58]

For the Chinese mestizos, Spanish used to be the most important prestige language and the preferred first language during the Spanish colonial era. Starting from the American period, the use of Spanish gradually decreased and is now completely replaced by either English or Filipino.[60]

Hokkien / Fukien / Fookien (Philippine Hokkien)

Main article: Philippine Hokkien

Since most Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines trace their ancestry to Southern Fujian in Fujian Province of Mainland China, the Hokkien language, specifically the Philippine Hokkien dialect, is the heritage language of most Chinese Filipinos. Currently, it is typically the elderly and those of the older generations, such as the Silent Generation, the Baby boomer generation and part of Generation X, who speak Philippine Hokkien as their first or second language, especially as first- or second-generation Chinese Filipinos. The younger generations, such as part of Generation X and most Millennials and Generation Z youth, sparsely use Hokkien as a second or third language and even more seldom as a first language. This is due to Hokkien nowadays only being used and heard within family households and no longer being taught at schools. As a result, most of the youth can either only understand Hokkien by ear or do not know it at all, using instead English, Filipino (Tagalog) and in some cases one or more other Philippine languages.

The variant of Hokkien spoken in the Philippines, Philippine Hokkien, is locally called Lannang-ue (Philippine Hokkien Chinese: 咱儂話 / 咱人话; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe; lit. 'Our People's Language'). Philippine Hokkien is mutually intelligible to a certain degree with other Hokkien variants in mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, etc. and is particularly close to the variant spoken in Quanzhou, especially around Jinjiang. Its unique features include its conservative nature that preserves old vocabulary and pronunciations, the presence of a few loanwords from Philippine Spanish and Filipino and frequent code-switching with Philippine English, Filipino/Tagalog and other Philippine languages (such as Visayan languages), excessive use of shortenings and colloquial words (e.g., "pīⁿ-chhù" [病厝]: literally, "sick-house", instead of the Taiwanese Hokkien term "pīⁿ-īⁿ" [病院] to refer to "hospital" or "chhia-thâu" [車頭]: literally, "car-head", instead of the Taiwanese Hokkien term "su-ki" [司機] to refer to a "driver") and use of vocabulary terms from various variants of Hokkien, such as from the Quanzhou, Amoy (Xiamen) and Zhangzhou dialects of the Hokkien language.

The Chinese Sangley community in the Philippines centuries ago during Spanish colonial times spoke a mix of different Hokkien dialects (Zhangzhou/Chiangchiu, Quanzhou/Chuanchiu, Amoy/Xiamen), enough that the Hokkien recorded by the Spaniards during the early 1600s, such as in the Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1604), resembled the Zhangzhou dialect more,[61] contrary to the modern 21st century Philippine Hokkien that now resembles the Quanzhou dialect more.[62]

Mandarin

Main article: Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines

Mandarin is currently the subject and medium of instruction for teaching Standard Chinese (Mandarin) class subjects in Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines. However, since the language is rarely used outside of the classroom besides jobs and interactions related to Mainland China and Taiwan, most Chinese Filipinos would be hard-pressed to converse in Mandarin.

As a result of longstanding influence from the ROC Ministry of Education of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Council of the Republic of China (Taiwan) since the early 1900s up to 2000, the Mandarin variant (known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese: 國語; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: kok-gí) taught and spoken in many older Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines closely mirrors that of Taiwanese Mandarin, using Traditional Chinese characters and the Zhuyin phonetic system (known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese: 國音; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: kok-im) being taught, though in recent decades Simplified Chinese characters and the Pinyin phonetic system were also introduced from China and Singapore. Some Chinese Filipino schools now also teach Mandarin in Simplified characters with the Pinyin system, modeled after those in China and Singapore. Some schools teach both or either of the systems.

Spanish Dominican Catholic missionaries like Francisco Varo who visited 17th century Fujian (late Ming and early Qing) learned both local Min Chinese and the official Ming dynasty Mandarin Chinese (guanhua) and they explicitly noted that Mandarin was regarded as an elegant, "elevated" language by the local Fujianese Chinese while their own local Min speech were regarded as "coarse speech". They noted Mandarin Guanhua was solemn and used by the educated Fujianese literati and officials while it was the rural villagers and women who only spoke the local Min patois (xiangtan) since they didn't speak Mandarin.[63] Jesuits in Ming dynasty China like Matteo Ricci generally focused on studying the official and prestigious Mandarin while Dominicans studied vernacular Hokkien dialects in Fujian.[64]

Cantonese and Taishanese

Currently, there are still a few minority Cantonese Chinese Filipino families that still privately speak Cantonese or Taishanese at home or in their circles,[45] but many who still interact with the overall Chinese Filipino community have also learned to speak Philippine Hokkien for business purposes[45] due to Hokkien's status as a community lingua franca within the Chinese Filipino community. Due to the relatively small population of Chinese Filipinos who are or claim to be of Cantonese ancestry, most Filipinos of Cantonese ancestry, such as Spanish-colonial-era Chinese mestizos (Mestizos de Sangley) that originally trace back to Macau or Canton (Guangzhou), especially the younger generations thereof, do not speak Cantonese or Taishanese anymore and can only speak the local languages, such as Filipino (Tagalog), English and other Philippine languages such as Ilocano, Cebuano, etc. Some families of Cantonese ancestry within the Chinese Filipino community also speak Philippine Hokkien with their family, especially those that intermarried with Chinese Filipinos of Hokkien ancestry. There may also be some Chinese Filipino families of Hokkien ancestry that speak Cantonese due to a family history of having lived in Hong Kong, such as around the districts of North Point (Chinese: 北角; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Pak-kak), Kowloon Bay or Causeway Bay, during the Cold War period, when many families fled the communist advance to British Hong Kong and then later to countries in Southeast Asia such as the Philippines or Indonesia.

English

Main article: Philippine English

Just like most other Filipinos, the vast majority of Chinese Filipinos who grew up in the Philippines are fluent in English, especially Philippine English (which descends from American English) as taught in schools in the Philippines. They are usually natively bilingual or even multilingual since both English and Filipino are required subjects in all grades of all schools in the Philippines, as English serves as an important formal prestige language in Philippine society. Due to this, around 30% of all Chinese Filipinos, mostly those belonging to the younger generations, use English as their preferred first language. Others have it as their second language or third language, being natively bilingual or multilingual together with Filipino and sometimes one or more other Philippine languages.[59]

Filipino and other Philippine languages

Main articles: Filipino language, Tagalog language, and Philippine languages

The majority of Chinese Filipinos who were born, were raised, or have lived long enough in the Philippines are at least natively bilingual or multilingual. Along with English, Chinese Filipinos typically speak Filipino (Tagalog) and, in non-Tagalog regions, the dominant regional Philippine language(s), such as the Visayan languages (Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, etc.) spoken in the Visayas and Mindanao.[59]

Many Chinese Filipinos, especially those living in the provinces, speak the regional language(s) of their province as their first language(s), if not English or Filipino. Just like most other Filipinos, Chinese Filipinos frequently code-switch either with Filipino or Tagalog and English, known as Taglish, or with other regional provincial languages, such as Cebuano and English, known as Bislish. This frequent code-switching has produced a trilingual mix with the above Philippine Hokkien, known as Hokaglish, which mixes Hokkien, Tagalog and English. However, in provinces where Tagalog is not a native language, the equivalent dominant regional language(s) may be mixed instead of Tagalog or along with Tagalog in a mix of four or more languages due to the normalcy of code-switching and multilingualism as part of Philippine society.[59]

Spanish

Main article: Spanish language in the Philippines

During the Spanish colonial period and subsequent few decades before its replacement by English, Spanish used to be the formal prestige language of Philippine society and hence, Sangley Chinese (Spanish-era unmixed Chinese), Chinese mestizos (Spanish-era mixed Chinese Filipinos) and Tornatras mestizos (Spanish-era mixed Chinese-Spanish or Chinese-Spanish-native Filipinos) also learned to speak Spanish throughout the Spanish colonial period to the early to mid 20th century when its role was eventually eclipsed by English and later largely dissipated from mainstream Philippine society. Most of the elites of Philippine society during the Spanish colonial era and American colonial era were Spanish mestizos or Chinese mestizos, which later intermixed together to an unknown degree and now frequently treated as one group known as Filipino mestizos. Due to this history in the Philippines, many of the older generation Chinese Filipinos (mainly those born before WWII), whether pure or mixed, can also understand some Spanish, due to its importance in commerce and industry. The Chinese community of the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as "Caló Chino Español" or "Kastilang tindahan". This was especially the case with the local Sangley Chinese that intermarried during Spanish colonial times. They brought forth Spanish-speaking Chinese Mestizos of varying proficiency, from the accented pidgin Spanish of the new Chinese immigrants to the fluent Spanish of Sangley Chinese old-timers.[65]

Religion

Religion of Chinese Filipinos

  Catholicism (70%)
  Protestant (13%)
  Other (including Chinese Folk Religion, Buddhism, Taoism, No Religion, Islam etc.) (17%)

Chinese Filipinos are unique in Southeast Asia in being overwhelmingly Christian (83%).[58] but many families, especially Chinese Filipinos in the older generations still practice traditional Chinese religions. Almost all Chinese Filipinos, including the Chinese mestizos but excluding recent migrants from either Mainland China or Taiwan, had or will have their marriages in a Christian church.[58]

 
Sto. Cristo de Longos, by Ongpin St., Binondo, Manila

Roman Catholicism

See also: Chinese Rites controversy

The majority (70%) of Christian Chinese Filipinos are Catholic.[58] Many Catholic Chinese Filipinos still tend to practice the traditional Chinese religions alongside Catholicism, due to the recent openness of the Church in accommodating Chinese beliefs such as ancestor veneration.

Unique to the Catholicism of Chinese Filipinos is the religious syncretism that is found in Chinese Filipino homes. Many have altars bearing Catholic images such as the Santo Niño (Child Jesus) as well as statues of the Buddha and Taoist gods. It is not unheard of to venerate the Blessed Virgin Mary, saints, or the dead using joss sticks and otherwise traditional offerings, much as one would have done for Guan Yin or Mazu.[66]

Protestantism

 
St. Stephen's Church in Manila in 1923, an Anglican church and school for Chinese Filipinos

Approximately 13% of all Christian Chinese Filipinos are Protestants.[67]

Many Chinese Filipino schools are founded by Protestant missionaries and churches.

Chinese Filipinos comprise a large percentage of membership in some of the largest evangelical churches in the Philippines, many of which are also founded by Chinese Filipinos, such as the Christian Gospel Center, Christ's Commission Fellowship, United Evangelical Church of the Philippines and the Youth Gospel Center.[68]

In contrast to Roman Catholicism, Protestantism forbids traditional Chinese practices such as ancestor veneration, but allows the use of meaning or context substitution for some practices that are not directly contradicted in the Bible (e.g., celebrating the Mid-Autumn Festival with moon cakes denoting the moon as God's creation and the unity of families, rather than the traditional Chinese belief in Chang'e). Many also had ancestors already practicing Protestantism while still in China.

Unlike native and mestizo Filipino-dominated Protestant churches in the Philippines which have very close ties with North American organizations, most Protestant Chinese Filipino churches instead sought alliance and membership with the Chinese Congress on World Evangelization, an organization of Overseas Chinese Christian churches throughout Asia.[69]

Chinese traditional religions and practices

 

A small number of Chinese Filipinos (2%) continue to practise traditional Chinese religions solely.[70] Mahayana Buddhism, specifically, Chinese Pure Land Buddhism,[71] Taoism[72] and ancestral worship (including Confucianism)[73] are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents among the Chinese Filipino.

Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where the Chinese live, especially in urban areas like Manila.[c] Veneration of the Guanyin (觀音), known locally as Kuan-im either in its pure form or seen a representation of the Virgin Mary is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. The Chinese Filipino community also established indigenous religious denominations like Bell Church (钟教), which is a syncretic religion with ecumenical and interfaith in orientation.[74] There are several prominent Chinese temples like Seng Guan Temple (Buddhist) in Manila, Cebu Taoist Temple in Cebu City and Lon Wa Buddhist Temple in Davao City.

Around half (40%) of all Chinese Filipinos regardless of religion still claim to practise ancestral worship.[58] The Chinese, especially the older generations, have the tendency to go to pay respects to their ancestors at least once a year, either by going to the temple, or going to the Chinese burial grounds, often burning incense and bringing offerings like fruits and accessories made from paper.

Others

There are very few Chinese Filipino Muslims, most of whom live in either Mindanao or the Sulu Archipelago and have intermarried or assimilated with their Moro neighbors. Many of them have attained prominent positions as political leaders. They include Datu Piang, Abdusakur Tan and Michael Mastura, among such others.

Others are also members of the Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah's Witnesses or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Some younger generations of Chinese Filipinos also profess to be atheists.[citation needed]

Education

Main article: List of Chinese schools in the Philippines

There are 150 Chinese schools that exist throughout the Philippines, slightly more than half of which operate in Metro Manila.[75][76] Chinese Filipino schools typically include the teaching of Standard Chinese (Mandarin), among other school class subjects, and have an international reputation for producing award-winning students in the fields of science and mathematics, most of whom reap international awards in mathematics, computer programming, and robotics Olympiads.[77]

History

The first school founded specifically for the Chinese in the Philippines, the Anglo-Chinese School (now known as Tiong Se Academy) was opened in 1899 on the Qing Dynasty Chinese Embassy grounds. The first curriculum called for rote memorization of the four major Confucian texts (the Four Books and Five Classics) along with Western science and technology. This was followed suit in the establishment of other Chinese schools, such as Hua Siong College of Iloilo, established in Iloilo in 1912, the Chinese Patriotic School, established in Manila in 1912 (the first school for the Cantonese Chinese), Saint Stephen's High School, established in Manila in 1915 (the first sectarian school for the Chinese), and the Chinese National School, established in Cebu in 1915.[75]

Burgeoning of Chinese schools throughout the Philippines, including in Manila, occurred from the 1920s until the 1970s, with a brief interlude during World War II, when all Chinese schools were ordered closed by the Japanese and their students were forcibly integrated into Japanese-sponsored Philippine public education. After World War II, the Third Republic of the Philippines and the Republic of China (ROC) signed the Sino-Philippine Treaty of Amity, which provided for the direct control of Chinese schools throughout the archipelago by the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s Ministry of Education. In the late 20th century, despite Mandarin taking the place of Amoy Hokkien as the usual Chinese course taught in Chinese schools, some schools still tried to teach Hokkien as well, deeming it more practical in the Philippine-Chinese setting.[78]

Such a situation continued until 1973, when amendments made during the Marcos Era to the Philippine Constitution effectively transferred all Chinese schools to the authority of the Republic of the Philippines' Department of Education (DepEd).[75] With this, the medium of instruction for teaching Standard Chinese (Mandarin) was shifted from Amoy Hokkien Chinese to Mandarin Chinese (or in some schools to English). Teaching hours relegated to Chinese language and arts, which featured prominently in the pre-1973 Chinese schools, were reduced. Lessons in Chinese geography and history, which were previously subjects in their own right, were incorporated into the Chinese language subject(s), whereas Filipino (Tagalog) and Philippine history, civics and culture became newly required subjects.

The changes in Chinese education initiated with the 1973 Philippine Constitution led to a large shifting of mother tongues, reflecting the assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into general Philippine society. The older generation of Chinese Filipinos, who were educated in the old curriculum, typically use Philippine Hokkien at home, while most younger-generation Chinese Filipinos are more comfortable conversing in English, Filipino (Tagalog), and/or other Philippine languages like Cebuano, including their code-switching forms like Taglish and Bislish, which are sometimes varyingly admixed with Philippine Hokkien to make Hokaglish.

Curriculum

Chinese Filipino schools typically feature curriculum prescribed by the Philippine Department of Education (DepEd). The limited time spent in Chinese instruction consists largely of language arts.

The three core Chinese subjects are "Chinese Grammar" (simplified Chinese: 华语; traditional Chinese: 華語; pinyin: Huáyǔ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hoâ-gí; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ; lit. 'Chinese Language'), "Chinese Composition" (Chinese: 綜合; pinyin: Zònghé; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chong-ha̍p; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄗㄨㄥˋ ㄏㄜˊ; lit. 'Composition'), and "Chinese Mathematics" (Chinese: 數學; pinyin: Shùxué; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sò͘-ha̍k; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄨˋ ㄒㄩㄝˊ; lit. 'Mathematics'). Other schools may add other subjects such as "Chinese Calligraphy" (Chinese: 毛筆; pinyin: Máobǐ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Mô͘-pit; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄇㄠˊ ㄅㄧˇ; lit. 'Calligraphy Brush'). Chinese history, geography and culture are also integrated in all the three core Chinese subjects – they stood as independent subjects of their own before 1973. Many schools currently teach at least just one Chinese subject, known simply as just "Chinese" (simplified Chinese: 华语; traditional Chinese: 華語; pinyin: Huáyǔ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hoâ-gí; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ; lit. 'Chinese Language'). It also varies per school if either or both Traditional Chinese with Zhuyin (known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese: 國音; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: kok-im) and/or Simplified Chinese with Pinyin is taught. Currently, all Chinese class subjects are taught in Mandarin Chinese (known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese: 國語; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: kok-gí) and in some schools, students are prohibited from speaking any other language, such as English, Filipino (Tagalog), other regional Philippine languages, or even Hokkien during Chinese classes, when decades before, there were no such restrictions.

Schools and universities

Many Chinese Filipino schools are sectarian, being founded by either Roman Catholic or Chinese Protestant Christian missions. These include Grace Christian College (Protestant-Baptist), Hope Christian High School (Protestant-Evangelical), Immaculate Conception Academy (Roman Catholic-Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Conception), Jubilee Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), LIGHT Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Makati Hope Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), MGC-New Life Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Saint Peter the Apostle School (Roman Catholic-Archdiocese of Manila), Saint Jude Catholic School (Roman Catholic-Society of the Divine Word), Saint Stephen's High School (Protestant-Episcopalian), Ateneo de Iloilo, Ateneo de Cebu and Xavier School (Roman Catholic-Society of Jesus).

Major non-sectarian schools include Chiang Kai Shek College, Manila Patriotic School, Philippine Chen Kuang High School, Philippine Chung Hua School, Philippine Cultural College – the oldest Chinese Filipino secondary school in the Philippines, and Tiong Se Academy – the oldest Chinese Filipino school in the Philippines.

Chiang Kai Shek College is the only college in the Philippines accredited by both the Philippine Department of Education (DepEd) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) Ministry of Education.

Most Chinese Filipinos attend Chinese Filipino schools until Secondary level and then transfer to non-Chinese colleges and universities to complete their tertiary degree, due to the dearth of Chinese language tertiary institutions.

Name format

Main article: Chinese name

Many Chinese who lived during the Spanish naming edict of 1849 eventually adopted Spanish name formats, along with a Spanish given name (e.g., Florentino Cu y Chua).[citation needed] Some adopted their entire Chinese name romanized as a surname for the entire clan (e.g., Jose Antonio Chuidian (Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chui-lian); Alberto Cojuangco (Chinese: 許寰哥; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Khó-hoân-ko)). Chinese mestizos, as well as some Chinese who chose to completely assimilate into the local Filipino or Spanish culture during Spanish colonial times also adopted Spanish surnames, just as any other Filipino, either as per christening of a new Christian name under Catholic Christian baptismal under the Spanish friars or through the 1849 decree of Gov-Gen. Narciso Claveria that distributed surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos, most of which listed there were Spanish surnames.

Newer Chinese migrants who came during the American Colonial Period use a combination of an adopted Spanish (or rarely, English) name together with their Chinese name (e.g., Carlos Palanca Tan Quin Lay or Vicente Go Tam Co).[citation needed] This trend was to continue up to the late 1970s.

As both exposure to North American media as well as the number of Chinese Filipinos educated in English increased, the use of English names among Chinese Filipinos, both common and unusual, started to increase as well. Popular names among the second generation Chinese community included English names ending in "-son" or other Chinese-sounding suffixes, such as Anderson, Emerson, Jackson, Jameson, Jasson, Patrickson, Washington, among such others. For parents who are already third and fourth generation Chinese Filipinos, English names reflecting American popular trends are given, such as Ethan, Austin and Aidan.

It is thus not unusual to find a young Chinese Filipino, for example, named "Chase Tan", whose father's name is "Emerson Tan" and whose grandfather's name is "Elpidio Tan Keng Kui", reflecting the depth of immersion into the English language as well as into the Philippine society as a whole.[citation needed]

Surnames

Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines from 1898 onward usually have monosyllabic Chinese surnames. On the other hand, most Chinese ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Gokongwei, Ongpin, Pempengco, Yuchengco, Teehankee and Yaptinchay among such others. These were originally full Chinese names which were transliterated in Spanish orthography and adopted as surnames.

Common single-syllable Chinese Filipino surnames are Tan (陳), Lim (林), Chua (蔡), Uy (黃) and Ong (王). Most such surnames are spelled according to their Hokkien pronunciation.

On the other hand, most Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 use a Hispanicized surname (see below). Many Filipinos who have Hispanicized Chinese surnames are no longer pure Chinese, but are Chinese mestizos.

Hispanized surnames

Chinese Filipinos and Chinese mestizos usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Angseeco (from ang/see/co/kho) Aliangan (from liang/gan), Angkeko, Apego (from ang/ke/co/go/kho), Chuacuco, Chuatoco, Chuateco, Ciacho (from Sia), Cinco (from Go), Cojuangco, Corong, Cuyegkeng, Dioquino, Dytoc, Dy-Cok, Dysangco, Dytioco, Gueco, Gokongwei, Gundayao, Kiamco/Quiamco, Kimpo/Quimpo, King/Quing, Landicho, Lanting, Limcuando, Ongpin, Pempengco, Quebengco, Siopongco, Sycip, Tambengco, Tambunting, Tanbonliong, Tantoco, Tinsay, Tiolengco, Yuchengco, Tanciangco, Yuipco, Yupangco, Licauco, Limcaco, Ongpauco, Tancangco, Tanchanco, Teehankee, Uytengsu and Yaptinchay among such others. These were originally full Hokkien Chinese names which were transliterated in Latin letters with Spanish orthography and adopted as Hispanicized surnames.[79]

There are also multisyllabic Chinese surnames that are Spanish transliterations of Hokkien words. Surnames like Tuazon (Eldest Grandchild, 大孫, Tuā-sun),[80] Tiongson/Tiongzon (Eldest Grandchild, 長孫, Tióng-sun)[81]/(Second/Middle Grandchild, 仲孫, Tiōng-sun),[81] Sioson (Youngest Grandchild, 小孫, Sió-sun), Echon/Ichon/Itchon/Etchon/Ychon (First Grandchild, 一孫, It-sun), Dizon (Second Grandchild, 二孫, Dī-sun), Samson/Sanson (Third Grandchild, 三孫, Sam-sun), Sison (Fourth Grandchild, 四孫, Sì-sun), Gozon/Goson/Gozum (Fifth Grandchild, 五孫, Gǒ͘-sun), Lacson (Sixth Grandchild, 六孫, La̍k-sun), Sitchon/Sichon (Seventh Grandchild, 七孫, Tshit-sun), Pueson (Eighth Grandchild, 八孫, Pueh-sun), Causon/Cauzon (Ninth Grandchild, 九孫, Káu-sun), are examples of transliterations of designations that use the Hokkien suffix -son/-zon/-chon (Hokkien Chinese: 孫; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: sun; lit. 'Grandchild') used as surnames for some Chinese Filipinos who trace their ancestry from Chinese immigrants to the Philippines during the Spanish Colonial Period. The surnames 孫, 仲孫, 長孫 are listed in the classic Chinese text Hundred Family Surnames, perhaps shedding light on the Hokkien suffix -son/-zon/-chon used here as a surname alongside some sort of accompanying enumeration scheme.

The Chinese who survived the massacre in Manila in the 1700s fled to other parts of the Philippines and to hide their identity, some also adopted two-syllable surnames ending in "son" or "zon" and "co" such as: Yanson = Yan = 燕孫, Ganzon = Gan = 颜孫(Hokkien), Guanzon = Guan/Kwan = 关孫 (Cantonese), Tiongson/Tiongzon = Tiong = 仲孫 (Hokkien), Cuayson/Cuayzon = 邱孫 (Hokkien), Yuson = Yu = 余孫, Tingson/Tingzon = Ting = 陈孫 (Hokchew), Siason = Sia = 谢孫 (Hokkien).[82]

Many also took on Spanish or native Filipino surnames (e.g. Alonzo, Alcaraz, Bautista, De la Cruz, De la Rosa, De los Santos, Garcia, Gatchalian, Mercado, Palanca, Robredo, Sanchez, Tagle, Torres, etc.) upon naturalization. Today, it can be difficult to identify who are Chinese Filipino based on surnames alone.

A phenomenon common among Chinese migrants in the Philippines dating from the 1900s would be to purchase their surname, particularly during the American Colonial Period, when the Chinese Exclusion Act was applied to the Philippines. Such law led new Chinese migrants to purchase the Hispanic or native surnames of native and mestizo Filipinos and thus pass off as long-time Filipino residents of Chinese descent or as native or mestizo Filipinos. Many also purchased the Alien Landing Certificates of other Chinese who have gone back to China and assumed his surname and/or identity. Sometimes, younger Chinese migrants would circumvent the Act through adoption – wherein a Chinese with Philippine nationality adopts a relative or a stranger as his own children, thereby giving the adoptee automatic Filipino citizenship – and a new surname.[citation needed]

Food

Main article: Filipino Chinese cuisine
 
Lumpia (Hokkien: 潤餅), a spring roll of Chinese origin.

Traditional Tsinoy cuisine, as Chinese Filipino home-based dishes are locally known, make use of recipes that are traditionally found in China's Fujian Province and fuse them with locally available ingredients and recipes. These include unique foods such as hokkien chha-peng (Fujianese-style fried rice), si-nit mi-soa (birthday noodles), pansit canton (Fujianese-style e-fu noodles), hong ma or humba (braised pork belly), sibut (four-herb chicken soup), hototay (Fujianese egg drop soup), kiampeng (Fujianese beef fried rice), machang (glutinous rice with adobo) and taho (a dessert made of soft tofu, arnibal syrup and pearl sago).

However, most Chinese restaurants in the Philippines, as in other places, feature Cantonese, Shanghainese and Northern Chinese cuisines, rather than traditional Fujianese fare.

Politics

With the increasing number of Chinese with Philippine nationality, the number of political candidates of Chinese-Filipino descent also started to increase. The most significant change within Chinese Filipino political life would be the citizenship decree promulgated by former President Ferdinand Marcos which opened the gates for thousands of Chinese Filipinos to formally adopt Philippine citizenship.

Chinese Filipino political participation largely began with the People Power Revolution of 1986 which toppled the Marcos dictatorship and ushered in the Aquino presidency. The Chinese have been known to vote in blocs in favor of political candidates who are favorable to the Chinese community.

Important Philippine political leaders with Chinese ancestry include the current president Bongbong Marcos, and former presidents Rodrigo Duterte, Emilio Aguinaldo, Benigno Aquino III, Cory Aquino, Sergio Osmeña, Manuel Quezon and Ferdinand Marcos, former senators Nikki Coseteng, Alfredo Lim, Raul Roco, Panfilo Lacson, Vicente Yap Sotto, Vicente Sotto III and Roseller Lim, as well as several governors, congressmen and mayors throughout the Philippines. Many ambassadors and recent appointees to the presidential cabinet are also Chinese Filipinos like Arthur Yap, Jesse Robredo, Jose Yulo, Manuel Yan, Alberto Lim, Danilo Lim, Karl Chua and Bong Go.

The former Archbishop of Manila, Cardinals Jaime Sin, Rufino Santos and Luis Antonio Tagle also have Chinese ancestry.

Society and culture

 
The dragon dance is still a popular tradition among Chinese Filipinos.
 
Welcome Arch, Manila Chinatown, Ongpin-Binondo, Manila, Filipino-Chinese Bridge of Friendship
 
Davao Chinatown in Davao City is the biggest Chinatown in the Philippines and the only one in Mindanao.
 
A Feng-Shui shop in a mall in Manila City selling Chinese charms, statues and images.

Society

The Chinese Filipino are mostly business owners[according to whom?] and their life centers mostly in the family business. These mostly small or medium enterprises play a significant role in the Philippine economy. A handful of these entrepreneurs run large companies and are respected as some of the most prominent business tycoons in the Philippines.

Chinese Filipinos attribute their success in business to frugality and hard work, Confucian values and their traditional Chinese customs and traditions. They are very business-minded and entrepreneurship is highly valued and encouraged among the young. Most Chinese Filipinos are urban dwellers. An estimated 50% of the Chinese Filipino live within Metro Manila, with the rest in the other major cities of the Philippines. In contrast with the Chinese mestizos, few Chinese are plantation owners. This is partly due to the fact that until recently when the Chinese Filipino became Filipino citizens, the law prohibited the non-citizens, which most Chinese were, from owning land.

Culture

As with other Southeast Asian nations, the Chinese community in the Philippines has become a repository of traditional Chinese culture common to unassimilated ethnic minorities throughout the world. Whereas in mainland China many cultural traditions and customs were suppressed or destroyed during the Cultural Revolution or simply regarded as old-fashioned nowadays, these traditions have remained largely preserved in the Philippines.[citation needed]

Many new cultural twists have evolved within the Chinese community in the Philippines, distinguishing it from other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. These cultural variations are highly evident during festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival. The Chinese Filipino have developed unique customs pertaining to weddings, birthdays and funerary rituals.[citation needed]

Weddings

Wedding traditions of Chinese Filipinos, regardless of religious persuasion, usually involve identification of the dates of supplication or pamamanhikan (kiu-hun), engagement (ting-hun) and wedding (kan-chhiu) adopted from Filipino customs. In addition, feng shui based on the birthdates of the couple, as well as of their parents and grandparents may also be considered. Certain customs found among Chinese Filipinos include during supplication (kiu-hun) also include a solemn tea ceremony within the house of the bridegroom ensues where the couple will be served tea, egg noodles (misua) and given red packets or envelopes containing money, commonly referred to as an ang-pao.[citation needed]

During the supplication ceremony, pregnant women and recently engaged couples are forbidden from attending the ceremony. Engagement (ting-hun) quickly follows, where the bride enters the ceremonial room walking backward and turned three times before being allowed to see the groom. A welcome drink consisting of red-colored juice is given to the couple, quickly followed by the exchange of gifts for both families and the wedding tea ceremony, where the bride serves the groom's family and vice versa. The engagement reception consists of sweet tea soup and misua, both of which symbolizes long-lasting relationship.[citation needed]

Before the wedding, the groom is expected to provide the matrimonial bed in the future couple's new home. A baby born under the Chinese sign of the Dragon may be placed in the bed to ensure fertility. He is also tasked to deliver the wedding gown to his bride on the day prior to the wedding to the sister of the bride, as it is considered ill fortune for the groom to see the bride on that day. For the bride, she prepares an initial batch of personal belongings (ke-chheng) to the new home, all wrapped and labeled with the Chinese characters for sang-hi. On the wedding date, the bride wears a red robe emblazoned with the emblem of a dragon prior to wearing the bridal gown, to which a pair of sang-hi (English: marital happiness) coin is sewn. Before leaving her home, the bride then throws a fan bearing the Chinese characters for sang-hi toward her mother to preserve harmony within the bride's family upon her departure. Most of the wedding ceremony then follows Catholic or Protestant traditions.[citation needed]

Post-wedding rituals include the two single brothers or relatives of the bride giving the couple a wa-hoe set, which is a bouquet of flowers with umbrella and sewing kit, for which the bride gives an ang-pao in return. After three days, the couple then visits the bride's family, upon which a pair of sugar cane branch is given, which is a symbol of good luck and vitality among Hokkien people.[83]

Births and birthdays

Birthday traditions of Chinese Filipinos involve large banquet receptions, always featuring noodles[d] and round-shaped desserts. All the relatives of the birthday celebrant are expected to wear red clothing which symbolize respect for the celebrant. Wearing clothes with a darker hue is forbidden and considered bad luck. During the reception, relatives offer ang paos (red packets containing money) to the birthday celebrant, especially if he is still unmarried. For older celebrants, boxes of egg noodles (misua) and eggs on which red paper is placed are given.[citation needed]

Births of babies are not celebrated and they are usually given pet names, which he keeps until he reaches first year of age. The Philippine custom of circumcision is widely practiced within the Chinese Filipino community regardless of religion, albeit at a lesser rate as compared to native Filipinos. First birthdays are celebrated with much pomp and pageantry, and grand receptions are hosted by the child's paternal grandparents.[citation needed]

Funerals and burials

Funerary traditions of Chinese Filipinos mirror those found in Southern Fujian. A unique tradition of many Chinese Filipino families is the hiring of professional mourners which is alleged to hasten the ascent of a dead relative's soul into Heaven. This belief particularly mirrors the merger of traditional Chinese beliefs with the Catholic religion.[84]

Subcultures

Most of the Chinese mestizos, especially the landed gentry trace their ancestry to the Spanish era. They are the "First Chinese" or Sangley whose descendants nowadays are mostly integrated into Philippine society. Most are from Zhangzhou, Fujian province in China, with a minority coming from Guangdong. They have embraced a Hispanized Filipino culture since the 17th century. After the end of Spanish rule, their descendants, the Chinese mestizos, managed to invent a cosmopolitan mestizo culture[citation needed] coupled with an extravagant Mestizo de Sangley lifestyle, intermarrying either with native Filipinos or with Spanish mestizos.

The largest group of Chinese in the Philippines are the "Second Chinese", who are descendants of migrants in the first half of the 20th century, between the anti-Qing 1911 Revolution in China and the Chinese Civil War. This group accounts for most of the "full-blooded" Chinese. They are almost entirely from Fujian Province.

The "Third Chinese" are the second largest group of Chinese, the recent immigrants from Mainland China, after the Chinese economic reform of the 1980s. Generally, the "Third Chinese" are the most entrepreneurial and have not totally lost their Chinese identity in its purest form and seen by some "Second Chinese" as a business threat. Meanwhile, continuing immigration from Mainland China further enlarge this group[85]

Civic organizations

 
Don Enrique T. Yuchengco Hall at De La Salle University.

Aside from their family businesses, Chinese Filipinos are active in Chinese-oriented civic organizations related to education, health care, public safety, social welfare and public charity. As most Chinese Filipinos are reluctant to participate in politics and government, they have instead turned to civic organizations as their primary means of contributing to the general welfare of the Chinese community. Beyond the traditional family and clan associations, Chinese Filipinos tend to be active members of numerous alumni associations holding annual reunions for the benefit of their Chinese-Filipino secondary schools.[86]

Outside of secondary schools catering to Chinese Filipinos, some Chinese Filipinos businessmen have established charitable foundations that aim to help others and at the same time minimize tax liabilities. Notable ones include the Gokongwei Brothers Foundation, Metrobank Foundation, Tan Yan Kee Foundation, Angelo King Foundation, Jollibee Foundation, Alfonso Yuchengco Foundation, Cityland Foundation, etc. Some Chinese-Filipino benefactors have also contributed to the creation of several centers of scholarship in prestigious Philippine Universities, including the John Gokongwei School of Management at Ateneo de Manila, the Yuchengco Center at De La Salle University, and the Ricardo Leong Center of Chinese Studies at Ateneo de Manila. Coincidentally, both Ateneo and La Salle enroll a large number of Chinese-Filipino students. In health care, Chinese Filipinos were instrumental in establishing and building medical centers that cater for the Chinese community such as the Chinese General Hospital and Medical Center, the Metropolitan Medical Center, Chong Hua Hospital and the St. Luke's Medical Center, Inc.,[citation needed] one of Asia's leading health care institutions. In public safety, Teresita Ang See's Kaisa, a Chinese-Filipino civil rights group, organized the Citizens Action Against Crime and the Movement for the Restoration of Peace and Order at the height of a wave of anti-Chinese kidnapping incidents in the early 1990s.[87] In addition to fighting crime against Chinese, Chinese Filipinos have organized volunteer fire brigades all over the country, reportedly the best in the nation.[88] that cater to the Chinese community. In the arts and culture, the Bahay Tsinoy and the Yuchengco Museum were established by Chinese Filipinos to showcase the arts, culture and history of the Chinese.[89]

Ethnic Chinese Filipinos' perceptions of non-Chinese Filipinos

Non-Chinese Filipinos were initially referred to as huan-á (番仔) by ethnic Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines. It is also used in other Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia by Hokkien-speaking ethnic Chinese to refer to peoples of Malay ancestry.[90] In Taiwan, it was also used but it has become a taboo term with negative stigma since it was used to refer to indigenous Taiwanese aboriginals[91] and the Japanese during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan.[92] The term itself in mainland China originally just meant "foreigner" but at times may also have been considered derogatory[90] since it could negatively connote to "barbarian/outsider" by some who had negative views on certain neighboring non-Chinese peoples that certain groups historically lived with since for centuries this was the term predominantly used to refer to non-Chinese people, but today, it does not necessarily carry its original connotations, depending on the speaker's perceptions and culture of how they grew up to learn to perceive the term, since in the Philippines, its present usage now mostly just plainly refers to any non-Chinese Filipinos, especially native Filipinos.[93] When speaking Hokkien, most older Chinese Filipinos still use the term, while younger Chinese Filipinos may sometimes instead use the term Hui-li̍p-pin lâng (菲律賓儂), which directly means, "Philippine person" or simply "Filipino". This itself brings complications though as Chinese Filipinos themselves are Filipinos too, born and raised in the Philippines often with families of multiple generations carrying Filipino citizenship.

Some Chinese Filipinos perceive the government and authorities to be unsympathetic to the plight of the ethnic Chinese, especially in terms of frequent kidnapping for ransom during the late 1990s.[94] Currently, most of the third or fourth generation Chinese Filipinos generally view the non-Chinese Filipino people and government positively, and have largely forgotten about the historical oppression of the ethnic Chinese. They are also most likely to consider themselves as just being "Filipino" and focus on the Philippines, rather than on just being "Chinese" and being associated with China (PRC) or Taiwan (ROC).

Some Chinese Filipinos believe racism still exists toward their community among a minority of non-Chinese Filipinos, who the Chinese Filipinos refer to as "pâi-huâ" (排華) in Philippine Hokkien. Organizations belonging to this category include the Laspip Movement, headed by Adolfo Abadeza, as well as the Kadugong Liping Pilipino, founded by Armando "Jun" Ducat Jr. that stirred tensions around the late 1990s.[95][96][97][98] Also due in part to racial or chauvinistic views from Mainland Chinese towards native Filipinos or Filipinos in general in the 1980's after Filipinos became in demand in the international work force, some racial tendencies of Mainland Chinese brought about by Han chauvinism against native Filipinos have intensified in the 21st century, where many Mainland Chinese from mainland China have branded the Philippines as a "gullible nation of maids and banana sellers", amidst disputes in the South China Sea.[99] Due to such racist remarks against native Filipinos, racism against Mainland Chinese in mainland China and by extension, ethnic-Chinese in general such as Chinese Filipinos, later developed among certain native or mestizo Filipino communities as a form of backlash.[100] During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, some Chinese Filipinos have also voiced concerns about Sinophobic sentiments that some non-Chinese Filipinos may carry against any ethnic Chinese, especially those from mainland China due to being the site of the first coronavirus outbreak, that may sometimes extend and generalize on Chinese Filipinos.[101] Chinese Filipino organizations have discouraged the mainstream Filipino public from being discriminatory, particularly against Chinese nationals amid the global spread of COVID-19.[102]

Intermarriage

Chinese mestizos are persons of mixed Chinese and either Spanish or indigenous Filipino ancestry. They are thought to make up as much as 25% of the country's total population. A number of Chinese mestizos have surnames that reflect their heritage, mostly two or three syllables that have Chinese roots (e.g., the full name of a Chinese ancestor) with a Hispanized phonetic spelling.

During the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish authorities encouraged the Chinese male immigrants to convert to Catholicism. Those who converted got baptized and their names Hispanized, and were allowed to intermarry with indigenous women. They and their mestizo offspring became colonial subjects of the Spanish crown, and as such were granted several privileges and afforded numerous opportunities denied to the unconverted, non-citizen Chinese. Starting as traders, they branched out into land leasing, moneylending and later, landholding.

Chinese mestizo men and women were encouraged to marry Spanish and indigenous women and men,[citation needed] by means of dowries,[citation needed] in a policy to mix the races of the Philippines so it would be impossible to expel the Spanish.[103]

In these days however, blood purity is still of prime concern in most traditional Chinese Filipino families especially pure-blooded ones. Many Chinese Filipinos believe that a Chinese Filipino must only be married to a fellow Chinese Filipino since the marriage to a non-Chinese Filipino or any outsider was considered taboo.

Chinese marriage to native or mestizo Filipinos and outsiders posts uncertainty on both parties. The Chinese Filipino family structure is patriarchal hence, it is the male that carries the last name of the family which also carries the legacy of the family itself. Male Chinese Filipino marriage to a native or mestiza Filipina or any outsider is more admissible than vice versa. In the case of the Chinese Filipina female marrying a native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider, it may cause several unwanted issues especially on the side of the Chinese family.

In some instances, a member of a traditional Chinese Filipino family may be denied of his or her inheritance and likely to be disowned by his or her family by marrying an outsider without their consent. However, there are exceptions in which intermarriage to a non-Chinese Filipino or any outsider is permissible provided their family is well-off and/or influential.

On the other hand, modern Chinese Filipino families allow their children to marry native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider. However, many of them would still prefer that the Filipino or any outsider would have some or little Chinese blood, such as descendants of Chinese mestizos during Spanish colonial period.

Trade and industry

Main articles: Bamboo network and Economy of the Philippines
 
The Manila Stock Exchange is now pullulated with thousands of prospering Chinese-owned stock brokerage houses.[9][104] Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Manila Stock Exchange as they are estimated to control more than half of the publicly listed companies by market capitalization.[105][106][107][108][109][110]

Like much of Southeast Asia, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry dominate the Filipino economy and commerce at every level of society.[8][111][112] Chinese Filipinos wield tremendous economic clout unerringly disproportionate relative to their small population size over their indigenous Filipino majority counterparts and play a critical role in maintaining the country's economic vitality and prosperity.[113][10][114] With their powerful economic prominence, the Chinese virtually make up the country's entire wealthy elite.[104][115][116] Chinese Filipinos, in the aggregate, represent a disproportionate wealthy, market-dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community, they also form, by and large, an economic class: the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to their poorer indigenous Filipino majority working and underclass counterparts around them.[8][116] Entire posh Chinese enclaves have sprung up in major Filipino cities across the country, literally walled off from the poorer indigenous Filipino masses guarded by heavily armed, private security forces.[8] Though the contemporary Chinese Filipino community albeit remains stubbornly insular, given their propensity to voluntarily segregate themselves from the indigenous Filipino populace through typically associating themselves with the Chinese community, their collective impacting presence nonetheless still remains powerfully felt throughout the country at large. In particular, given their ubiquitous economic influence and prosperity owing to their business savvy and investment prowess have prompted the community's acculturation into mainstream Filipino society and their maintenance of their exclusively unabashed distinctive cultural sense of ethnic identity, clannishness, community, kinship, nationalism, social, and ethnic cohesion through clan associations.[117]

The Chinese have played a key role in Filipino business and industry having dominated the economy of the Philippines for centuries long before the pre-Spanish and American colonial eras.[118] Long before the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, Chinese merchants carried on trading activities with native communities along the coast of modern Mainland China. By the time the Spanish arrived, the Chinese controlled all the trading and commercial activities across the Philippines, serving as retailers, artisans, and food providers for various Spanish settlements.[11] During the American colonial epoch, Chinese merchants controlled a significant percentage of the retail trade and internal commerce of the country. They predominated the retail trade and owned three-quarters of the 2500 rice mills interspersed along with the Filipino islands.[119] Total resources of banking capital held by the Chinese was $27 million in 1937 to a high of US$100 million in the estimated aggregate, making them second to the Americans in terms of total foreign capital investment held.[11] Under Spanish rule, the Chinese were willing to engage in trade and venture into other business activities. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry were responsible for introducing sugar refining devices, new construction techniques, movable type printing, and bronze making. The Chinese also provided fishing, gardening, artisan, and other such trading services. Many poverty-stricken Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were attracted to business as they were prohibited from owning land and saw the only path out of abject poverty was by going into commercial business and entrepreneurship, through taking charge of their own financial destinies by becoming self-employed as dealers, marketers, vendors, retailers, traders, collectors, hawkers, peddlers, and distributors of variegated goods and services to the Spanish and American colonizers as well as the Filipino populace.[120] Mainly attracted and lured by the promise of bountiful economic opportunities as a result of American colonial influence during the first four decades of the 20th century American colonization of the Philippines allowed the Chinese to assert and secure their economic clout among their entrepreneurial and investment pursuits. The implementation of a free trade policy between the Philippines and the United States allowed the Chinese to capitalize on the growth of a burgeoning Filipino consumer market. As a result, Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were able to capture a significant market share by expanding their commercial business activities in which they were the key players who ventured into then newly emerging industries such as industrial manufacturing and financial services.[121] The American and Spanish colonizers who saw the benefit of the enterprising Chinese made use of their commercial expertise, contacts, capital, and presence to serve and protect their colonial economic interests. Chinese-owned sari-sari stores propped up all over the Philippines were utilized to distribute American and cheap Chinese-made Filipino goods and raw materials for the American and other foreign markets overseas. The conspicuous presence of the Chinese that permeated everyday Filipino economic life incurred the volatile emotions and hostility of the indigenous Filipino masses manifested in the form of envy, hostility, and resentment.[122]

Up until the 1970s, much of the Philippines's biggest corporations, commercial activity, and economy had long been under the control, influence, and ownership of the Americans and Spaniards.[123] Today, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are estimated to control 60 to 70 percent of the Philippines's economy.[124][125][126][127][128][129][9][130][131][132][133][134][135][136][137][138] The Chinese Filipino community, amounting to 1 percent of the overall population of the Philippines, control the country's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, hotels, shopping malls, airlines, and fast-food chains in addition to all of its major financial services providers, banks and stock brokerage houses, as well as dominating the nation's wholesale distribution networks, shipping, banking, construction, textiles, real estate, personal computer, semiconductors, pharmaceutical, mass media, and industrial manufacturing industries.[139][140][141][9][104][142] Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also control 40 percent of the Philippine's national corporate equity.[143][144] Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also involved in the processing and distribution of pharmaceutical products. More than 1000 companies are involved in this industry, with most being small and medium-sized businesses amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱1.2 billion.[145] Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also prominent players in the Filipino mass media industry, as the Chinese control six out of the ten English-language newspapers in Manila, including the one with the largest daily circulation.[104][146] Many retail stores and restaurants around the Philippines are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry, many of which whom are regularly featured in Manila newspapers that often attracted great public interest as they were used to illustrate the community's strong economic influence.[147][148] The Chinese also dominate the Filipino telecommunications industry, where one of the current significant players in the Filipino telecom sector was the business taipan John Gokongwei, whose conglomerate JG Summit Holdings controlled 28 wholly-owned subsidiaries with interests ranging from food and agro-industrial products, hotels, insurance agencies, financial services, electronic components, textiles and garment manufacturing, real estate, petrochemicals, power generation, printing, newspaper publishing, packaging materials, detergents, and cement mixing.[149] Gokongwei's family firm is one of the six largest and most one well-known conglomerates in the Philippines that has been under the hands of a Filipino owner of Chinese ancestry.[150] Gokongwei began his business career by starting out in food processing during the 1950s, venturing into textile manufacturing in the early 1970s, and then cornered the Filipino real estate development and hotel management industries by the end of the decade. In 1976, Gokongwei established Manila Midtown Hotels and has since then assumed the controlling interest of two other hotel chains, Cebu Midtown and Manila Galleria Suites respectively.[151] In addition, Gokongwei has also made forays into the Filipino financial services sector as he expanded his business interests by investing in two Filipino banks, PCI Bank and Far East Bank, in addition to negotiating the acquisition of one of the Philippines's oldest newspapers, The Manila Times.[152][153] Gokongwei's eldest daughter became publisher of the newspaper in December 1988 at the age of 28, at which during the same time her father acquired the paper from the Roceses, a Spanish Mestizo family.[154] Of the 66 percent remaining part of the economy in the Philippines held by either Chinese or indigenous Filipinos, the Chinese control 35 percent of all total sales.[155][156] Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control an estimated 50 to 60 percent of non-land share capital in the Philippines, and as much as 35 percent of total sales are attributed to the largest public and private firms owned by the Chinese.[157][158][159][160] Many prominent Filipino companies that are Chinese-owned focus on diverse industry sectors such as semiconductors, chemicals, real estate, engineering, construction, fibre-optics, textiles, financial services, consumer electronics, food, and personal computers.[161] A third of the top 500 companies publicly listed on the Philippines Stock Exchange are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry.[162] Of the top 1000 firms, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control 36 percent of them and among the top 100 companies, 43 percent.[162][163] Between 1978 and 1988, 146 of the country's 494 top companies were under Chinese hands.[164] Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also estimated to control over one-third of the Philippines 1000 largest corporations with the Chinese controlling 47 of the 68 locally owned public companies listed on the Manila Stock Exchange.[165][166][167][168][169][170] In 1990, the Chinese controlled 25 percent of the top 100 businesses in the Philippines and by 2014, the share of top 100 firms owned by them grew to 41 percent.[171][172] Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are also responsible for generating 55 percent of overall Filipino private commercial business activity across the country.[173] In addition, Chinese-owned Filipino companies account for 66 percent of the sixty largest commercial entities.[174][175] In 2008, among the top ten wealthiest Filipinos, 6 to 7 were of Chinese ancestry with Henry Sy Sr. having topped the list with an estimated net worth $14.4 billion.[176] In 2015, the top 4 wealthiest people in the Philippines (with 9 being pure-blooded Han Chinese in addition to 10 out of the top 15) were of Chinese ancestry.[177][142] In 2019, 15 of the 17 Filipino billionaires were of Chinese ancestry.[178]

As Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry became more financially prosperous, they often coalesced their financial resources and pooled large amounts of seed capital together to forge joint business ventures with expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese businessmen and investors from all over the world. Like other Southeast Asian businesses owned by those of Chinese ancestry, Chinese-owned businesses in the Philippines often link up with Greater Chinese and other Overseas Chinese businesses and networks across the globe to focus on new business opportunities to collaborate and concentrate on. Common industry sectors of focus include real estate, engineering, textiles, consumer electronics, financial services, food, semiconductors, and chemicals.[179] Besides sharing a common ancestry, cultural, linguistic, and familial ties, many Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry are particular strong adherents of the Confucian paradigm of interpersonal relationships when doing business with each other, as the Chinese believed that the underlying source for entrepreneurial and investment success relied on the cultivation of personal relationships.[180] Moreover, Filipino businesses that are Chinese-owned form a part of the larger bamboo network, an umbrella business network of Overseas Chinese companies operating in the markets of Greater China and Southeast Asia that share common family, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties.[181][182] With the spectacular growth of varying success stories witnessed by a number of individual Chinese Filipino business tycoons and investors have allowed them to expand their traditional corporate activities beyond the Philippines to forge international partnerships with increasing numbers of expatriate Mainland Chinese and Overseas Chinese investors on a global scale.[183] Instead of quixotically diverting excess profits elsewhere, many Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are known for their penurious and parsimonious ways by eschewing improvident extravagance and conspicuous consumption but instead adhere to the Chinese paradigm of being frugal by reinvesting a substantial surplus of their business profits for the purpose of corporate expansion. A sizable percentage of the conglomerates managed by capable Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry that are armed with the necessary entrepreneurial acumen and visionary foresight were able to germinate from small budding enterprises to making headway into gargantuan corporate leviathans garnering widespread economic influence across the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the global financial markets.[114] Such massive corporate expansions engendered the term "Chinoy", which is colloquially used in Filipino newspapers to denote individuals with a degree of Chinese ancestry who either speak a Chinese dialect or adhere to Chinese customs.

In 1940, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were estimated to control 70 percent of the country's entire retail trade and 75 percent of the nation's rice mills.[184] By 1948, the economic standing of the Chinese community began to elevate even further wielding considerable influence as the Chinese community exercised a considerable percentage of the total commercial investment, including 55 percent of the retail trade and 85 percent of the lumber sector.[185] After the end of the Second Sino-Japanese war, Chinese Filipinos controlled 85 percent of the nation's retail trade.[186] The Chinese also had controlled 40 percent of the retailing imports with substantial controlling interests in banking, oil refining, sugar milling, cement, tobacco, flour milling, glass, dairying, automobile manufacturing, and consumer electronics.[187] Although the Filipino Hacienderos owned an extensive array of businesses, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry augmented their economic power coinciding with the pro-market reforms of the late 1980s and 1990s by the Marcos administration. As a result, the Chinese gradually increased their role in the domestic commercial sector over time by acting as an intermediary of connecting Chinese Filipino producers to the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers through the exchange of goods and services. The Chinese Filipino business community accomplished such commercial feats as a tight-knit group in an enclosed system via vertical integration by setting up their own supply chains, distribution networks, locating key competitors, making use of geographical coverage, attributes and characteristics, business strategies, staff recruitment, store proliferation, and establishing their own independent trade organizations.[188] Filipino retail outlets that are Chinese-owned also exercise a vast disproportionate share of several local goods such as rice, lumber products, and alcoholic drinks.[188] Some Chinese Filipino merchant traders even branched into retailing these products into rice milling, logging, saw-milling, distillery, tobacco, coconut oil processing, footwear making, and agricultural processing. The domestic Filipino economy began to broaden by the multitudinous expansion of commercial business activities long held by the Chinese also ushered in new forms of entrepreneurship by directing their corporate energies and capital into fostering new industries and growth areas among well-established and matured sectors.[188]

 
The Filipino fast food chain, Jollibee, which makes Filipino style burgers was founded by a Filipino entrepreneur of Chinese ancestry and the outlet continues to remain as one of the most famous fast food franchises in the Philippines.[189][190]

Today, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control all of the Philippines's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, and fast-food restaurants.[9][104] In the fast-food industry, Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry have been behind the Philippines biggest fast-food franchises. A wave of big-name restaurant chains such as Chowking, Greenwich Pizza, Mang Inasal, Red Ribbon and the Mainland Chinese-based Yonghe Dawang (永和大王) have made headway into the Filipino restaurant industry and cropped up across various cities around the country. There are roughly 3000 fast-food outlets and restaurants controlled by Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry, especially eating establishments specializing in Chinese cuisine have attracted an influx of foreign capital investments from Hong Kong and Taiwan.[191][192] The banker and business taipan George Ty was responsible for securing and franchising the rights of the famous publicly traded American hamburger franchise McDonald's across the Philippines and the Jollibee fast-food joint, whose founder was a Filipino restaurateur of Chinese ancestry.[193][190][194][195] Jollibee's popularity has since then led to the expansion of its corporate presence throughout the world by establishing subsidiaries in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Guam, and other Southeast Asian countries such as Brunei and Indonesia.[149][196][197] The chain has since then evolved itself into the Jollibee Foods Corporation while gradually expanding its operations throughout China via its foreign acquisition of the Chinese fast food chain Dim Sum in 2008.[198] In the beverage sector, San Miguel Corporation is among the Philippines most prominent beverage providers. The company was founded in 1851 by Enrique María Barretto de Ycaza y Esteban and is responsible for supplying the country's entire beverage needs. Two Chinese-owned Filipino beverage companies, namely Lucio Tan's Asia Brewery and John Gokongwei's Universal Robina, along with a couple of lesser-known beverage companies are now competing with each other to capture the largest share in the Filipino beverage market.[199]

Since the 1950s, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have controlled the entirety of the Filipino retail industry.[200] Every small, medium, and large enterprise in the Filipino retail sector has completely been under Chinese hands as the Chinese Filipino community have been at the forefront at pioneering the modern and contemporary development of the Philippines's retail sector.[201] From the 1970s onwards, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have re-established themselves as the dominant players in the Filipino retail industry with the corporate feat of presiding an estimated 8500 Chinese-owned retail and wholesale outlets around the country.[10][202] On a microscopic scale, the Chinese Hokkien community have a proclivity to run capital intensive businesses such as banks, commercial shipping lines, rice mills, dry goods, and general stores while the Cantonese gravitated towards hotels, restaurants, and laundromats.[203][188] Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry control 35 percent to upwards to two-thirds of the domestic sales among the country's 67 largest commercial retail outlets.[204][205][206][207] By the 1980s. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry began to expand their business activities in large-scale retailing and Filipino retailers that were Chinese-owned emerged as one of the largest department store owners in the Philippines with one prominent example being Rustan's, which is one of the most prestigious department store brands in the Philippines.[208] Other prime retailers such as Shoe Mart owned by Henry Sy and John Gokongwei's Robinson's percolated rapidly throughout major cities around the country, with the products that they retailed eventually making their way into the shopping malls situated across various parts of the Manila Metropolitan area.[209] Another prominent business figure in Philippines's retail industry is the Fujian-born and Filipino-bred taipan, Lucio Tan. Tan started off his business career in the cigarette distribution industry and then catapulted himself into entrepreneurial prominence within the major leagues of elite Filipino business circles after masterminding the corporate takeover of General Bank and Trust Company in 1977 and renaming as the Allied Bank.[210] Tan, whose flagship company Fortune Tobacco (now a Philippine affiliate of Philip Morris International) controls the largest market share of cigarette distribution in the country and has since then emerged as of one richest men in the Philippines.[211] Aside from taking over the Philippines's tobacco distribution networks, Tan has since parlayed his business interests into a corporate conglomerate behemoth of his own LT Group Inc.. His corporate empire presides over a diversified portfolio of various business interests in chemicals, sports, education, brewing, financial services, real estate, hotels (Century Park Hotel), in addition to acquiring a majority controlling interest in PAL, one of the Philippines's largest airlines.[212] In terms of industry distribution, small and medium size Chinese-owned retail outlets account for half of the Philippines retail trade sector, with 49.45 percent of the retail sector alone being controlled by Henry Sy's Shoemart, and the remaining share of the retail sector dominated by a few larger Chinese-owned Filipino retail outlets that include thousands of smaller retail subsidiaries.[213][164][214] Sy built his business empire from scratch out of his Shoe Mart department store chain, and has since made forays into banking and real estate development after assuming himself as a controlling interest of Banco de Oro, a private commercial bank as well as acquiring a substantial block of China Banking Corporation, another privately Chinese-owned Filipino commercial bank and wealth management house that provides seed capital that caters to the startup needs of up-and-coming Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs.[215]

In terms of industry distribution, Chinese-owned manufacturing establishments account for a third of the Filipino industrial manufacturing sector.[119][164][216] In the secondary industry, 75 percent of the country's 2500 rice mills were Chinese-owned. Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs were also dominant in wood processing, and accounted for over 10 percent of the capital invested in the lumber industry and controlled 85 percent of it as well as accounting for 40 percent of the industry's annual output and controlled nearly all the sawmills in the nation.[217] Emerging import-substituting light industries would see the rise of active participation of Chinese entrepreneurs and owned several-salt works and a large number of small and medium-sized factories engaged in food processing as well as the production of leather and tobacco goods. The Chinese also dominate food processing with approximately 200 outlets in this industry with their finished products being exported to Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. More than 200 companies are also involved in the production of paper, paper products, fertilizers, cosmetics, rubber products, and plastics.[218] By the early 1960s, the Chinese presence in the manufacturing sector became significant. Of the businesses that employed 10 or more workers, 35 percent were Chinese-owned and among 284 enterprises employing more than 100 workers, 37 percent were likewise Chinese-owned. Of the 163 domestic companies, 80 were Chinese-owned and included the manufacturing of coconut oil, food products, tobacco, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, and certain types of metals such as tubes and pipes, wire rods, nails, bolts, and containers while the native and mestizo Filipinos dominated sugar, rolling mills, industrial chemicals, fertilizers, cement, galvanizing plants, and tin plates.[219] In 1965, the Chinese controlled 32 percent of the country's top industrial manufacturing outlets.[220][221][222] Of the 259 manufacturing establishments belonging to the top 1000 in the country, the Chinese owned 33.6 percent of the top manufacturing companies as well as 43.2 percent of the top commercial manufacturing outlets in 1980.[164][223] By 1986, Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs controlled 45 percent of the nations top 120 domestic manufacturing companies.[119][224][225][226] These manufacturing establishments are mainly involved in tobacco and cigarettes, soap and cosmetics, textiles and rubber footwear.[180] The majority of Filipino industrial manufacturing establishments that produce the processing of coconut products, flour, food products, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, as well as heavy industry products such as metals, steel, industrial chemicals, paper products, paints, leatherwork, garments, sugar refining, timber processing, construction materials, food and beverages, rubber, plastics, semiconductors, and personal computers are controlled by Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry.[10][119][180][227]

From small trade cooperatives clustered by hometown pawnbrokers, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry would go on to establish and incorporate the largest financial services institutions in the Philippines. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have dominated the Philippine financial services sector and have had a presence in the country's banking industry since the early part of the 20th century. The two earliest Chinese-founded Filipino banks were China Bank and the Mercantile Bank of China, established in 1920 and 1924 respectively.[228] In a rapid parallel shift to industrial manufacturing prompted the Chinese to venture into the banking and financial services sector.[229] In 1956, there were four Chinese-owned Filipino banks, nine by 1971, sixteen in 1974, with the Chinese holding majority stakes in 10 of the 26 private commercial Filipino banks by the early 1990s.[229] Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's principal banks have come under Chinese ownership with Filipinos of Chinese ancestry owning six of the top ten banks in the country.[230][231] Of these six banks, the Chinese collectively control 63 percent of the all assets among the top ten banks in the country.[232] Chinese-controlled Filipino banks include the China Banking Corporation, Philippine Savings Bank, the Philippine National Bank (owned by LT Group, Inc.), and most notably Metrobank Group which was owned by banker and businessman George Ty, which has been the country's second-largest and most aggressive financial services conglomerate.[233][104] Lesser-known private commercial banks established in the 1950s and 1960s are also owned and controlled by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry.[234][119] The lone exception of a non-Chinese and non-foreign owned Filipino bank was the Spanish Filipino Lopez-owned Philippine Commercial International Bank, which has since been taken over by Henry Sy's holding and investment company SM Investments Corporation, and later reemerged itself as a subsidiary of Banco de Oro in 2007.[119] Banco De Oro, which saw its beginnings as a mere savings bank in 1980, catapulted itself into the ranks of financial prominence when it subsumed Equitable-PCI Bank in July 2005 under the aegis of Sy.[235] With Sy having assumed majority ownership of Banco de Oro, a commercial bank as well as taking a 14 percent stake in the China Banking Corporation, he also took a controlling interest in the Philippine National Bank, and 7 percent of the Far East Bank.[236] By 1970, among the Philippines's five largest banks holding almost 50 percent of all assets in the industry, namely China Banking Corporation, Citibank, the Bank of the Philippine Islands, Equitable PCI Bank, in addition to the formerly government-owned Philippine National Bank came under the control of Chinese shareholders.[119] Among the top ten private commercial banks in 1993, Chinese-Filipino business families were in full control of four of them, namely the Metropolitan Bank, Allied Bank, Equitable Banking, and China Banking. George Ty's Metrobank generated the highest share of gross revenues, net income, and held the largest amount of total assets during that year.[237] In 1993, Chinese-owned Filipino banks controlled 38.43 percent of the total assets of the private Filipino commercial banking sector.[238] By 1995, banks owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry had captured an even greater share of the Philippines's financial services sector after the formerly government-owned Philippine National Bank was partially privatized with four of the top five banks that were substantially controlled by Chinese shareholders claiming 48 percent of all bank assets and over 60 percent of all those held by private domestic commercial banks.[119] At the turn of the 20th century, amongst the myriad mergers and acquisitions that occurred within the Filipino banking sector due to major industry realignments that were set in motion with regards to how private commercial banks were owned, continued to consolidate the Chinese grip on the Philippines's private commercial banking sector. Among the most notable transactions that have taken place was George Ty's Metrobank, which at this time acquired Asian Bank and Global Business Bank and with Lucio Tan in 1992 having assumed a 67 percent controlling ownership of the privatized Philippine National Bank, which was once the Philippines's foremost government bank following the aftermath of the country's national privatization program in the 1980s.[239][240] Tan has since then solidified a leading dominance in the Filipino banking sector towards the beginning of the new millennium when he continued his corporate onslaught through the buyout, absorption, and subsequent merger of it with his own bank, Allied Bank.[241] Fellow taipan John Gokongwei was also a major shareholder in the Far East Bank, Philippine Commercial and International Bank, and controlled a 19 percent stake in the Philippine Trust Company. During the 1999 Filipino banking mergers and acquisition frenzy, Gokongwei realized an immense windfall gain following the high-profit sale of his shares in PCIB and the Far East Bank in the process.[242] In terms of industry distribution, Chinese-owned firms account for a quarter of the Filipino financial services sector.[164] Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's nine principal banks in addition to the formerly state-owned Philippine National Bank are now under the ownership of Chinese shareholders, including the Allied Banking Corporation, Banco de Oro Group, China Banking Corporation (Chinabank), East West Banking Corporation, Metrobank group, Philippine Trust Company (Philtrust Bank), Rizal Commercial Banking group, Security Bank Corporation (Security Bank) and the United Coconut Planters Bank.[243] Most of these banks comprise a larger part of an umbrella owned family conglomerate with assets exceeding ₱100 billion.[244] The total combined assets of all the Philippines's commercial banks under Chinese ownership account for 25.72 percent of all the total assets in the entire Filipino commercial banking system.[10] Among the Philippines's 35 banks, shareholders of Chinese ancestry on average control 30 percent of total banking equity.[245] There are also 23 Filipino insurance agencies that are Chinese-owned, with some branches overseas and in Hong Kong.[228]

The business and investment opportunities that allowed the Chinese to expand their economic predominance into real estate presented itself when the community was conferred Filipino citizenship during the Martial Law Period in order to gain the privilege to buy, sell, and own land.[246] Initially, the Chinese were not allowed to own land until acquiring Filipino citizenship in the 1970s, which permitted them the same economic rights and privileges as the indigenous Filipinos.[247] This afterwards soon led to a surge of massive land purchases throughout the country predominated by Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry that started by the next decade following the Philippines's political transition from a dictatorship to a democracy.[248] The acquisition of Filipino citizenship during the 1970s allowed the Chinese to expand their economic presence even more greatly throughout the country by venturing into larger-scale investment-grade commercial real state and other investment opportunities that augmented their economic clout and elevated their respective socioeconomic position.[249] Since the 1980s, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have cornered much of the Philippines's real estate investment markets, land, and property development sectors, when much of the industry had long been predominated by the Spaniards.[250] Chinese-owned Filipino real estate development companies have devoured large swathes of land across Manila and other urban Filipino cities for the purpose of the exploitation of land development and real estate investing.[251] Since 1990, the Filipino real estate sector has been dominated by both Chinese and non-Chinese Filipino businessmen and investors alike, betting their impending fortunes by competing fiercely for the potential acquisition of various key strategic property development and investment locations around the country that were set to boom entailed by the ripely soaring opportunities for profitability presented in the bounded form of cash flow generation and capital appreciation.[252] Presently, many of the biggest real estate development operators in the Philippines are owned by Filipino businessmen of Chinese ancestry following the exodus of the grip that used to be long held by the Spanish Filipino Mestizo landowning elites such as the Ayala's, Lopez's, Ortiga's, and Araneta's.[253] Of the 500 real estate companies operating in the Philippines, 120 are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry with the firms mostly specializing in real estate investment, land, and property development, and construction with much of their presence being mainly concentrated in the Manila Metropolitan area.[254] Well-known real estate companies controlled by the Philippines's top real estate movers and shakers include SMDC owned by the Sy's, Robinsons Land by the Gokongwei's, Megaworld Properties & Holdings Inc. which is controlled by Andrew Tan, Filinvest that is commanded by the Gotianun's, and DoubleDragon Properties, presided by businessman Edgar Sia II of Mang Inasal fame.[255] Large scale commercial real estate projects such as the Eton Centris in Pinyahan, the Shangri-La Plaza in Mandaluyong and the Tagaytay Highlands Golf Club and Resort development in Tagaytay City were testaments of such joint projects undertaken by Filipino real estate developers of Chinese ancestry in cooperation with other fellow Overseas Chinese dealmakers operating throughout the Southeast Asian real estate markets. These corporate partnerships were largely forged by Overseas Chinese business tycoons such as the investor Liem Sioe Liong, businessman Robert Kuok and dealmakers Andrew Gotianun, Henry Sy, George Ty and Lucio Tan.[256] Besides being responsible for spearheading the development of the Philippines's modern real estate sector, both Sy and Tan have been generous patrons of the Chinese community, extending their philanthropic hospitality by actively investing in the economic development and revitalization of their ancestral hometowns.[257] With Sy constructing supermalls in Chengdu, Chongqing, and Suzhou and Tan developing a 30-story banking center in Xiamen.[258]

Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also pioneered the Filipino shipping industry which eventually germinated into a major industry sector as a means of transporting goods cheaply and quickly between the islands. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have remained dominant in the Philippines's maritime shipping industry and in sea transport as it was one of the few efficient methods of transporting goods cheaply and quickly across the country, with the Philippines geographically being an archipelago, comprising more than 1000 islands and inlets.[219] There are 12 Filipino business families of Chinese ancestry engaged in inter-island transport and shipping, particularly with the shipping of food products requiring refrigeration amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱10 billion. Taiwanese expatriate investors have participated in various joint ventures, opening up new shipping lanes on the route between Manila and Cebu.[259] Prominent shipping companies owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry include Cokaliong Shipping Lines, Gothong Lines, Lite Shipping Corporation, Sulpicio Lines which was infamously associated with a tragedy that led to the deaths of hundreds and Trans-Asia Shipping Lines.[260] One enterprising and pioneering Chinese Filipino entrepreneur was William Chiongbian, who established William Lines in 1949, which by the end of 1993, became the most profitable inter-island Filipino shipping line ranking first in terms of gross revenue generated as well as net income among the country's seven biggest shipping companies.[219] Currently, the Filipino inter-island shipping industry is dominated by four Chinese-owned shipping lines led by William Chiongbian's William Lines.[10] Likewise, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also own all of the major airlines in the Philippines, including the flagship carrier Philippine Airlines, AirphilExpress, Cebu Pacific, South East Asian Airlines, Manila Air and Zest Air.[10]

As Chinese economic might grew, much of the indigenous Filipino majority were gradually driven out into poorer land on the hills, on the outskirts of major Filipino cities, or into the mountains.[111] Disenchantment grew among the displaced indigenous Filipinos who felt they were unable compete with ethnic Chinese businesses.[261] Underlying resentment and bitterness from the impoverished Filipino majority has been accumulating as there has been no existence of indigenous Filipino having any substantial business equity in the Philippines.[111] Decades of free market liberalization brought virtually no economic benefit to the indigenous Filipino majority but rather the opposite resulting a subjugated indigenous Filipino majority underclass, where the vast majority still engage in rural peasantry, menial labor or domestic service and squatting.[104][111] The Filipino government has dealt with this wealth disparity by establishing socialist and communist dictatorships or authoritarian regimes while pursuing a systematic and ruthless affirmative action campaigns giving privileges to allow the indigenous Filipino majority to gain a more equitable economic footing during the 1950s and 1960s.[262][263] The rise of economic nationalism among the impoverished indigenous Filipino majority prompted by the Filipino government resulted in the passing of the Retail Trade Nationalization Law of 1954, where ethnic Chinese were barred and pressured to move out of the retail sector restricting engagement to Filipino citizens only.[263] In addition, the Chinese were prevented from owning land by restricting land ownership to Filipinos only. Other restrictions on Chinese economic activities included limiting Chinese involvement in the import-export trade while trying to increase the indigenous Filipino involvement to gain a proportionate presence. In 1960, the Rice and Corn Nationalization Law was passed restricting trading, milling, and warehousing of rice and corn only to Filipinos while barring Chinese involvement, in which they initially had a significant presence.[262][263][264][265] These policies ultimately backfired on the government as the laws had an overall negative impact on the government tax revenue which dropped significantly because the country's biggest share of taxpayers were Chinese, who eventually took their capital out of the country to invest elsewhere.[262][263] The increased economic clout held in the hands of the Chinese has triggered suspicion, instability, ethnic hatred, and anti-Chinese hostility among the indigenous native Filipino majority towards the Chinese minority.[112] Such hostility has resulted in the kidnapping of hundreds of Chinese Filipinos by native Filipinos since the 1990s.[112] Many victims, often children are often brutally murdered, even after a ransom is paid.[111][112] Numerous incidents of crimes such kidnap-for-ransom, extortion, and other forms of harassment were committed against the Chinese Filipino community starting in the early 1990s continues to this very day.[37][112] Thousands of displaced Filipino hill tribes and aborigines continue to live in satellite shantytowns on the outskirts of Manila in economic destitution where two-thirds of the country's indigenous Filipinos live on less than 2 dollars per day in extreme poverty.[111] Such hatred, envy, grievance, insecurity, and resentment is ready at any moment to be catalyzed by the indigenous Filipino majority as many Chinese Filipinos are subject to kidnapping, vandalism, murder, and violence.[266] Anti-Chinese sentiment among the indigenous Filipino majority is deeply rooted in poverty but also feelings of resentment and exploitation are also exhibited among native and mestizo Filipinos blaming their socioeconomic failures on Chinese Filipinos.[112][266][267]

Future trends

Most of the younger generations of pure Chinese Filipinos are descendants of Chinese who migrated during the 1800s onward – this group retains much of Chinese culture, customs, and work ethic (though not necessarily language), whereas almost all Chinese mestizos are descendants of Chinese who migrated even before the Spanish colonial period and have been integrated and assimilated into the general Philippine society as a whole.

There are four trends that the Chinese Filipino would probably undertake within a generation or so:

  • assimilation and integration, as in the case of Chinese Thais who eventually lost their genuine Chinese heritage and adopted Thai culture and language as their own
  • separation, where the Chinese Filipino community can be clearly distinguished from the other ethnic groups in the Philippines; reminiscent of most Chinese Malaysians
  • returning to the ancestral land, which is the current phenomenon of overseas Chinese returning to China
  • emigration to North America and Australasia, as in the case of some Chinese Malaysians and many Chinese Vietnamese (Hoa people)

During the 1970s, Fr. Charles McCarthy, an expert in Philippine-Chinese relations, observed that "the peculiarly Chinese content of the Philippine-Chinese subculture is further diluted in succeeding generations" and he made a prediction that "the time will probably come and it may not be far off, when, in this sense, there will no more 'Chinese' in the Philippines". This view is still controversial however, with the constant adoption of new cultures by Filipinos contradicting this thought.

Integration and assimilation

Assimilation is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture, while integration is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin.

As of the present day, due to the effects of globalization in the Philippines, there has been a marked tendency to assimilate to Filipino lifestyles influenced by the US, among ethnic Chinese. This is especially true for younger Chinese Filipino living in Metro Manila[268] who are gradually shifting to English as their preferred language, thus identifying more with Western culture, at the same time speaking Chinese among themselves. Similarly, as the cultural divide between Chinese Filipino and other Filipinos erode, there is a steady increase of intermarriages with native and mestizo Filipinos, with their children completely identifying with the Filipino culture and way of life. Assimilation is gradually taking place in the Philippines, albeit at a slower rate as compared to Thailand.[269]

On the other hand, the largest Chinese Filipino organization, the Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran openly espouses eventual integration but not assimilation of the Chinese Filipino with the rest of Philippine society and clamors for maintaining Chinese language education and traditions.

Meanwhile, the general Philippine public is largely neutral regarding the role of the Chinese Filipino in the Philippines, and many have embraced Chinese Filipino as fellow Filipino citizens and even encouraged them to assimilate and participate in the formation of the Philippines' destiny.

Separation

Separation is defined as the rejection of the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin, often characterized by the presence of ethnic enclaves.

The recent rapid economic growth of both China and Taiwan as well as the successful business acumen of Overseas Chinese have fueled among many Chinese Filipino a sense of pride through immersion and regaining interest in Chinese culture, customs, values and language while remaining in the Philippines.[citation needed]

Despite the community's inherent ethnocentrism – there are no active proponents for political separation, such as autonomy or even independence, from the Philippines, partly due to the small size of the community relative to the general Philippine population, and the scattered distribution of the community throughout the archipelago, with only half residing in Metro Manila.

Returning to the ancestral land

Many Chinese-Filipino entrepreneurs and professionals have flocked to their ancestral homeland to partake of business and employment opportunities opened up by China's emergence as a global economic superpower.[270]

As above, the fast economic growth of China and the increasing popularity of Chinese culture has also helped fan pro-China patriotism among a majority of Chinese Filipino who espouse 愛國愛鄉 (ài guó ài xiāng) sentiments (love of ancestral country and hometown). Some Chinese Filipino, especially those belonging to the older generation, still demonstrate ài guó ài xiāng by donating money to fund clan halls, school buildings, Buddhist temples and parks in their hometowns in China.

Emigration to North America and Australasia

During the 1990s to the early 2000s, Philippine economic difficulties and more liberal immigration policies in destination countries have led to well-to-do Chinese Filipino families to acquire North American or Australasian passports and send their children abroad to attend prestigious North America or Australasian Universities.[271] Many of these children are opting to remain after graduation to start professional careers in North America or Australasia, like their Chinese brethren from other parts of Asia.

Many Philippine-educated Chinese Filipino from middle-class families are also migrating to North America and Australasia for economic advantages. Those who have family businesses regularly commute between North America (or Australasia) and the Philippines. In this way, they follow the well-known pattern of other Chinese immigrants to North America who lead "astronaut" lifestyles: family in North America, business in Asia.[272]

With the increase in political stability and economic growth in Asia, this trend is becoming significantly less popular for Chinese Filipino.

Notable people

See also: List of Chinese Filipinos

See also

Notes

  1. ^ English: Chinoy; Tagalog: Tsinoy, [tʃɪnoɪ] / Tsinong Pilipino, [tʃɪno]; Philippine Hokkien Chinese: 咱儂 / 咱人 / 菲律賓華僑; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng / Hui-li̍p-pin Hôa-kiâu, Mandarin simplified Chinese: 菲律宾华人 / 菲律宾华侨 / 华菲人; traditional Chinese: 菲律賓華人 / 菲律賓華僑 / 華菲人; pinyin: Fēilǜbīn huárén / Fēilǜbīn huáqiáo / Huáfēi rén
  2. ^ Kaisa, the organization she heads, aims to inform the Filipino mainstream of the contributions of the ethnic Chinese to Philippine historical, economic and political life. At the same time, Kaisa encourages Chinese Filipinos to maintain loyalties to the Philippines, rather than China or Taiwan.
  3. ^ Most prominently the Buddhist Seng Guan Temple in Tondo, Manila.
  4. ^ Filipinos usually cook and serve pansit noodles on birthdays to wish for long life.

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  47. ^ Tan, Samuel K. (1994). "The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis of Chinese Integration in a Muslim Society". In See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. pp. 160, 137, 127. ISBN 9718857052. While some of the papers tend to view integration as a continuing problem in Chinese-Filipino relations, Samuel K. Tan's paper on "The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis into the Nature and Extent of Chinese Integration in Sulu Society", provides a different historical process. In Sulu, Tan explains that "the strong foundation of Sulu-China relations has provided Sulu society with a kind of historical consciousness that allows the easy, smooth, and almost natural integration of Chinese into the local society as shown by the extent of Chinese intermarriages with the native Sama and Tausug ... This explains why the Chinese in Sulu have become an integral part of the local social, economic, cultural and political traditions which are shared independently by the Tausug and Sama people. " Li Ding - guo's paper, " Exploratory ... Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu Archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researches. 4. The ' Sulu Kings ', more accurately datus or rajahs, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A.D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A.D. This continued regularly until the last embassy in 1762 A.D. The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking 27 days. 5. It was during the visit of 1417 A.D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te - Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir named Antuluk decided to remain also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the Chinese texts as An Lu Chin and Un Chong Kai. 6. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from 17th century on in their works. The Philippine Islands (55 volumes). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. 7. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia General de Filipinas desde el Discubrimiento de Dichas Islas hasta Nuestros Dias, vol. II. (Madrid, 1894-1895), pp. 266-269. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under American Military Rule, 1899-1913. (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967) p. 11. 9. Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu, (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc. 1963), p. 83. 10. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. 11. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter of recognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. 12. Data on the Tawi - Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimlan Lim. 13. The information on Chinese families in Bongao etc. were provided by Paquito Tan of Sitangkai during the visits of the author to Bongao in late 1988..
  48. ^ Francisco, Juan R. (1999). Palongpalong, Artemio; Mahiwo, Sylvano (eds.). Society and Culture: The Asian Heritage: Festschrift for Juan R. Francisco, Ph.D., Professor of Indology. Asian Center, University of the Philippines. p. 63. ISBN 9718992073. The publication is a bimonthly magazine of the Philippine - China Resource Center ( PCRC ) with office in New Manila, Quezon City Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese Texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researchers. The " Sulu Kings " more accurately datus or rajas, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A. D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A. D. This continued regularly until the last embassy 1762 A. D. The ancient Chinese records show the incresing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking for 27 days. It was during the visit of 1417 A. D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te - Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir, named Antuluk, decided to stay also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the texts as An Lu Chih and Un Chong Kai. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from the 17th century in their work The Philippine Islands ( 55 volumes ). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas desde el discubrimento de dichas ilas hasta nuestros dias. ( Madrid, 18941895 ), 266-69.. 5. 6. 7. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under the American Military Rule, 1899-1913. ( Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967 ), 11. Najeeb M. Salleby, The History of Sulu. ( Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc., 1963 ), 83. 9. 10. 11. Data on the Tan family of Tan 63. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter ofrecognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. Data on the Tawi - Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans, and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimian Lim
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August 17, 2023
chinese, filipino, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, addi. This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Chinese Filipino news newspapers books scholar JSTOR August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article possibly contains original research Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations Statements consisting only of original research should be removed August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message Chinese Filipinos a incorrectly termed as Filipino Chinese in the Philippines are Filipinos of Chinese descent with ancestry mainly from Fujian province 4 but are born and raised in the Philippines 4 Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia 5 Chinese immigration to the Philippines occurred mostly during the Spanish colonization of the islands between the 16th and 19th centuries attracted by the lucrative trade of the Manila galleons and since the late 20th century In 2013 according to the Senate of the Philippines there were approximately 1 35 million ethnic or pure Chinese within the Philippine population while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22 8 million of the population 1 6 However the actual current figures are not known since the Philippine census does not usually take into account questions about ethnicity 7 6 Accordingly the oldest Chinatown in the world is located in Binondo Manila founded on 8 December 1594 Chinese Filipinos咱儂 咱人 華菲人Chinito Chinita IntsikTsinong PilipinoLannang Chinoy TsinoyA Chinese Filipina maiden wearing the Maria Clara gown called Traje de Mestiza dated 4 November 1913 Total population Ethnic or pure Chinese sic Filipinos 1 35 million sic as of 2013 update according to the Senate 1 2 Filipinos with Chinese descent sic 22 8 million sic as of 2013 update according to the Senate 3 Regions with significant populationsMetro Manila Baguio Metro Cebu Metro Bacolod Metro Davao Bohol Cagayan de Oro Iloilo Leyte Pangasinan Pampanga Tarlac Vigan Laoag Laguna Rizal Lucena Bicol Zamboanga City Sulu CotabatoLanguagesFilipino Tagalog Cebuano Ilocano Hiligaynon Waray Bikol Kapampangan Pangasinense Chavacano English and other languages of the PhilippinesHokkien Mandarin Cantonese Taishanese Teochew Hakka and various other varieties of ChineseReligionPredominantly Christianity Roman Catholicism Protestantism P I C Iglesia ni Cristo Minority Islam Buddhism Taoism Mazuism Traditional Chinese Folk ReligionRelated ethnic groupsSangley Mestizo de SangleyOverseas ChineseChinese FilipinoTraditional Chinese咱儂Simplified Chinese咱人Hokkien POJLan nang Nan nang Lan langTranscriptionsSouthern MinHokkien POJLan nang Nan nang Lan langTai loLan nang Nan nang Lan langChinese FilipinoTraditional Chinese華菲人Simplified Chinese华菲人Wade GilesHua fei jen Hanyu PinyinHuafeirenTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinHuafeirenWade GilesHua fei jen Yue CantoneseYale RomanizationWah fei yahnJyutpingWaa fei jan Canton RomanizationWa fei yen Southern MinHokkien POJHoa hui linTai loHua hui linChinese Filipinos are a well established middle class ethnic group and are well represented in all levels of Filipino society 8 Chinese Filipinos also play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and dominate the Philippine economy today 9 8 10 11 12 Most in the current list of the Philippines richest each year comprise Taipan billionaires of Chinese Filipino background 13 Some in the list of the political families in the Philippines are also of Chinese Filipino background meanwhile the bulk are also of Spanish colonial era Chinese mestizo mestizo de Sangley descent of which many families of such background also compose a considerable part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeois 14 15 who during the late Spanish Colonial Era in the late 19th century produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution as part of the foundation of the First Philippine Republic and subsequent sovereign independent Philippines 16 Contents 1 Identity 2 History 2 1 Early interactions 2 2 Spanish colonization of the Philippines 16th century 1898 2 3 Chinese mestizos as Filipinos 2 4 Chinese mestizos in the Visayas 2 5 American colonial era 1898 1946 2 6 Formation of the Chinese Filipino identity 1946 1975 2 7 Chinese as aliens under the Marcos regime 1975 1986 2 8 Return of democracy 1986 2000 2 9 21st century 2001 present 3 Origins 3 1 Hokkien Fujianese Hokkienese Fukienese Fookienese people 3 2 Teochews 3 3 Cantonese people 3 4 Others 3 5 Chinese Moro mestizos 4 Demographics 5 Language 5 1 Hokkien Fukien Fookien Philippine Hokkien 5 2 Mandarin 5 3 Cantonese and Taishanese 5 4 English 5 5 Filipino and other Philippine languages 5 6 Spanish 6 Religion 6 1 Roman Catholicism 6 2 Protestantism 6 3 Chinese traditional religions and practices 6 4 Others 7 Education 7 1 History 7 2 Curriculum 7 3 Schools and universities 8 Name format 8 1 Surnames 8 1 1 Hispanized surnames 9 Food 10 Politics 11 Society and culture 11 1 Society 11 2 Culture 11 2 1 Weddings 11 2 2 Births and birthdays 11 2 3 Funerals and burials 11 3 Subcultures 11 4 Civic organizations 11 5 Ethnic Chinese Filipinos perceptions of non Chinese Filipinos 12 Intermarriage 13 Trade and industry 14 Future trends 14 1 Integration and assimilation 14 2 Separation 14 3 Returning to the ancestral land 14 4 Emigration to North America and Australasia 15 Notable people 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References 19 Further reading 20 External linksIdentity EditThe term Chinese Filipino may or may not be hyphenated 17 18 The website of the organization Kaisa para sa Kaunlaran Unity for Progress omits the hyphen adding that the former is the adjective where the latter is the noun depending on whichever perspective logic one understands that identity The Chicago Manual of Style and the APA among others also recommend dropping the hyphen When used as an adjective as a whole it may take on a hyphenated form or may remain unchanged 19 20 21 There are various universally accepted terms used in the Philippines to refer to Chinese Filipinos citation needed Chinese Filipino Tagalog Intsik Colloquial Tsino Formal Tsekwa Derogatory Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 咱人 traditional Chinese 咱儂 Pe h ōe ji Lan nang Lan lang Nan nang Mandarin simplified Chinese 华人 traditional Chinese 華人 pinyin Huaren generalized term referring to any and all Chinese people in or outside the Philippines in general regardless of nationality or place of birth Chinese Filipino Filipino Chinese or Philippine Chinese Philippine English Chinoy Filipino Tagalog Tsinoy Tsinito masculine Tsinita feminine Intsik Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 咱人 traditional Chinese 咱儂 Pe h ōe ji Lan nang Lan lang Nan nang Mandarin simplified Chinese 华菲 菲律宾华人 菲律宾华侨 traditional Chinese 華菲 菲律賓華人 菲律賓華僑 pinyin Huafei Feilǜbin huaren Feilǜbin huaqiao refers to people with some level of Han Chinese ethnicity with Philippine nationality and to people of Han Chinese ethnicity with Chinese nationality either PRC or ROC or whichever nationality but were born or mainly raised in the Philippines This also includes Chinese Filipinos who now live and or were born overseas but still have close ties to the community in the Philippines Hokkienese Fukienese Fujianese Fookienese Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 福建人 闽南人 traditional Chinese 福建儂 閩南儂 Pe h ōe ji Hok kian lang Ban lam lang Mandarin simplified Chinese 福建人 闽南人 traditional Chinese 福建人 閩南人 pinyin Fujianren Mǐnnanren terms referring to Chinese Filipinos whose predominant ancestry is from Fujian Province in China especially the Hokkien speaking region in Southern Fujian Chinese Filipinos of this background typically have Philippine Hokkien as a heritage language though just as any Chinese Filipino may also normally speak Philippine English Filipino Tagalog or other Philippine languages such as Visayan languages and may also code switch any and all of these languages such as Taglish Bislish Hokaglish etc Cantonese Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 广东人 乡亲 traditional Chinese 廣東儂 鄉親 Pe h ōe ji Kng tang lang Hiong chhin Mandarin simplified Chinese 广东人 traditional Chinese 廣東人 pinyin Guǎngdōngren terms referring to Chinese Filipinos whose ancestry is from Guangdong Province in China especially the Taishanese or Cantonese speaking regions Chinese mestizo Philippine Spanish mestizo de Sangley chinito masculine chinita feminine Filipino Tagalog Mestisong Tsino Tsinito masculine Tsinita feminine Philippine Hokkien Chinese 出世仔 出世 Pe h ōe ji Chhut si a Chhut si Mandarin simplified Chinese 华菲混血 traditional Chinese 華菲混血 pinyin Huafei hunxie refers to people who are of mixed Han Chinese and indigenous Filipino ancestry a common and historical phenomenon in the Philippines especially families tracing from the Spanish colonial times Those with 75 Han Chinese ancestry or more are typically not considered to be characteristically mestizo Many Chinese mestizos are still Chinese Filipinos though some with more indigenous Filipino ancestry or family or have just had a very long family history of living and assimilating to life in the Philippines may no longer identify as Chinese Filipino Mainland Chinese Mainlander Filipino Tagalog Taga China Intsik Taga Tsina Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 大陆仔 中国人 唐山人 traditional Chinese 大陸仔 中國儂 唐山儂 Pe h ōe ji Tai dio k a Tiong kok lang Tn g soaⁿ lang Mandarin simplified Chinese 中国人 traditional Chinese 中國人 pinyin Zhōngguoren refers to any PRC citizens from China PRC especially those of Han Chinese ethnicity with Chinese nationality that were raised in China PRC Taiwanese Filipino Tagalog Taga Taiwan Intsik Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 台湾人 台湾仔 traditional Chinese 台灣儂 臺灣儂 台灣仔 臺灣仔 Pe h ōe ji Tai oan lang Tai oan a Taiwanese Mandarin simplified Chinese 台湾人 traditional Chinese 臺灣人 台灣人 Hanyu Pinyin Taiwanren Tongyong Pinyin Taiwanren Wade Giles Tʽai2 wan1 jen2 Zhuyin Fuhao ㄊㄞˊ ㄨㄢ ㄖㄣˊ refers to ROC citizens from Taiwan ROC especially those of Han Chinese ethnicity with Republic of China Taiwan nationality that were raised in Taiwan ROC Hongkonger Filipino Tagalog Taga Hong kong Intsik Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 香港仔 香港人 traditional Chinese 香港仔 香港儂 Pe h ōe ji Hiong kang a Hiong kang lang Mandarin Chinese 香港人 pinyin Xianggǎngren Cantonese Chinese 香港人 Jyutping Hoeng1 gong2 jan4 refers to people from Hong Kong especially those of Han Chinese ethnicity with Hong Kong SAR residency or Hong Kong British National Overseas status that were born or raised in Hong Kong SAR or British Hong Kong Macanese Filipino Tagalog Taga Macau Intsik Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 澳门人 澳门仔 traditional Chinese 澳門儂 澳門仔 Pe h ōe ji O mn g lang O mn g a Mandarin simplified Chinese 澳门人 traditional Chinese 澳門人 pinyin Aomenren Cantonese Chinese 澳門人 Cantonese Yale Ou muhn yahn refers to people from Macau especially those of Han Chinese ethnicity with Macau permanent residency that were born or raised in Macau SAR or Portuguese Macau tornatras or torna atras obsolete Spanish term referring to people who are of varying mixtures of Han Chinese Spanish and indigenous Filipino during the Spanish Colonial Period of the Philippines Sangley obsolete term referring to people of unmixed Chinese ancestry especially fresh first generation Chinese migrants during the Spanish Colonial Period of the Philippines The mixed equivalents were likewise the above terms mestizo de Sangley and tornatras Example of a Chinese influence in Filipino Spanish Architecture in St Jerome Parish Church Morong Rizal Other terms being used with reference to China include 華人 Hoa jin or Huaren a generic term for referring to Chinese people without implication as to nationality 華僑 Hoa kiao or Huaqiao Overseas Chinese usually China born Chinese who have emigrated elsewhere 華裔 Hoa e or Huayi People of Chinese ancestry who were born in residents of and citizens of another country Indigenous Filipino or simply Filipino is used in this article to refer to the Austronesian inhabitants prior to the Spanish Conquest of the islands During the Spanish Colonial Period the term indio was used citation needed However intermarriages occurred mostly during the Spanish colonial period because Chinese immigrants to the Philippines up to the 19th century were predominantly male citation needed It was only in the 20th century that Chinese women and children came in comparable numbers citation needed Today Chinese Filipino male and female populations are practically equal in numbers These Chinese mestizos products of intermarriages during the Spanish colonial period then often opted to marry other Chinese or Chinese mestizos citation needed Generally Chinese mestizos is a term referring to people with one Chinese parent By this definition the ethnically Chinese Filipino comprise 1 8 1 35 million of the population 22 This figure however does not include the Chinese mestizos who since Spanish times have formed a part of the middle class in Philippine society citation needed nor does it include Chinese immigrants from the People s Republic of China since 1949 History EditEarly interactions Edit Ethnic Han Chinese sailed around the Philippine Islands from the 9th century onward and frequently interacted with the local Austronesian people 23 Chinese and Austronesian interactions initially commenced as bartering and items 24 This is evidenced by a collection of Chinese artifacts found throughout Philippine waters dating back to the 10th century 24 Since Song dynasty times in China and precolonial times in the Philippines evidence of trade contact can already be observed in the Chinese ceramics found in archaeological sites like in Santa Ana Manila 24 Chinese Sangley in Precolonial Early Spanish Philippines c 1590 via Boxer Codex Chinese Sangley Couple Migrants in the Philippines c 1590 Chinese Sangley Couple Migrants in the Philippines c 1590 She or Hakka Chinese Merchant with Wife from Ming Dynasty China Ming dynasty Chinese General with Attendant c 1590 Mandarin Bureaucrat with Wife from Ming dynasty c 1590 Chinese nobility from Ming Dynasty China c 1590Spanish colonization of the Philippines 16th century 1898 Edit Main article Sangley A Chinese mestiza in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp c 1875 citation needed Sangleys of different social classes in the Spanish era as depicted in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas 1734 Mestizos Sangley y Chino Sangley Chinese Filipino Mestizos c 1841 Tipos del Pais Watercolor by Justiniano AsuncionWhen the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines there was already a significant population of migrants from China all of whom were male due to the relationship between the barangays city states of the island of Luzon and the Ming dynasty citation needed The first encounter of the Spanish authorities with the Chinese occurred when several Chinese pirates under the leadership of Limahong attacked and besieged the newly established capital of Manila in 1574 The pirates tried to capture the city but were defeated by the combined Spanish and native forces under the leadership of Juan de Salcedo in 1575 Almost simultaneously the Chinese imperial admiral Homolcong arrived in Manila where he was well received On his departure he took with him two priests who became the first Catholic missionaries in China sent from the Philippines This visit was followed by the arrival of Chinese ships in Manila in May 1603 bearing Chinese officials with the seal of the Ming Empire This led to suspicions that the Chinese had sent a fleet to try to conquer the islands However seeing the city s strong defenses the Chinese made no hostile moves citation needed They returned to China without showing any particular motive for the journey and without either side mentioning the apparent motive citation needed Fortifications of Manila were started with a Chinese settler in Manila named Engcang who offered his services to the governor citation needed He was refused and a plan to massacre the Spaniards quickly spread among the Chinese inhabitants of Manila The revolt was quickly crushed by the Spaniards ending in a large scale massacre of the non Catholic Sangley in Manila The Spanish authorities started restricting the activities of the Chinese immigrants and confined them to the Parian near Intramuros With low chances of employment and prohibited from owning land most of them engaged in small businesses or acted as skilled artisans to the Spanish colonial authorities The Spanish authorities differentiated the Chinese immigrants into two groups Parian unconverted and Binondo converted citation needed Many immigrants converted to Catholicism and due to the lack of Chinese women intermarried with indigenous women and adopted Hispanized names and customs The children of unions between indigenous Filipinos and Chinese were called Mestizos de Sangley or Chinese mestizos while those between Spaniards and Chinese were called Tornatras citation needed The Chinese population originally occupied the Binondo area although eventually they spread all over the islands and became traders moneylenders and landowners 15 Chinese mestizos as Filipinos Edit French Illustration of a Chinese mestizo couple c 1846 by Jean Mallat de BassilanDuring the Philippine Revolution of 1898 Mestizos de Sangley Chinese mestizos would eventually refer to themselves as Filipino citation needed which during that time referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines The Chinese mestizos would later fan the flames of the Philippine Revolution citation needed Many leaders of the Philippine Revolution themselves have substantial Chinese ancestry These include Emilio Aguinaldo Andres Bonifacio Marcelo del Pilar Antonio Luna Jose Rizal and Manuel Tinio 25 Chinese mestizos in the Visayas Edit Sometime in the year 1750 an adventurous young man named Wo Sing Lok also known as Sin Lok arrived in Manila Philippines The 12 year old traveler came from Amoy the old name for Xiamen an island known in ancient times as Gateway to China near the mouth of Jiulong Nine Dragon River in the southern part of Fujian Province Earlier in Manila immigrants from China were herded to stay in the Chinese trading center called Parian After the Sangley Revolt of 1603 this was destroyed and burned by the Spanish authorities Three decades later Chinese traders built a new and bigger Parian near Intramuros For fear of a Chinese uprising similar to that in Manila the Spanish authorities implementing the royal decree of Gov Gen Juan de Vargas dated July 17 1679 rounded up the Chinese in Iloilo and hamletted them in the parian now Avancena Street It compelled all local unmarried Chinese to live in the Parian and all married Chinese to stay in Binondo Similar Chinese enclaves or Parian were later established in Camarines Sur Cebu and Iloilo 26 Sin Lok together with the progenitors of the Lacson Sayson Ditching Layson Ganzon Sanson and other families who fled Southern China during the reign of the despotic Qing dynasty 1644 1912 in the 18th century and arrived in Maynilad finally decided to sail farther south and landed at the port of Batiano river to settle permanently in Parian near La Villa Rica de Arevalo in Iloilo 27 28 American colonial era 1898 1946 Edit Binondo Church the main church of the district of BinondoDuring the American colonial period the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States was also put into effect in the Philippines 29 Nevertheless the Chinese were able to settle in the Philippines with the help of other Chinese Filipinos despite strict American law enforcement usually through adopting relatives from Mainland or by assuming entirely new identities with new names Ongpin St Binondo Manila 1949 The privileged position of the Chinese as middlemen of the economy under Spanish colonial rule 30 quickly fell as the Americans favored the principalia educated elite formed by Chinese mestizos and Spanish mestizos As American rule in the Philippines started events in Mainland China starting from the Taiping Rebellion Chinese Civil War and Boxer Rebellion led to the fall of the Qing dynasty which led thousands of Chinese from Fujian Province in China to migrate en masse to the Philippines to avoid poverty worsening famine and political persecution This group eventually formed the bulk of the current population of unmixed Chinese Filipinos 25 Arm tag of the Wha Chi Battalion or Squadron 48Formation of the Chinese Filipino identity 1946 1975 Edit Beginning in World War II Chinese soldiers and guerrillas joined in the fight against the Japanese Imperial Forces during the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines 1941 1945 citation needed On April 9 1942 many Chinese Filipino Prisoners of War were killed by Japanese Forces during the Bataan Death March after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942 citation needed Chinese Filipinos were integrated in the U S Armed Forces of the First amp Second Filipino Infantry Regiments of the United States Army citation needed After the Fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942 Chinese Filipinos joined as soldiers in a military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army under the U S military command as a ground arm of the Armed Forces of the Philippines AFP which started the battles between the Japanese Counter Insurgencies and Allied Liberators from 1942 to 1945 to fight against the Japanese Imperial forces Some Chinese Filipinos who joined as soldiers were integrated into the 11th 14th 15th 66th amp 121st Infantry Regiment of the U S Armed Forces in the Philippines citation needed Northern Luzon USAFIP NL under the military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army started the Liberation in Northern Luzon and aided the provinces of Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur La Union Abra Mountain Province Cagayan Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya in attacking Imperial Japanese forces Many Chinese Filipinos joined the guerrilla movement of the Philippine Chinese Anti Japanese guerrilla resistance fighter unit or Wha Chi Movement citation needed the Ampaw Unit under Colonel Chua Sy Tiao citation needed and the Chinese Filipino 48th Squadron since 1942 to 1946 in attacking Japanese forces citation needed Thousands of Chinese Filipino soldiers and guerrillas died of heroism in the Philippines from 1941 to 1945 during World War II citation needed Thousands of Chinese Filipino veterans are interred in the Shrine of Martyr s Freedom of the Filipino Chinese in World War II located in Manila citation needed The new found unity between the ethnic Chinese migrants and the indigenous Filipinos against a common enemy the Japanese served as a catalyst in the formation of a Chinese Filipino identity who started to regard the Philippines as their home 31 Chinese as aliens under the Marcos regime 1975 1986 Edit Under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos Chinese Filipinos called lao cao Philippine Hokkien Chinese 老猴 Pe h ōe ji lau kau meaning old people or literally old monkey a comedic reference to the Monkey King Sun Wukong from the old famous Chinese classical novel Journey to the West i e Chinese in the Philippines who acquired citizenship referred only to those who arrived in the country before World War II Those who arrived after the war were called the jiu qiao Mandarin simplified Chinese 旧侨 traditional Chinese 舊僑 pinyin jiu qiao lit old sojourner They were residents who came from China also usually southern Fujian via British Hong Kong such as through North Point Causeway Bay or Kowloon Bay between the 1950s to 1980s 32 Chinese schools in the Philippines which were governed by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China Taiwan were transferred under the jurisdiction of the Philippine government s Department of Education Virtually all Chinese schools were ordered closed or else to limit the time allotted for Chinese language history and culture subjects from four hours to two hours and instead devote them to the study of Filipino languages and culture citation needed Marcos policies eventually led to the formal assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into mainstream Filipino society 33 the majority were granted citizenship under the administration of Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos 32 Following the February 1986 People Power Revolution EDSA 1 the Chinese Filipinos quickly gained national spotlight as Cory Aquino a Tarlac Chinese mestiza from the influential Cojuangco family took up the Presidency 34 Return of democracy 1986 2000 Edit Corazon Aquino of Sangley Chinese mestizo ancestry of Tarlac is the third Philippine president to have ethnic Chinese ancestry through the Cojuangco family Despite getting better protections crimes against Chinese Filipinos were still present the same way as crimes against other ethnic groups in the Philippines as the country was still battling the lingering economic effects of the Marcos regime citation needed 35 36 All these led to the formation of the first Chinese Filipino organization Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran Inc Unity for Progress by Teresita Ang See b which called for mutual understanding between the ethnic Chinese and the native Filipinos Aquino encouraged free press and cultural harmony a process which led to the burgeoning of the Chinese language media 37 During this time the third wave of Chinese migrants came They are known as the xin qiao Mandarin simplified Chinese 新侨 traditional Chinese 新僑 pinyin xin qiao lit new sojourner tourists or temporary visitors with fake papers fake permanent residencies or fake Philippine passports that started coming starting the 1990s during the administration of Fidel Ramos and Joseph Estrada 32 21st century 2001 present Edit More Chinese Filipinos were given Philippine citizenship during the 21st century Chinese influence in the country increased during the pro China presidency of Gloria Arroyo 38 Businesses by Chinese Filipinos were said to have improved under Benigno Aquino s presidency while mainland Chinese migration into the Philippines decreased due to Aquino s pro Filipino and pro American approach in handling disputes with China 39 Xin qiao Chinese migration from mainland China into the Philippines intensified from 2016 up to the present 32 due to controversial pro China policies by the Rodrigo Duterte presidency prioritizing Chinese POGO businesses 40 The Chinese Filipino community have expressed concerns over the ongoing disputes between China and the Philippines which majority preferring peaceful approaches to the dispute to safeguard their own private businesses 32 41 Origins Edit Ethnicity of Chinese Filipinos including Chinese mestizosVirtually most all Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines belong to Hokkien speaking group of the Han Chinese ethnicity Many Chinese Filipinos are either third fourth or second generation or in general natural born Philippine citizens who can still look back to their Chinese roots and have Chinese relatives both in China as well as in other Southeast Asian or Australasian or North American countries Hokkien Fujianese Hokkienese Fukienese Fookienese people Edit Chinese Filipinos who have roots as Hokkien people 福建人 閩南人 predominantly have ancestors who came from Southern Fujian and usually speak or at least have Philippine Hokkien as heritage language They form the bulk of Chinese settlers in the Philippines during or after the Spanish Colonial Period and settled or spread primarily from Metro Manila and key cities in Luzon such as Angeles City Baguio Dagupan Ilagan Laoag Lucena Tarlac and Vigan as well as in major Visayan and Mindanao cities such as Bacolod Cagayan de Oro Cotabato Metro Cebu Metro Davao Dumaguete General Santos Iligan Metro Iloilo Ormoc Tacloban Tagbilaran and Zamboanga Hokkien peoples also known in English Fukienese Hokkienese Fookienese Fujianese or in Philippine Hokkien simplified Chinese 咱人 福建人 闽南人 traditional Chinese 咱儂 福建儂 閩南儂 Pe h ōe ji Lan nang Lan lang Nan nang Hok kian lang Ban lam lang or in Mandarin simplified Chinese 福建人 闽南人 traditional Chinese 福建人 閩南人 pinyin Fujianren Mǐnnanren form 98 7 of all unmixed ethnic Chinese in the Philippines Of the Hokkien peoples about 75 are from Quanzhou Prefecture especially around Jinjiang City 23 are from Zhangzhou Prefecture and 2 are from Xiamen City 42 According to a study of around 30 000 gravestones in the Manila Chinese Cemetery which writes the birthplace or family ancestral origins of those buried there 66 46 were from Jinjiang City Quanzhou 17 63 from Nan an Fujian Quanzhou 8 12 from Xiamen in general 2 96 from Hui an County Quanzhou 1 55 from Longxi County now part of Longhai City Zhangzhou 1 24 from Enming Siming District Xiamen 1 17 from Quanzhou in general 1 12 from Tong an District Xiamen 0 85 from Shishi City Quanzhou 0 58 from Yongchun County Quanzhou and 0 54 from Anxi County Quanzhou 43 The Hokkien descended Chinese Filipinos currently dominate the light industry and heavy industry as well as the entrepreneurial and real estate sectors of the Philippine economy Many younger Hokkien descended Chinese Filipinos are also entering the fields of banking computer science engineering finance and medicine To date most emigrants and permanent residents from Mainland China as well as the vast majority of Taiwanese people in the Philippines are also of Hokkien background Teochews Edit Linguistically related to the Hokkien people are the Teochew Philippine Hokkien Chinese 潮州人 Pe h ōe ji Tio chiu lang or in Mandarin Chinese 潮州人 pinyin Chaozhōuren They migrated in large numbers to the Philippines during the Spanish Period to the main Luzon island of the Philippines such as the famed smuggler Limahong 林阿鳳 and his followers who were originally from Raoping Chaozhou 44 but later on were eventually assimilated by intermarriage with the mainstream Hokkien The Teochews are often mistaken for being Hokkien Cantonese people Edit Chinese Filipinos who have roots as Cantonese people Cantonese Chinese 廣府人 Cantonese Yale Gwong fu yahn have ancestors who came from Guangdong Province and speak or at least have Cantonese or Taishanese as heritage language They settled down in Metro Manila as well as in major cities of Luzon such as Baguio City Angeles City Naga and Olongapo Many also settled in the provinces of Northern Luzon e g Benguet Cagayan Ifugao Ilocos Norte especially around Baguio 45 The Cantonese people Philippine Hokkien Chinese 廣東人 鄉親 Pe h ōe ji Kng tang lang Hiong chhin Mandarin simplified Chinese 广东人 traditional Chinese 廣東人 pinyin Guǎngdōngren form roughly 1 2 of the unmixed ethnic Chinese population of the Philippines with large numbers of descendants originally from either Taishan Kaiping 45 Macau Hong Kong Canton Guangzhou or nearby areas transiting from either Macau 45 Hong Kong 46 Guangzhou Canton Many were are not as economically prosperous as the Hokkien Chinese Filipinos 45 Barred from owning land during the Spanish Colonial Period most Cantonese were into the service industry working as artisans miners househelpers bakers shoemakers metal workers barbers herbal physicians porters cargadores coulis soap makers and tailors They also intermarried with other local Filipinos during the Spanish Colonial Era and many of their descendants are now assimilated as Chinese mestizos There are also those that came during the American Colonial Period before WW2 especially in Baguio as part of the 700 Chinese Cantonese coolie laborers recruited from British Hong Kong by the British managing the Manila Railroad Company for the construction of the Benguet Road Kennon Road along with the Japanese who also later stayed to become Japanese Filipinos and other lowland Filipinos In Baguio Cantonese Chinese were known for their carpentry masonry and culinary skills where they were employed in hotels and places like Camp John Hay and they set up businesses like restaurants grocery stores bazaars hardware stores sari sari stores and dried fish stalls The logging mining and agribusiness industry during the 1930s in Baguio was also big among the Cantonese Chinese Filipinos there and it was only at such time during 1930s and after WW2 when Hokkien Chinese Filipinos started to establish themselves in Baguio 46 Presently they are into small scale entrepreneurship and in education There are also about 30 or so Filipino Cantonese associations in the Philippines such as the Baguio Filipino Cantonese Association CAR BFCA CAR which was merged from The Baguio Cantonese Association and the Brotherhood of Filipino Cantonese Mestizos during 1999 45 There are also schools such as Baguio Patriotic School and Manila Patriotic School Others Edit There are also some ethnic Chinese from neighboring Asian countries and territories most notably from Malaysia Indonesia Vietnam Taiwan and Hong Kong who are naturalized Philippine citizens and have since formed part of the Chinese Filipino community Many of them are also Hokkien speakers with a sizeable number of Cantonese and Teochew speakers Temporary resident Chinese businessmen and envoys include people from Beijing Shanghai and other major cities and provinces throughout China Chinese Moro mestizos Edit The Chinese Moro mestizos are of paternal Han Chinese descent who married Moro Muslim women from Tausug Sama and Maguindanaon ethnicities and are not descendants of Hui Muslims The Moros did not follow Sharia prohibitions on marriage of Muslim women to non Muslims So Han Chinese men from the Straits Settlements and the Chinese mainland migrated to Mindanao and the islands of Sulu and founded families These mestizos celebrated Chinese New Year and Chinese holidays including ones of pagan origin and practice Han cultural taboos like the taboo against patrilineal cousin marriage Hui in China practice marriage of patrilineal cousins of the same surname to each other which the Han descended Chinese Moro mestizos do not Observant Hui Muslims also do not practice Chinese pagan holidays The Han men continued practicing their own pagan religions and holidays when married to Moro Muslim women As late as the 1970s Professor Samuel Kong Tan said among the Chinese and Moros of Sulu it was still normal for non Muslim men to marry Muslim women The Han who became part of the Chinese Moro mestizo community are mostly of Minnan background either directly from southern Fujian like Xiamen Amoy or the Peranakans who are descendants of Minnan speaking Han men and Malay women with a small minority of them being descendants of other Han like one northern Han family who married into the Tausug Some Han of either Hakka or Cantonese background in Sabah Borneo married Tausug women there before World War II ended The Chinese families among the Tausug include the Kho Lim Teo Kong and multiple families with the surname Tan including the family of Tuchay Tan and Hadji Suug Tan These families maintain the Chinese practice of not permitting marriages in the same paternal families with the same surname and even though the Tans are multiple families they still adhere to the rule of avoiding marriage to each other believing they were related far in the past The assimilation and intermarriages between the local Muslim Moro Tausug and Sama in Sulu and the Han Chinese immigrants in contrast to Chinese living in Filipino Catholic areas was facilitated by the good relations throughout history between China and Sulu 47 48 The Chinese mestizo descendants of Han Chinese men and Moro Muslim Tausug and Sama women are integrating and dissolving into the Tausug and Sama population as they lose practice of Chinese culture except celebrating some festivals and their Chinese names 49 50 51 52 53 Demographics EditDialect Population citation needed 54 55 Hokkienese 1 044 000Cantonese 13 000Mandarin 550Chinese mestizo 486 000The figure above denotes first generation Chinese mestizos namely those with one Chinese and one Filipino parent This figure does not include those who have less than 50 Chinese ancestry who are mostly classified as Filipino The exact number of all Filipinos with some Chinese ancestry is unknown Various estimates have been given from the start of the Spanish Colonial Period up to the present ranging from as low as 1 to as large as 18 27 The National Statistics Office does not conduct surveys of ethnicity 56 According to a research report by historian Austin Craig who was commissioned by the United States in 1915 to ascertain the total number of the various races of the Philippines the pure Chinese referred to as Sangley number around 20 000 as of 1918 and that around one third of the population of Luzon have partial Chinese ancestry This comes with a footnote about the widespread concealing and de emphasising of the exact number of Chinese in the Philippines 57 Another source dating from the Spanish Colonial Period shows the growth of the Chinese and the Chinese mestizo population to nearly 10 of the Philippine population by 1894 Race Population 1810 Population 1850 Population 1894 Malay i e indigenous Filipino 2 395 677 4 725 000 6 768 000mestizo de sangley i e Chinese mestizo 120 621 240 000 500 000sangley i e Unmixed Chinese 7 000 25 000 100 000Peninsular i e Spaniard 4 000 10 000 35 000Total 2 527 298 5 000 000 7 403 000 citation needed Language EditSee also Language and overseas Chinese communities Philippines Languages spoken by Chinese Filipinos at homeThe vast majority 74 5 of Chinese Filipinos especially those in Metro Manila and surrounding regions speak Filipino Tagalog and or Philippine English as their native language Most Chinese Filipinos 77 still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language 58 The use of Hokkien as a first language is seemingly confined to the older generation and to Chinese Filipino families living in traditional Chinese Filipino centers such as Caloocan Davao Chinatown and the Binondo district of Manila In part due to the increased adoption of Philippine nationality during the Marcos era most Chinese Filipinos born from the 1970s to the mid 1990s tend to use English Filipino Tagalog and perhaps other Philippine regional languages which they frequently code switch between as Taglish or mix together with Hokkien as Hokaglish Among the younger generation born from the mid 1990s onward the preferred language is often English besides also of course knowing Filipino Tagalog and in most regions of the Philippines other regional languages 59 Recent arrivals from Mainland China or Taiwan despite coming mostly from traditionally Hokkien speaking areas typically use Mandarin among themselves Unlike other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia which feature an assortment of dialect groups Chinese Filipinos descend overwhelmingly from Hokkien speaking regions in Southern Fujian Hence Hokkien remains the main heritage language among Chinese Filipinos Mandarin however is perceived as the most prestigious Chinese language so it is taught in Chinese Filipino schools and used in all official and formal functions within the Chinese Filipino community despite the fact that very few Chinese Filipinos are conversant in Mandarin or have it as a heritage language 58 For the Chinese mestizos Spanish used to be the most important prestige language and the preferred first language during the Spanish colonial era Starting from the American period the use of Spanish gradually decreased and is now completely replaced by either English or Filipino 60 Hokkien Fukien Fookien Philippine Hokkien Edit Main article Philippine Hokkien Since most Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines trace their ancestry to Southern Fujian in Fujian Province of Mainland China the Hokkien language specifically the Philippine Hokkien dialect is the heritage language of most Chinese Filipinos Currently it is typically the elderly and those of the older generations such as the Silent Generation the Baby boomer generation and part of Generation X who speak Philippine Hokkien as their first or second language especially as first or second generation Chinese Filipinos The younger generations such as part of Generation X and most Millennials and Generation Z youth sparsely use Hokkien as a second or third language and even more seldom as a first language This is due to Hokkien nowadays only being used and heard within family households and no longer being taught at schools As a result most of the youth can either only understand Hokkien by ear or do not know it at all using instead English Filipino Tagalog and in some cases one or more other Philippine languages The variant of Hokkien spoken in the Philippines Philippine Hokkien is locally called Lannang ue Philippine Hokkien Chinese 咱儂話 咱人话 Pe h ōe ji Lan nang ōe Lan lang ōe Nan nang ōe lit Our People s Language Philippine Hokkien is mutually intelligible to a certain degree with other Hokkien variants in mainland China Taiwan Malaysia Singapore Indonesia etc and is particularly close to the variant spoken in Quanzhou especially around Jinjiang Its unique features include its conservative nature that preserves old vocabulary and pronunciations the presence of a few loanwords from Philippine Spanish and Filipino and frequent code switching with Philippine English Filipino Tagalog and other Philippine languages such as Visayan languages excessive use of shortenings and colloquial words e g piⁿ chhu 病厝 literally sick house instead of the Taiwanese Hokkien term piⁿ iⁿ 病院 to refer to hospital or chhia thau 車頭 literally car head instead of the Taiwanese Hokkien term su ki 司機 to refer to a driver and use of vocabulary terms from various variants of Hokkien such as from the Quanzhou Amoy Xiamen and Zhangzhou dialects of the Hokkien language The Chinese Sangley community in the Philippines centuries ago during Spanish colonial times spoke a mix of different Hokkien dialects Zhangzhou Chiangchiu Quanzhou Chuanchiu Amoy Xiamen enough that the Hokkien recorded by the Spaniards during the early 1600s such as in the Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum 1604 resembled the Zhangzhou dialect more 61 contrary to the modern 21st century Philippine Hokkien that now resembles the Quanzhou dialect more 62 Mandarin Edit Main article Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines Mandarin is currently the subject and medium of instruction for teaching Standard Chinese Mandarin class subjects in Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines However since the language is rarely used outside of the classroom besides jobs and interactions related to Mainland China and Taiwan most Chinese Filipinos would be hard pressed to converse in Mandarin As a result of longstanding influence from the ROC Ministry of Education of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Council of the Republic of China Taiwan since the early 1900s up to 2000 the Mandarin variant known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese 國語 Pe h ōe ji kok gi taught and spoken in many older Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines closely mirrors that of Taiwanese Mandarin using Traditional Chinese characters and the Zhuyin phonetic system known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese 國音 Pe h ōe ji kok im being taught though in recent decades Simplified Chinese characters and the Pinyin phonetic system were also introduced from China and Singapore Some Chinese Filipino schools now also teach Mandarin in Simplified characters with the Pinyin system modeled after those in China and Singapore Some schools teach both or either of the systems Spanish Dominican Catholic missionaries like Francisco Varo who visited 17th century Fujian late Ming and early Qing learned both local Min Chinese and the official Ming dynasty Mandarin Chinese guanhua and they explicitly noted that Mandarin was regarded as an elegant elevated language by the local Fujianese Chinese while their own local Min speech were regarded as coarse speech They noted Mandarin Guanhua was solemn and used by the educated Fujianese literati and officials while it was the rural villagers and women who only spoke the local Min patois xiangtan since they didn t speak Mandarin 63 Jesuits in Ming dynasty China like Matteo Ricci generally focused on studying the official and prestigious Mandarin while Dominicans studied vernacular Hokkien dialects in Fujian 64 Cantonese and Taishanese Edit Currently there are still a few minority Cantonese Chinese Filipino families that still privately speak Cantonese or Taishanese at home or in their circles 45 but many who still interact with the overall Chinese Filipino community have also learned to speak Philippine Hokkien for business purposes 45 due to Hokkien s status as a community lingua franca within the Chinese Filipino community Due to the relatively small population of Chinese Filipinos who are or claim to be of Cantonese ancestry most Filipinos of Cantonese ancestry such as Spanish colonial era Chinese mestizos Mestizos de Sangley that originally trace back to Macau or Canton Guangzhou especially the younger generations thereof do not speak Cantonese or Taishanese anymore and can only speak the local languages such as Filipino Tagalog English and other Philippine languages such as Ilocano Cebuano etc Some families of Cantonese ancestry within the Chinese Filipino community also speak Philippine Hokkien with their family especially those that intermarried with Chinese Filipinos of Hokkien ancestry There may also be some Chinese Filipino families of Hokkien ancestry that speak Cantonese due to a family history of having lived in Hong Kong such as around the districts of North Point Chinese 北角 Pe h ōe ji Pak kak Kowloon Bay or Causeway Bay during the Cold War period when many families fled the communist advance to British Hong Kong and then later to countries in Southeast Asia such as the Philippines or Indonesia English Edit Main article Philippine English Just like most other Filipinos the vast majority of Chinese Filipinos who grew up in the Philippines are fluent in English especially Philippine English which descends from American English as taught in schools in the Philippines They are usually natively bilingual or even multilingual since both English and Filipino are required subjects in all grades of all schools in the Philippines as English serves as an important formal prestige language in Philippine society Due to this around 30 of all Chinese Filipinos mostly those belonging to the younger generations use English as their preferred first language Others have it as their second language or third language being natively bilingual or multilingual together with Filipino and sometimes one or more other Philippine languages 59 Filipino and other Philippine languages Edit Main articles Filipino language Tagalog language and Philippine languages The majority of Chinese Filipinos who were born were raised or have lived long enough in the Philippines are at least natively bilingual or multilingual Along with English Chinese Filipinos typically speak Filipino Tagalog and in non Tagalog regions the dominant regional Philippine language s such as the Visayan languages Cebuano Hiligaynon Waray etc spoken in the Visayas and Mindanao 59 Many Chinese Filipinos especially those living in the provinces speak the regional language s of their province as their first language s if not English or Filipino Just like most other Filipinos Chinese Filipinos frequently code switch either with Filipino or Tagalog and English known as Taglish or with other regional provincial languages such as Cebuano and English known as Bislish This frequent code switching has produced a trilingual mix with the above Philippine Hokkien known as Hokaglish which mixes Hokkien Tagalog and English However in provinces where Tagalog is not a native language the equivalent dominant regional language s may be mixed instead of Tagalog or along with Tagalog in a mix of four or more languages due to the normalcy of code switching and multilingualism as part of Philippine society 59 Spanish Edit Main article Spanish language in the Philippines During the Spanish colonial period and subsequent few decades before its replacement by English Spanish used to be the formal prestige language of Philippine society and hence Sangley Chinese Spanish era unmixed Chinese Chinese mestizos Spanish era mixed Chinese Filipinos and Tornatras mestizos Spanish era mixed Chinese Spanish or Chinese Spanish native Filipinos also learned to speak Spanish throughout the Spanish colonial period to the early to mid 20th century when its role was eventually eclipsed by English and later largely dissipated from mainstream Philippine society Most of the elites of Philippine society during the Spanish colonial era and American colonial era were Spanish mestizos or Chinese mestizos which later intermixed together to an unknown degree and now frequently treated as one group known as Filipino mestizos Due to this history in the Philippines many of the older generation Chinese Filipinos mainly those born before WWII whether pure or mixed can also understand some Spanish due to its importance in commerce and industry The Chinese community of the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as Calo Chino Espanol or Kastilang tindahan This was especially the case with the local Sangley Chinese that intermarried during Spanish colonial times They brought forth Spanish speaking Chinese Mestizos of varying proficiency from the accented pidgin Spanish of the new Chinese immigrants to the fluent Spanish of Sangley Chinese old timers 65 Religion EditReligion of Chinese Filipinos Catholicism 70 Protestant 13 Other including Chinese Folk Religion Buddhism Taoism No Religion Islam etc 17 Chinese Filipinos are unique in Southeast Asia in being overwhelmingly Christian 83 58 but many families especially Chinese Filipinos in the older generations still practice traditional Chinese religions Almost all Chinese Filipinos including the Chinese mestizos but excluding recent migrants from either Mainland China or Taiwan had or will have their marriages in a Christian church 58 Sto Cristo de Longos by Ongpin St Binondo ManilaRoman Catholicism Edit See also Chinese Rites controversy The majority 70 of Christian Chinese Filipinos are Catholic 58 Many Catholic Chinese Filipinos still tend to practice the traditional Chinese religions alongside Catholicism due to the recent openness of the Church in accommodating Chinese beliefs such as ancestor veneration Unique to the Catholicism of Chinese Filipinos is the religious syncretism that is found in Chinese Filipino homes Many have altars bearing Catholic images such as the Santo Nino Child Jesus as well as statues of the Buddha and Taoist gods It is not unheard of to venerate the Blessed Virgin Mary saints or the dead using joss sticks and otherwise traditional offerings much as one would have done for Guan Yin or Mazu 66 Protestantism Edit St Stephen s Church in Manila in 1923 an Anglican church and school for Chinese FilipinosApproximately 13 of all Christian Chinese Filipinos are Protestants 67 Many Chinese Filipino schools are founded by Protestant missionaries and churches Chinese Filipinos comprise a large percentage of membership in some of the largest evangelical churches in the Philippines many of which are also founded by Chinese Filipinos such as the Christian Gospel Center Christ s Commission Fellowship United Evangelical Church of the Philippines and the Youth Gospel Center 68 In contrast to Roman Catholicism Protestantism forbids traditional Chinese practices such as ancestor veneration but allows the use of meaning or context substitution for some practices that are not directly contradicted in the Bible e g celebrating the Mid Autumn Festival with moon cakes denoting the moon as God s creation and the unity of families rather than the traditional Chinese belief in Chang e Many also had ancestors already practicing Protestantism while still in China Unlike native and mestizo Filipino dominated Protestant churches in the Philippines which have very close ties with North American organizations most Protestant Chinese Filipino churches instead sought alliance and membership with the Chinese Congress on World Evangelization an organization of Overseas Chinese Christian churches throughout Asia 69 Chinese traditional religions and practices Edit A small number of Chinese Filipinos 2 continue to practise traditional Chinese religions solely 70 Mahayana Buddhism specifically Chinese Pure Land Buddhism 71 Taoism 72 and ancestral worship including Confucianism 73 are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents among the Chinese Filipino Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where the Chinese live especially in urban areas like Manila c Veneration of the Guanyin 觀音 known locally as Kuan im either in its pure form or seen a representation of the Virgin Mary is practised by many Chinese Filipinos The Chinese Filipino community also established indigenous religious denominations like Bell Church 钟教 which is a syncretic religion with ecumenical and interfaith in orientation 74 There are several prominent Chinese temples like Seng Guan Temple Buddhist in Manila Cebu Taoist Temple in Cebu City and Lon Wa Buddhist Temple in Davao City Around half 40 of all Chinese Filipinos regardless of religion still claim to practise ancestral worship 58 The Chinese especially the older generations have the tendency to go to pay respects to their ancestors at least once a year either by going to the temple or going to the Chinese burial grounds often burning incense and bringing offerings like fruits and accessories made from paper Others Edit There are very few Chinese Filipino Muslims most of whom live in either Mindanao or the Sulu Archipelago and have intermarried or assimilated with their Moro neighbors Many of them have attained prominent positions as political leaders They include Datu Piang Abdusakur Tan and Michael Mastura among such others Others are also members of the Iglesia ni Cristo Jehovah s Witnesses or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Some younger generations of Chinese Filipinos also profess to be atheists citation needed Education EditMain article List of Chinese schools in the Philippines There are 150 Chinese schools that exist throughout the Philippines slightly more than half of which operate in Metro Manila 75 76 Chinese Filipino schools typically include the teaching of Standard Chinese Mandarin among other school class subjects and have an international reputation for producing award winning students in the fields of science and mathematics most of whom reap international awards in mathematics computer programming and robotics Olympiads 77 History Edit The first school founded specifically for the Chinese in the Philippines the Anglo Chinese School now known as Tiong Se Academy was opened in 1899 on the Qing Dynasty Chinese Embassy grounds The first curriculum called for rote memorization of the four major Confucian texts the Four Books and Five Classics along with Western science and technology This was followed suit in the establishment of other Chinese schools such as Hua Siong College of Iloilo established in Iloilo in 1912 the Chinese Patriotic School established in Manila in 1912 the first school for the Cantonese Chinese Saint Stephen s High School established in Manila in 1915 the first sectarian school for the Chinese and the Chinese National School established in Cebu in 1915 75 Burgeoning of Chinese schools throughout the Philippines including in Manila occurred from the 1920s until the 1970s with a brief interlude during World War II when all Chinese schools were ordered closed by the Japanese and their students were forcibly integrated into Japanese sponsored Philippine public education After World War II the Third Republic of the Philippines and the Republic of China ROC signed the Sino Philippine Treaty of Amity which provided for the direct control of Chinese schools throughout the archipelago by the Republic of China Taiwan s Ministry of Education In the late 20th century despite Mandarin taking the place of Amoy Hokkien as the usual Chinese course taught in Chinese schools some schools still tried to teach Hokkien as well deeming it more practical in the Philippine Chinese setting 78 Such a situation continued until 1973 when amendments made during the Marcos Era to the Philippine Constitution effectively transferred all Chinese schools to the authority of the Republic of the Philippines Department of Education DepEd 75 With this the medium of instruction for teaching Standard Chinese Mandarin was shifted from Amoy Hokkien Chinese to Mandarin Chinese or in some schools to English Teaching hours relegated to Chinese language and arts which featured prominently in the pre 1973 Chinese schools were reduced Lessons in Chinese geography and history which were previously subjects in their own right were incorporated into the Chinese language subject s whereas Filipino Tagalog and Philippine history civics and culture became newly required subjects The changes in Chinese education initiated with the 1973 Philippine Constitution led to a large shifting of mother tongues reflecting the assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into general Philippine society The older generation of Chinese Filipinos who were educated in the old curriculum typically use Philippine Hokkien at home while most younger generation Chinese Filipinos are more comfortable conversing in English Filipino Tagalog and or other Philippine languages like Cebuano including their code switching forms like Taglish and Bislish which are sometimes varyingly admixed with Philippine Hokkien to make Hokaglish Curriculum Edit Chinese Filipino schools typically feature curriculum prescribed by the Philippine Department of Education DepEd The limited time spent in Chinese instruction consists largely of language arts The three core Chinese subjects are Chinese Grammar simplified Chinese 华语 traditional Chinese 華語 pinyin Huayǔ Pe h ōe ji Hoa gi Zhuyin Fuhao ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ lit Chinese Language Chinese Composition Chinese 綜合 pinyin Zonghe Pe h ōe ji Chong ha p Zhuyin Fuhao ㄗㄨㄥˋ ㄏㄜˊ lit Composition and Chinese Mathematics Chinese 數學 pinyin Shuxue Pe h ōe ji So ha k Zhuyin Fuhao ㄨˋ ㄒㄩㄝˊ lit Mathematics Other schools may add other subjects such as Chinese Calligraphy Chinese 毛筆 pinyin Maobǐ Pe h ōe ji Mo pit Zhuyin Fuhao ㄇㄠˊ ㄅㄧˇ lit Calligraphy Brush Chinese history geography and culture are also integrated in all the three core Chinese subjects they stood as independent subjects of their own before 1973 Many schools currently teach at least just one Chinese subject known simply as just Chinese simplified Chinese 华语 traditional Chinese 華語 pinyin Huayǔ Pe h ōe ji Hoa gi Zhuyin Fuhao ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ lit Chinese Language It also varies per school if either or both Traditional Chinese with Zhuyin known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese 國音 Pe h ōe ji kok im and or Simplified Chinese with Pinyin is taught Currently all Chinese class subjects are taught in Mandarin Chinese known in many schools in Hokkien Chinese 國語 Pe h ōe ji kok gi and in some schools students are prohibited from speaking any other language such as English Filipino Tagalog other regional Philippine languages or even Hokkien during Chinese classes when decades before there were no such restrictions Schools and universities Edit Many Chinese Filipino schools are sectarian being founded by either Roman Catholic or Chinese Protestant Christian missions These include Grace Christian College Protestant Baptist Hope Christian High School Protestant Evangelical Immaculate Conception Academy Roman Catholic Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Conception Jubilee Christian Academy Protestant Evangelical LIGHT Christian Academy Protestant Evangelical Makati Hope Academy Protestant Evangelical MGC New Life Christian Academy Protestant Evangelical Saint Peter the Apostle School Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila Saint Jude Catholic School Roman Catholic Society of the Divine Word Saint Stephen s High School Protestant Episcopalian Ateneo de Iloilo Ateneo de Cebu and Xavier School Roman Catholic Society of Jesus Major non sectarian schools include Chiang Kai Shek College Manila Patriotic School Philippine Chen Kuang High School Philippine Chung Hua School Philippine Cultural College the oldest Chinese Filipino secondary school in the Philippines and Tiong Se Academy the oldest Chinese Filipino school in the Philippines Chiang Kai Shek College is the only college in the Philippines accredited by both the Philippine Department of Education DepEd and the Republic of China Taiwan Ministry of Education Most Chinese Filipinos attend Chinese Filipino schools until Secondary level and then transfer to non Chinese colleges and universities to complete their tertiary degree due to the dearth of Chinese language tertiary institutions Name format EditMain article Chinese name Many Chinese who lived during the Spanish naming edict of 1849 eventually adopted Spanish name formats along with a Spanish given name e g Florentino Cu y Chua citation needed Some adopted their entire Chinese name romanized as a surname for the entire clan e g Jose Antonio Chuidian Pe h ōe ji Chui lian Alberto Cojuangco Chinese 許寰哥 Pe h ōe ji Kho hoan ko Chinese mestizos as well as some Chinese who chose to completely assimilate into the local Filipino or Spanish culture during Spanish colonial times also adopted Spanish surnames just as any other Filipino either as per christening of a new Christian name under Catholic Christian baptismal under the Spanish friars or through the 1849 decree of Gov Gen Narciso Claveria that distributed surnames from the Catalogo alfabetico de apellidos most of which listed there were Spanish surnames Newer Chinese migrants who came during the American Colonial Period use a combination of an adopted Spanish or rarely English name together with their Chinese name e g Carlos Palanca Tan Quin Lay or Vicente Go Tam Co citation needed This trend was to continue up to the late 1970s As both exposure to North American media as well as the number of Chinese Filipinos educated in English increased the use of English names among Chinese Filipinos both common and unusual started to increase as well Popular names among the second generation Chinese community included English names ending in son or other Chinese sounding suffixes such as Anderson Emerson Jackson Jameson Jasson Patrickson Washington among such others For parents who are already third and fourth generation Chinese Filipinos English names reflecting American popular trends are given such as Ethan Austin and Aidan It is thus not unusual to find a young Chinese Filipino for example named Chase Tan whose father s name is Emerson Tan and whose grandfather s name is Elpidio Tan Keng Kui reflecting the depth of immersion into the English language as well as into the Philippine society as a whole citation needed Surnames Edit Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines from 1898 onward usually have monosyllabic Chinese surnames On the other hand most Chinese ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Gokongwei Ongpin Pempengco Yuchengco Teehankee and Yaptinchay among such others These were originally full Chinese names which were transliterated in Spanish orthography and adopted as surnames Common single syllable Chinese Filipino surnames are Tan 陳 Lim 林 Chua 蔡 Uy 黃 and Ong 王 Most such surnames are spelled according to their Hokkien pronunciation On the other hand most Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 use a Hispanicized surname see below Many Filipinos who have Hispanicized Chinese surnames are no longer pure Chinese but are Chinese mestizos Hispanized surnames Edit Chinese Filipinos and Chinese mestizos usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Angseeco from ang see co kho Aliangan from liang gan Angkeko Apego from ang ke co go kho Chuacuco Chuatoco Chuateco Ciacho from Sia Cinco from Go Cojuangco Corong Cuyegkeng Dioquino Dytoc Dy Cok Dysangco Dytioco Gueco Gokongwei Gundayao Kiamco Quiamco Kimpo Quimpo King Quing Landicho Lanting Limcuando Ongpin Pempengco Quebengco Siopongco Sycip Tambengco Tambunting Tanbonliong Tantoco Tinsay Tiolengco Yuchengco Tanciangco Yuipco Yupangco Licauco Limcaco Ongpauco Tancangco Tanchanco Teehankee Uytengsu and Yaptinchay among such others These were originally full Hokkien Chinese names which were transliterated in Latin letters with Spanish orthography and adopted as Hispanicized surnames 79 There are also multisyllabic Chinese surnames that are Spanish transliterations of Hokkien words Surnames like Tuazon Eldest Grandchild 大孫 Tua sun 80 Tiongson Tiongzon Eldest Grandchild 長孫 Tiong sun 81 Second Middle Grandchild 仲孫 Tiōng sun 81 Sioson Youngest Grandchild 小孫 Sio sun Echon Ichon Itchon Etchon Ychon First Grandchild 一孫 It sun Dizon Second Grandchild 二孫 Di sun Samson Sanson Third Grandchild 三孫 Sam sun Sison Fourth Grandchild 四孫 Si sun Gozon Goson Gozum Fifth Grandchild 五孫 Gǒ sun Lacson Sixth Grandchild 六孫 La k sun Sitchon Sichon Seventh Grandchild 七孫 Tshit sun Pueson Eighth Grandchild 八孫 Pueh sun Causon Cauzon Ninth Grandchild 九孫 Kau sun are examples of transliterations of designations that use the Hokkien suffix son zon chon Hokkien Chinese 孫 Pe h ōe ji sun lit Grandchild used as surnames for some Chinese Filipinos who trace their ancestry from Chinese immigrants to the Philippines during the Spanish Colonial Period The surnames 孫 仲孫 長孫 are listed in the classic Chinese text Hundred Family Surnames perhaps shedding light on the Hokkien suffix son zon chon used here as a surname alongside some sort of accompanying enumeration scheme The Chinese who survived the massacre in Manila in the 1700s fled to other parts of the Philippines and to hide their identity some also adopted two syllable surnames ending in son or zon and co such as Yanson Yan 燕孫 Ganzon Gan 颜孫 Hokkien Guanzon Guan Kwan 关孫 Cantonese Tiongson Tiongzon Tiong 仲孫 Hokkien Cuayson Cuayzon 邱孫 Hokkien Yuson Yu 余孫 Tingson Tingzon Ting 陈孫 Hokchew Siason Sia 谢孫 Hokkien 82 Many also took on Spanish or native Filipino surnames e g Alonzo Alcaraz Bautista De la Cruz De la Rosa De los Santos Garcia Gatchalian Mercado Palanca Robredo Sanchez Tagle Torres etc upon naturalization Today it can be difficult to identify who are Chinese Filipino based on surnames alone A phenomenon common among Chinese migrants in the Philippines dating from the 1900s would be to purchase their surname particularly during the American Colonial Period when the Chinese Exclusion Act was applied to the Philippines Such law led new Chinese migrants to purchase the Hispanic or native surnames of native and mestizo Filipinos and thus pass off as long time Filipino residents of Chinese descent or as native or mestizo Filipinos Many also purchased the Alien Landing Certificates of other Chinese who have gone back to China and assumed his surname and or identity Sometimes younger Chinese migrants would circumvent the Act through adoption wherein a Chinese with Philippine nationality adopts a relative or a stranger as his own children thereby giving the adoptee automatic Filipino citizenship and a new surname citation needed Food EditMain article Filipino Chinese cuisine Lumpia Hokkien 潤餅 a spring roll of Chinese origin Traditional Tsinoy cuisine as Chinese Filipino home based dishes are locally known make use of recipes that are traditionally found in China s Fujian Province and fuse them with locally available ingredients and recipes These include unique foods such as hokkien chha peng Fujianese style fried rice si nit mi soa birthday noodles pansit canton Fujianese style e fu noodles hong ma or humba braised pork belly sibut four herb chicken soup hototay Fujianese egg drop soup kiampeng Fujianese beef fried rice machang glutinous rice with adobo and taho a dessert made of soft tofu arnibal syrup and pearl sago However most Chinese restaurants in the Philippines as in other places feature Cantonese Shanghainese and Northern Chinese cuisines rather than traditional Fujianese fare Politics EditWith the increasing number of Chinese with Philippine nationality the number of political candidates of Chinese Filipino descent also started to increase The most significant change within Chinese Filipino political life would be the citizenship decree promulgated by former President Ferdinand Marcos which opened the gates for thousands of Chinese Filipinos to formally adopt Philippine citizenship Chinese Filipino political participation largely began with the People Power Revolution of 1986 which toppled the Marcos dictatorship and ushered in the Aquino presidency The Chinese have been known to vote in blocs in favor of political candidates who are favorable to the Chinese community Important Philippine political leaders with Chinese ancestry include the current president Bongbong Marcos and former presidents Rodrigo Duterte Emilio Aguinaldo Benigno Aquino III Cory Aquino Sergio Osmena Manuel Quezon and Ferdinand Marcos former senators Nikki Coseteng Alfredo Lim Raul Roco Panfilo Lacson Vicente Yap Sotto Vicente Sotto III and Roseller Lim as well as several governors congressmen and mayors throughout the Philippines Many ambassadors and recent appointees to the presidential cabinet are also Chinese Filipinos like Arthur Yap Jesse Robredo Jose Yulo Manuel Yan Alberto Lim Danilo Lim Karl Chua and Bong Go The former Archbishop of Manila Cardinals Jaime Sin Rufino Santos and Luis Antonio Tagle also have Chinese ancestry Society and culture Edit The dragon dance is still a popular tradition among Chinese Filipinos Welcome Arch Manila Chinatown Ongpin Binondo Manila Filipino Chinese Bridge of Friendship Davao Chinatown in Davao City is the biggest Chinatown in the Philippines and the only one in Mindanao A Feng Shui shop in a mall in Manila City selling Chinese charms statues and images Society Edit The Chinese Filipino are mostly business owners according to whom and their life centers mostly in the family business These mostly small or medium enterprises play a significant role in the Philippine economy A handful of these entrepreneurs run large companies and are respected as some of the most prominent business tycoons in the Philippines Chinese Filipinos attribute their success in business to frugality and hard work Confucian values and their traditional Chinese customs and traditions They are very business minded and entrepreneurship is highly valued and encouraged among the young Most Chinese Filipinos are urban dwellers An estimated 50 of the Chinese Filipino live within Metro Manila with the rest in the other major cities of the Philippines In contrast with the Chinese mestizos few Chinese are plantation owners This is partly due to the fact that until recently when the Chinese Filipino became Filipino citizens the law prohibited the non citizens which most Chinese were from owning land Culture Edit As with other Southeast Asian nations the Chinese community in the Philippines has become a repository of traditional Chinese culture common to unassimilated ethnic minorities throughout the world Whereas in mainland China many cultural traditions and customs were suppressed or destroyed during the Cultural Revolution or simply regarded as old fashioned nowadays these traditions have remained largely preserved in the Philippines citation needed Many new cultural twists have evolved within the Chinese community in the Philippines distinguishing it from other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia These cultural variations are highly evident during festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid Autumn Festival The Chinese Filipino have developed unique customs pertaining to weddings birthdays and funerary rituals citation needed Weddings Edit Wedding traditions of Chinese Filipinos regardless of religious persuasion usually involve identification of the dates of supplication or pamamanhikan kiu hun engagement ting hun and wedding kan chhiu adopted from Filipino customs In addition feng shui based on the birthdates of the couple as well as of their parents and grandparents may also be considered Certain customs found among Chinese Filipinos include during supplication kiu hun also include a solemn tea ceremony within the house of the bridegroom ensues where the couple will be served tea egg noodles misua and given red packets or envelopes containing money commonly referred to as an ang pao citation needed During the supplication ceremony pregnant women and recently engaged couples are forbidden from attending the ceremony Engagement ting hun quickly follows where the bride enters the ceremonial room walking backward and turned three times before being allowed to see the groom A welcome drink consisting of red colored juice is given to the couple quickly followed by the exchange of gifts for both families and the wedding tea ceremony where the bride serves the groom s family and vice versa The engagement reception consists of sweet tea soup and misua both of which symbolizes long lasting relationship citation needed Before the wedding the groom is expected to provide the matrimonial bed in the future couple s new home A baby born under the Chinese sign of the Dragon may be placed in the bed to ensure fertility He is also tasked to deliver the wedding gown to his bride on the day prior to the wedding to the sister of the bride as it is considered ill fortune for the groom to see the bride on that day For the bride she prepares an initial batch of personal belongings ke chheng to the new home all wrapped and labeled with the Chinese characters for sang hi On the wedding date the bride wears a red robe emblazoned with the emblem of a dragon prior to wearing the bridal gown to which a pair of sang hi English marital happiness coin is sewn Before leaving her home the bride then throws a fan bearing the Chinese characters for sang hi toward her mother to preserve harmony within the bride s family upon her departure Most of the wedding ceremony then follows Catholic or Protestant traditions citation needed Post wedding rituals include the two single brothers or relatives of the bride giving the couple a wa hoe set which is a bouquet of flowers with umbrella and sewing kit for which the bride gives an ang pao in return After three days the couple then visits the bride s family upon which a pair of sugar cane branch is given which is a symbol of good luck and vitality among Hokkien people 83 Births and birthdays Edit Birthday traditions of Chinese Filipinos involve large banquet receptions always featuring noodles d and round shaped desserts All the relatives of the birthday celebrant are expected to wear red clothing which symbolize respect for the celebrant Wearing clothes with a darker hue is forbidden and considered bad luck During the reception relatives offer ang paos red packets containing money to the birthday celebrant especially if he is still unmarried For older celebrants boxes of egg noodles misua and eggs on which red paper is placed are given citation needed Births of babies are not celebrated and they are usually given pet names which he keeps until he reaches first year of age The Philippine custom of circumcision is widely practiced within the Chinese Filipino community regardless of religion albeit at a lesser rate as compared to native Filipinos First birthdays are celebrated with much pomp and pageantry and grand receptions are hosted by the child s paternal grandparents citation needed Funerals and burials Edit Funerary traditions of Chinese Filipinos mirror those found in Southern Fujian A unique tradition of many Chinese Filipino families is the hiring of professional mourners which is alleged to hasten the ascent of a dead relative s soul into Heaven This belief particularly mirrors the merger of traditional Chinese beliefs with the Catholic religion 84 Subcultures Edit Most of the Chinese mestizos especially the landed gentry trace their ancestry to the Spanish era They are the First Chinese or Sangley whose descendants nowadays are mostly integrated into Philippine society Most are from Zhangzhou Fujian province in China with a minority coming from Guangdong They have embraced a Hispanized Filipino culture since the 17th century After the end of Spanish rule their descendants the Chinese mestizos managed to invent a cosmopolitan mestizo culture citation needed coupled with an extravagant Mestizo de Sangley lifestyle intermarrying either with native Filipinos or with Spanish mestizos The largest group of Chinese in the Philippines are the Second Chinese who are descendants of migrants in the first half of the 20th century between the anti Qing 1911 Revolution in China and the Chinese Civil War This group accounts for most of the full blooded Chinese They are almost entirely from Fujian Province The Third Chinese are the second largest group of Chinese the recent immigrants from Mainland China after the Chinese economic reform of the 1980s Generally the Third Chinese are the most entrepreneurial and have not totally lost their Chinese identity in its purest form and seen by some Second Chinese as a business threat Meanwhile continuing immigration from Mainland China further enlarge this group 85 Civic organizations Edit Don Enrique T Yuchengco Hall at De La Salle University Aside from their family businesses Chinese Filipinos are active in Chinese oriented civic organizations related to education health care public safety social welfare and public charity As most Chinese Filipinos are reluctant to participate in politics and government they have instead turned to civic organizations as their primary means of contributing to the general welfare of the Chinese community Beyond the traditional family and clan associations Chinese Filipinos tend to be active members of numerous alumni associations holding annual reunions for the benefit of their Chinese Filipino secondary schools 86 Outside of secondary schools catering to Chinese Filipinos some Chinese Filipinos businessmen have established charitable foundations that aim to help others and at the same time minimize tax liabilities Notable ones include the Gokongwei Brothers Foundation Metrobank Foundation Tan Yan Kee Foundation Angelo King Foundation Jollibee Foundation Alfonso Yuchengco Foundation Cityland Foundation etc Some Chinese Filipino benefactors have also contributed to the creation of several centers of scholarship in prestigious Philippine Universities including the John Gokongwei School of Management at Ateneo de Manila the Yuchengco Center at De La Salle University and the Ricardo Leong Center of Chinese Studies at Ateneo de Manila Coincidentally both Ateneo and La Salle enroll a large number of Chinese Filipino students In health care Chinese Filipinos were instrumental in establishing and building medical centers that cater for the Chinese community such as the Chinese General Hospital and Medical Center the Metropolitan Medical Center Chong Hua Hospital and the St Luke s Medical Center Inc citation needed one of Asia s leading health care institutions In public safety Teresita Ang See s Kaisa a Chinese Filipino civil rights group organized the Citizens Action Against Crime and the Movement for the Restoration of Peace and Order at the height of a wave of anti Chinese kidnapping incidents in the early 1990s 87 In addition to fighting crime against Chinese Chinese Filipinos have organized volunteer fire brigades all over the country reportedly the best in the nation 88 that cater to the Chinese community In the arts and culture the Bahay Tsinoy and the Yuchengco Museum were established by Chinese Filipinos to showcase the arts culture and history of the Chinese 89 Ethnic Chinese Filipinos perceptions of non Chinese Filipinos Edit Non Chinese Filipinos were initially referred to as huan a 番仔 by ethnic Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines It is also used in other Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia Singapore and Indonesia by Hokkien speaking ethnic Chinese to refer to peoples of Malay ancestry 90 In Taiwan it was also used but it has become a taboo term with negative stigma since it was used to refer to indigenous Taiwanese aboriginals 91 and the Japanese during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan 92 The term itself in mainland China originally just meant foreigner but at times may also have been considered derogatory 90 since it could negatively connote to barbarian outsider by some who had negative views on certain neighboring non Chinese peoples that certain groups historically lived with since for centuries this was the term predominantly used to refer to non Chinese people but today it does not necessarily carry its original connotations depending on the speaker s perceptions and culture of how they grew up to learn to perceive the term since in the Philippines its present usage now mostly just plainly refers to any non Chinese Filipinos especially native Filipinos 93 When speaking Hokkien most older Chinese Filipinos still use the term while younger Chinese Filipinos may sometimes instead use the term Hui li p pin lang 菲律賓儂 which directly means Philippine person or simply Filipino This itself brings complications though as Chinese Filipinos themselves are Filipinos too born and raised in the Philippines often with families of multiple generations carrying Filipino citizenship Some Chinese Filipinos perceive the government and authorities to be unsympathetic to the plight of the ethnic Chinese especially in terms of frequent kidnapping for ransom during the late 1990s 94 Currently most of the third or fourth generation Chinese Filipinos generally view the non Chinese Filipino people and government positively and have largely forgotten about the historical oppression of the ethnic Chinese They are also most likely to consider themselves as just being Filipino and focus on the Philippines rather than on just being Chinese and being associated with China PRC or Taiwan ROC Some Chinese Filipinos believe racism still exists toward their community among a minority of non Chinese Filipinos who the Chinese Filipinos refer to as pai hua 排華 in Philippine Hokkien Organizations belonging to this category include the Laspip Movement headed by Adolfo Abadeza as well as the Kadugong Liping Pilipino founded by Armando Jun Ducat Jr that stirred tensions around the late 1990s 95 96 97 98 Also due in part to racial or chauvinistic views from Mainland Chinese towards native Filipinos or Filipinos in general in the 1980 s after Filipinos became in demand in the international work force some racial tendencies of Mainland Chinese brought about by Han chauvinism against native Filipinos have intensified in the 21st century where many Mainland Chinese from mainland China have branded the Philippines as a gullible nation of maids and banana sellers amidst disputes in the South China Sea 99 Due to such racist remarks against native Filipinos racism against Mainland Chinese in mainland China and by extension ethnic Chinese in general such as Chinese Filipinos later developed among certain native or mestizo Filipino communities as a form of backlash 100 During the COVID 19 pandemic in 2020 some Chinese Filipinos have also voiced concerns about Sinophobic sentiments that some non Chinese Filipinos may carry against any ethnic Chinese especially those from mainland China due to being the site of the first coronavirus outbreak that may sometimes extend and generalize on Chinese Filipinos 101 Chinese Filipino organizations have discouraged the mainstream Filipino public from being discriminatory particularly against Chinese nationals amid the global spread of COVID 19 102 Intermarriage EditChinese mestizos are persons of mixed Chinese and either Spanish or indigenous Filipino ancestry They are thought to make up as much as 25 of the country s total population A number of Chinese mestizos have surnames that reflect their heritage mostly two or three syllables that have Chinese roots e g the full name of a Chinese ancestor with a Hispanized phonetic spelling During the Spanish colonial period the Spanish authorities encouraged the Chinese male immigrants to convert to Catholicism Those who converted got baptized and their names Hispanized and were allowed to intermarry with indigenous women They and their mestizo offspring became colonial subjects of the Spanish crown and as such were granted several privileges and afforded numerous opportunities denied to the unconverted non citizen Chinese Starting as traders they branched out into land leasing moneylending and later landholding Chinese mestizo men and women were encouraged to marry Spanish and indigenous women and men citation needed by means of dowries citation needed in a policy to mix the races of the Philippines so it would be impossible to expel the Spanish 103 In these days however blood purity is still of prime concern in most traditional Chinese Filipino families especially pure blooded ones Many Chinese Filipinos believe that a Chinese Filipino must only be married to a fellow Chinese Filipino since the marriage to a non Chinese Filipino or any outsider was considered taboo Chinese marriage to native or mestizo Filipinos and outsiders posts uncertainty on both parties The Chinese Filipino family structure is patriarchal hence it is the male that carries the last name of the family which also carries the legacy of the family itself Male Chinese Filipino marriage to a native or mestiza Filipina or any outsider is more admissible than vice versa In the case of the Chinese Filipina female marrying a native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider it may cause several unwanted issues especially on the side of the Chinese family In some instances a member of a traditional Chinese Filipino family may be denied of his or her inheritance and likely to be disowned by his or her family by marrying an outsider without their consent However there are exceptions in which intermarriage to a non Chinese Filipino or any outsider is permissible provided their family is well off and or influential On the other hand modern Chinese Filipino families allow their children to marry native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider However many of them would still prefer that the Filipino or any outsider would have some or little Chinese blood such as descendants of Chinese mestizos during Spanish colonial period Trade and industry EditMain articles Bamboo network and Economy of the Philippines The Manila Stock Exchange is now pullulated with thousands of prospering Chinese owned stock brokerage houses 9 104 Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Manila Stock Exchange as they are estimated to control more than half of the publicly listed companies by market capitalization 105 106 107 108 109 110 Like much of Southeast Asia Filipinos of Chinese ancestry dominate the Filipino economy and commerce at every level of society 8 111 112 Chinese Filipinos wield tremendous economic clout unerringly disproportionate relative to their small population size over their indigenous Filipino majority counterparts and play a critical role in maintaining the country s economic vitality and prosperity 113 10 114 With their powerful economic prominence the Chinese virtually make up the country s entire wealthy elite 104 115 116 Chinese Filipinos in the aggregate represent a disproportionate wealthy market dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community they also form by and large an economic class the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to their poorer indigenous Filipino majority working and underclass counterparts around them 8 116 Entire posh Chinese enclaves have sprung up in major Filipino cities across the country literally walled off from the poorer indigenous Filipino masses guarded by heavily armed private security forces 8 Though the contemporary Chinese Filipino community albeit remains stubbornly insular given their propensity to voluntarily segregate themselves from the indigenous Filipino populace through typically associating themselves with the Chinese community their collective impacting presence nonetheless still remains powerfully felt throughout the country at large In particular given their ubiquitous economic influence and prosperity owing to their business savvy and investment prowess have prompted the community s acculturation into mainstream Filipino society and their maintenance of their exclusively unabashed distinctive cultural sense of ethnic identity clannishness community kinship nationalism social and ethnic cohesion through clan associations 117 The Chinese have played a key role in Filipino business and industry having dominated the economy of the Philippines for centuries long before the pre Spanish and American colonial eras 118 Long before the Spanish conquest of the Philippines Chinese merchants carried on trading activities with native communities along the coast of modern Mainland China By the time the Spanish arrived the Chinese controlled all the trading and commercial activities across the Philippines serving as retailers artisans and food providers for various Spanish settlements 11 During the American colonial epoch Chinese merchants controlled a significant percentage of the retail trade and internal commerce of the country They predominated the retail trade and owned three quarters of the 2500 rice mills interspersed along with the Filipino islands 119 Total resources of banking capital held by the Chinese was 27 million in 1937 to a high of US 100 million in the estimated aggregate making them second to the Americans in terms of total foreign capital investment held 11 Under Spanish rule the Chinese were willing to engage in trade and venture into other business activities Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry were responsible for introducing sugar refining devices new construction techniques movable type printing and bronze making The Chinese also provided fishing gardening artisan and other such trading services Many poverty stricken Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were attracted to business as they were prohibited from owning land and saw the only path out of abject poverty was by going into commercial business and entrepreneurship through taking charge of their own financial destinies by becoming self employed as dealers marketers vendors retailers traders collectors hawkers peddlers and distributors of variegated goods and services to the Spanish and American colonizers as well as the Filipino populace 120 Mainly attracted and lured by the promise of bountiful economic opportunities as a result of American colonial influence during the first four decades of the 20th century American colonization of the Philippines allowed the Chinese to assert and secure their economic clout among their entrepreneurial and investment pursuits The implementation of a free trade policy between the Philippines and the United States allowed the Chinese to capitalize on the growth of a burgeoning Filipino consumer market As a result Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were able to capture a significant market share by expanding their commercial business activities in which they were the key players who ventured into then newly emerging industries such as industrial manufacturing and financial services 121 The American and Spanish colonizers who saw the benefit of the enterprising Chinese made use of their commercial expertise contacts capital and presence to serve and protect their colonial economic interests Chinese owned sari sari stores propped up all over the Philippines were utilized to distribute American and cheap Chinese made Filipino goods and raw materials for the American and other foreign markets overseas The conspicuous presence of the Chinese that permeated everyday Filipino economic life incurred the volatile emotions and hostility of the indigenous Filipino masses manifested in the form of envy hostility and resentment 122 Up until the 1970s much of the Philippines s biggest corporations commercial activity and economy had long been under the control influence and ownership of the Americans and Spaniards 123 Today Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are estimated to control 60 to 70 percent of the Philippines s economy 124 125 126 127 128 129 9 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 The Chinese Filipino community amounting to 1 percent of the overall population of the Philippines control the country s largest and most lucrative department stores supermarkets hotels shopping malls airlines and fast food chains in addition to all of its major financial services providers banks and stock brokerage houses as well as dominating the nation s wholesale distribution networks shipping banking construction textiles real estate personal computer semiconductors pharmaceutical mass media and industrial manufacturing industries 139 140 141 9 104 142 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also control 40 percent of the Philippine s national corporate equity 143 144 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also involved in the processing and distribution of pharmaceutical products More than 1000 companies are involved in this industry with most being small and medium sized businesses amounting to an aggregate capitalization of 1 2 billion 145 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also prominent players in the Filipino mass media industry as the Chinese control six out of the ten English language newspapers in Manila including the one with the largest daily circulation 104 146 Many retail stores and restaurants around the Philippines are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry many of which whom are regularly featured in Manila newspapers that often attracted great public interest as they were used to illustrate the community s strong economic influence 147 148 The Chinese also dominate the Filipino telecommunications industry where one of the current significant players in the Filipino telecom sector was the business taipan John Gokongwei whose conglomerate JG Summit Holdings controlled 28 wholly owned subsidiaries with interests ranging from food and agro industrial products hotels insurance agencies financial services electronic components textiles and garment manufacturing real estate petrochemicals power generation printing newspaper publishing packaging materials detergents and cement mixing 149 Gokongwei s family firm is one of the six largest and most one well known conglomerates in the Philippines that has been under the hands of a Filipino owner of Chinese ancestry 150 Gokongwei began his business career by starting out in food processing during the 1950s venturing into textile manufacturing in the early 1970s and then cornered the Filipino real estate development and hotel management industries by the end of the decade In 1976 Gokongwei established Manila Midtown Hotels and has since then assumed the controlling interest of two other hotel chains Cebu Midtown and Manila Galleria Suites respectively 151 In addition Gokongwei has also made forays into the Filipino financial services sector as he expanded his business interests by investing in two Filipino banks PCI Bank and Far East Bank in addition to negotiating the acquisition of one of the Philippines s oldest newspapers The Manila Times 152 153 Gokongwei s eldest daughter became publisher of the newspaper in December 1988 at the age of 28 at which during the same time her father acquired the paper from the Roceses a Spanish Mestizo family 154 Of the 66 percent remaining part of the economy in the Philippines held by either Chinese or indigenous Filipinos the Chinese control 35 percent of all total sales 155 156 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control an estimated 50 to 60 percent of non land share capital in the Philippines and as much as 35 percent of total sales are attributed to the largest public and private firms owned by the Chinese 157 158 159 160 Many prominent Filipino companies that are Chinese owned focus on diverse industry sectors such as semiconductors chemicals real estate engineering construction fibre optics textiles financial services consumer electronics food and personal computers 161 A third of the top 500 companies publicly listed on the Philippines Stock Exchange are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry 162 Of the top 1000 firms Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control 36 percent of them and among the top 100 companies 43 percent 162 163 Between 1978 and 1988 146 of the country s 494 top companies were under Chinese hands 164 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also estimated to control over one third of the Philippines 1000 largest corporations with the Chinese controlling 47 of the 68 locally owned public companies listed on the Manila Stock Exchange 165 166 167 168 169 170 In 1990 the Chinese controlled 25 percent of the top 100 businesses in the Philippines and by 2014 the share of top 100 firms owned by them grew to 41 percent 171 172 Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are also responsible for generating 55 percent of overall Filipino private commercial business activity across the country 173 In addition Chinese owned Filipino companies account for 66 percent of the sixty largest commercial entities 174 175 In 2008 among the top ten wealthiest Filipinos 6 to 7 were of Chinese ancestry with Henry Sy Sr having topped the list with an estimated net worth 14 4 billion 176 In 2015 the top 4 wealthiest people in the Philippines with 9 being pure blooded Han Chinese in addition to 10 out of the top 15 were of Chinese ancestry 177 142 In 2019 15 of the 17 Filipino billionaires were of Chinese ancestry 178 As Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry became more financially prosperous they often coalesced their financial resources and pooled large amounts of seed capital together to forge joint business ventures with expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese businessmen and investors from all over the world Like other Southeast Asian businesses owned by those of Chinese ancestry Chinese owned businesses in the Philippines often link up with Greater Chinese and other Overseas Chinese businesses and networks across the globe to focus on new business opportunities to collaborate and concentrate on Common industry sectors of focus include real estate engineering textiles consumer electronics financial services food semiconductors and chemicals 179 Besides sharing a common ancestry cultural linguistic and familial ties many Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry are particular strong adherents of the Confucian paradigm of interpersonal relationships when doing business with each other as the Chinese believed that the underlying source for entrepreneurial and investment success relied on the cultivation of personal relationships 180 Moreover Filipino businesses that are Chinese owned form a part of the larger bamboo network an umbrella business network of Overseas Chinese companies operating in the markets of Greater China and Southeast Asia that share common family ethnic linguistic and cultural ties 181 182 With the spectacular growth of varying success stories witnessed by a number of individual Chinese Filipino business tycoons and investors have allowed them to expand their traditional corporate activities beyond the Philippines to forge international partnerships with increasing numbers of expatriate Mainland Chinese and Overseas Chinese investors on a global scale 183 Instead of quixotically diverting excess profits elsewhere many Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are known for their penurious and parsimonious ways by eschewing improvident extravagance and conspicuous consumption but instead adhere to the Chinese paradigm of being frugal by reinvesting a substantial surplus of their business profits for the purpose of corporate expansion A sizable percentage of the conglomerates managed by capable Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry that are armed with the necessary entrepreneurial acumen and visionary foresight were able to germinate from small budding enterprises to making headway into gargantuan corporate leviathans garnering widespread economic influence across the Philippines Southeast Asia and the global financial markets 114 Such massive corporate expansions engendered the term Chinoy which is colloquially used in Filipino newspapers to denote individuals with a degree of Chinese ancestry who either speak a Chinese dialect or adhere to Chinese customs In 1940 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were estimated to control 70 percent of the country s entire retail trade and 75 percent of the nation s rice mills 184 By 1948 the economic standing of the Chinese community began to elevate even further wielding considerable influence as the Chinese community exercised a considerable percentage of the total commercial investment including 55 percent of the retail trade and 85 percent of the lumber sector 185 After the end of the Second Sino Japanese war Chinese Filipinos controlled 85 percent of the nation s retail trade 186 The Chinese also had controlled 40 percent of the retailing imports with substantial controlling interests in banking oil refining sugar milling cement tobacco flour milling glass dairying automobile manufacturing and consumer electronics 187 Although the Filipino Hacienderos owned an extensive array of businesses Filipinos of Chinese ancestry augmented their economic power coinciding with the pro market reforms of the late 1980s and 1990s by the Marcos administration As a result the Chinese gradually increased their role in the domestic commercial sector over time by acting as an intermediary of connecting Chinese Filipino producers to the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers through the exchange of goods and services The Chinese Filipino business community accomplished such commercial feats as a tight knit group in an enclosed system via vertical integration by setting up their own supply chains distribution networks locating key competitors making use of geographical coverage attributes and characteristics business strategies staff recruitment store proliferation and establishing their own independent trade organizations 188 Filipino retail outlets that are Chinese owned also exercise a vast disproportionate share of several local goods such as rice lumber products and alcoholic drinks 188 Some Chinese Filipino merchant traders even branched into retailing these products into rice milling logging saw milling distillery tobacco coconut oil processing footwear making and agricultural processing The domestic Filipino economy began to broaden by the multitudinous expansion of commercial business activities long held by the Chinese also ushered in new forms of entrepreneurship by directing their corporate energies and capital into fostering new industries and growth areas among well established and matured sectors 188 The Filipino fast food chain Jollibee which makes Filipino style burgers was founded by a Filipino entrepreneur of Chinese ancestry and the outlet continues to remain as one of the most famous fast food franchises in the Philippines 189 190 Today Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control all of the Philippines s largest and most lucrative department stores supermarkets and fast food restaurants 9 104 In the fast food industry Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry have been behind the Philippines biggest fast food franchises A wave of big name restaurant chains such as Chowking Greenwich Pizza Mang Inasal Red Ribbon and the Mainland Chinese based Yonghe Dawang 永和大王 have made headway into the Filipino restaurant industry and cropped up across various cities around the country There are roughly 3000 fast food outlets and restaurants controlled by Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry especially eating establishments specializing in Chinese cuisine have attracted an influx of foreign capital investments from Hong Kong and Taiwan 191 192 The banker and business taipan George Ty was responsible for securing and franchising the rights of the famous publicly traded American hamburger franchise McDonald s across the Philippines and the Jollibee fast food joint whose founder was a Filipino restaurateur of Chinese ancestry 193 190 194 195 Jollibee s popularity has since then led to the expansion of its corporate presence throughout the world by establishing subsidiaries in the Middle East Hong Kong Guam and other Southeast Asian countries such as Brunei and Indonesia 149 196 197 The chain has since then evolved itself into the Jollibee Foods Corporation while gradually expanding its operations throughout China via its foreign acquisition of the Chinese fast food chain Dim Sum in 2008 198 In the beverage sector San Miguel Corporation is among the Philippines most prominent beverage providers The company was founded in 1851 by Enrique Maria Barretto de Ycaza y Esteban and is responsible for supplying the country s entire beverage needs Two Chinese owned Filipino beverage companies namely Lucio Tan s Asia Brewery and John Gokongwei s Universal Robina along with a couple of lesser known beverage companies are now competing with each other to capture the largest share in the Filipino beverage market 199 Since the 1950s Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have controlled the entirety of the Filipino retail industry 200 Every small medium and large enterprise in the Filipino retail sector has completely been under Chinese hands as the Chinese Filipino community have been at the forefront at pioneering the modern and contemporary development of the Philippines s retail sector 201 From the 1970s onwards Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have re established themselves as the dominant players in the Filipino retail industry with the corporate feat of presiding an estimated 8500 Chinese owned retail and wholesale outlets around the country 10 202 On a microscopic scale the Chinese Hokkien community have a proclivity to run capital intensive businesses such as banks commercial shipping lines rice mills dry goods and general stores while the Cantonese gravitated towards hotels restaurants and laundromats 203 188 Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry control 35 percent to upwards to two thirds of the domestic sales among the country s 67 largest commercial retail outlets 204 205 206 207 By the 1980s Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry began to expand their business activities in large scale retailing and Filipino retailers that were Chinese owned emerged as one of the largest department store owners in the Philippines with one prominent example being Rustan s which is one of the most prestigious department store brands in the Philippines 208 Other prime retailers such as Shoe Mart owned by Henry Sy and John Gokongwei s Robinson s percolated rapidly throughout major cities around the country with the products that they retailed eventually making their way into the shopping malls situated across various parts of the Manila Metropolitan area 209 Another prominent business figure in Philippines s retail industry is the Fujian born and Filipino bred taipan Lucio Tan Tan started off his business career in the cigarette distribution industry and then catapulted himself into entrepreneurial prominence within the major leagues of elite Filipino business circles after masterminding the corporate takeover of General Bank and Trust Company in 1977 and renaming as the Allied Bank 210 Tan whose flagship company Fortune Tobacco now a Philippine affiliate of Philip Morris International controls the largest market share of cigarette distribution in the country and has since then emerged as of one richest men in the Philippines 211 Aside from taking over the Philippines s tobacco distribution networks Tan has since parlayed his business interests into a corporate conglomerate behemoth of his own LT Group Inc His corporate empire presides over a diversified portfolio of various business interests in chemicals sports education brewing financial services real estate hotels Century Park Hotel in addition to acquiring a majority controlling interest in PAL one of the Philippines s largest airlines 212 In terms of industry distribution small and medium size Chinese owned retail outlets account for half of the Philippines retail trade sector with 49 45 percent of the retail sector alone being controlled by Henry Sy s Shoemart and the remaining share of the retail sector dominated by a few larger Chinese owned Filipino retail outlets that include thousands of smaller retail subsidiaries 213 164 214 Sy built his business empire from scratch out of his Shoe Mart department store chain and has since made forays into banking and real estate development after assuming himself as a controlling interest of Banco de Oro a private commercial bank as well as acquiring a substantial block of China Banking Corporation another privately Chinese owned Filipino commercial bank and wealth management house that provides seed capital that caters to the startup needs of up and coming Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs 215 In terms of industry distribution Chinese owned manufacturing establishments account for a third of the Filipino industrial manufacturing sector 119 164 216 In the secondary industry 75 percent of the country s 2500 rice mills were Chinese owned Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs were also dominant in wood processing and accounted for over 10 percent of the capital invested in the lumber industry and controlled 85 percent of it as well as accounting for 40 percent of the industry s annual output and controlled nearly all the sawmills in the nation 217 Emerging import substituting light industries would see the rise of active participation of Chinese entrepreneurs and owned several salt works and a large number of small and medium sized factories engaged in food processing as well as the production of leather and tobacco goods The Chinese also dominate food processing with approximately 200 outlets in this industry with their finished products being exported to Hong Kong Singapore and Taiwan More than 200 companies are also involved in the production of paper paper products fertilizers cosmetics rubber products and plastics 218 By the early 1960s the Chinese presence in the manufacturing sector became significant Of the businesses that employed 10 or more workers 35 percent were Chinese owned and among 284 enterprises employing more than 100 workers 37 percent were likewise Chinese owned Of the 163 domestic companies 80 were Chinese owned and included the manufacturing of coconut oil food products tobacco textiles plastic products footwear glass and certain types of metals such as tubes and pipes wire rods nails bolts and containers while the native and mestizo Filipinos dominated sugar rolling mills industrial chemicals fertilizers cement galvanizing plants and tin plates 219 In 1965 the Chinese controlled 32 percent of the country s top industrial manufacturing outlets 220 221 222 Of the 259 manufacturing establishments belonging to the top 1000 in the country the Chinese owned 33 6 percent of the top manufacturing companies as well as 43 2 percent of the top commercial manufacturing outlets in 1980 164 223 By 1986 Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs controlled 45 percent of the nations top 120 domestic manufacturing companies 119 224 225 226 These manufacturing establishments are mainly involved in tobacco and cigarettes soap and cosmetics textiles and rubber footwear 180 The majority of Filipino industrial manufacturing establishments that produce the processing of coconut products flour food products textiles plastic products footwear glass as well as heavy industry products such as metals steel industrial chemicals paper products paints leatherwork garments sugar refining timber processing construction materials food and beverages rubber plastics semiconductors and personal computers are controlled by Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry 10 119 180 227 From small trade cooperatives clustered by hometown pawnbrokers Filipinos of Chinese ancestry would go on to establish and incorporate the largest financial services institutions in the Philippines Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have dominated the Philippine financial services sector and have had a presence in the country s banking industry since the early part of the 20th century The two earliest Chinese founded Filipino banks were China Bank and the Mercantile Bank of China established in 1920 and 1924 respectively 228 In a rapid parallel shift to industrial manufacturing prompted the Chinese to venture into the banking and financial services sector 229 In 1956 there were four Chinese owned Filipino banks nine by 1971 sixteen in 1974 with the Chinese holding majority stakes in 10 of the 26 private commercial Filipino banks by the early 1990s 229 Today the overwhelming majority of the Philippines s principal banks have come under Chinese ownership with Filipinos of Chinese ancestry owning six of the top ten banks in the country 230 231 Of these six banks the Chinese collectively control 63 percent of the all assets among the top ten banks in the country 232 Chinese controlled Filipino banks include the China Banking Corporation Philippine Savings Bank the Philippine National Bank owned by LT Group Inc and most notably Metrobank Group which was owned by banker and businessman George Ty which has been the country s second largest and most aggressive financial services conglomerate 233 104 Lesser known private commercial banks established in the 1950s and 1960s are also owned and controlled by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry 234 119 The lone exception of a non Chinese and non foreign owned Filipino bank was the Spanish Filipino Lopez owned Philippine Commercial International Bank which has since been taken over by Henry Sy s holding and investment company SM Investments Corporation and later reemerged itself as a subsidiary of Banco de Oro in 2007 119 Banco De Oro which saw its beginnings as a mere savings bank in 1980 catapulted itself into the ranks of financial prominence when it subsumed Equitable PCI Bank in July 2005 under the aegis of Sy 235 With Sy having assumed majority ownership of Banco de Oro a commercial bank as well as taking a 14 percent stake in the China Banking Corporation he also took a controlling interest in the Philippine National Bank and 7 percent of the Far East Bank 236 By 1970 among the Philippines s five largest banks holding almost 50 percent of all assets in the industry namely China Banking Corporation Citibank the Bank of the Philippine Islands Equitable PCI Bank in addition to the formerly government owned Philippine National Bank came under the control of Chinese shareholders 119 Among the top ten private commercial banks in 1993 Chinese Filipino business families were in full control of four of them namely the Metropolitan Bank Allied Bank Equitable Banking and China Banking George Ty s Metrobank generated the highest share of gross revenues net income and held the largest amount of total assets during that year 237 In 1993 Chinese owned Filipino banks controlled 38 43 percent of the total assets of the private Filipino commercial banking sector 238 By 1995 banks owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry had captured an even greater share of the Philippines s financial services sector after the formerly government owned Philippine National Bank was partially privatized with four of the top five banks that were substantially controlled by Chinese shareholders claiming 48 percent of all bank assets and over 60 percent of all those held by private domestic commercial banks 119 At the turn of the 20th century amongst the myriad mergers and acquisitions that occurred within the Filipino banking sector due to major industry realignments that were set in motion with regards to how private commercial banks were owned continued to consolidate the Chinese grip on the Philippines s private commercial banking sector Among the most notable transactions that have taken place was George Ty s Metrobank which at this time acquired Asian Bank and Global Business Bank and with Lucio Tan in 1992 having assumed a 67 percent controlling ownership of the privatized Philippine National Bank which was once the Philippines s foremost government bank following the aftermath of the country s national privatization program in the 1980s 239 240 Tan has since then solidified a leading dominance in the Filipino banking sector towards the beginning of the new millennium when he continued his corporate onslaught through the buyout absorption and subsequent merger of it with his own bank Allied Bank 241 Fellow taipan John Gokongwei was also a major shareholder in the Far East Bank Philippine Commercial and International Bank and controlled a 19 percent stake in the Philippine Trust Company During the 1999 Filipino banking mergers and acquisition frenzy Gokongwei realized an immense windfall gain following the high profit sale of his shares in PCIB and the Far East Bank in the process 242 In terms of industry distribution Chinese owned firms account for a quarter of the Filipino financial services sector 164 Today the overwhelming majority of the Philippines s nine principal banks in addition to the formerly state owned Philippine National Bank are now under the ownership of Chinese shareholders including the Allied Banking Corporation Banco de Oro Group China Banking Corporation Chinabank East West Banking Corporation Metrobank group Philippine Trust Company Philtrust Bank Rizal Commercial Banking group Security Bank Corporation Security Bank and the United Coconut Planters Bank 243 Most of these banks comprise a larger part of an umbrella owned family conglomerate with assets exceeding 100 billion 244 The total combined assets of all the Philippines s commercial banks under Chinese ownership account for 25 72 percent of all the total assets in the entire Filipino commercial banking system 10 Among the Philippines s 35 banks shareholders of Chinese ancestry on average control 30 percent of total banking equity 245 There are also 23 Filipino insurance agencies that are Chinese owned with some branches overseas and in Hong Kong 228 The business and investment opportunities that allowed the Chinese to expand their economic predominance into real estate presented itself when the community was conferred Filipino citizenship during the Martial Law Period in order to gain the privilege to buy sell and own land 246 Initially the Chinese were not allowed to own land until acquiring Filipino citizenship in the 1970s which permitted them the same economic rights and privileges as the indigenous Filipinos 247 This afterwards soon led to a surge of massive land purchases throughout the country predominated by Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry that started by the next decade following the Philippines s political transition from a dictatorship to a democracy 248 The acquisition of Filipino citizenship during the 1970s allowed the Chinese to expand their economic presence even more greatly throughout the country by venturing into larger scale investment grade commercial real state and other investment opportunities that augmented their economic clout and elevated their respective socioeconomic position 249 Since the 1980s Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have cornered much of the Philippines s real estate investment markets land and property development sectors when much of the industry had long been predominated by the Spaniards 250 Chinese owned Filipino real estate development companies have devoured large swathes of land across Manila and other urban Filipino cities for the purpose of the exploitation of land development and real estate investing 251 Since 1990 the Filipino real estate sector has been dominated by both Chinese and non Chinese Filipino businessmen and investors alike betting their impending fortunes by competing fiercely for the potential acquisition of various key strategic property development and investment locations around the country that were set to boom entailed by the ripely soaring opportunities for profitability presented in the bounded form of cash flow generation and capital appreciation 252 Presently many of the biggest real estate development operators in the Philippines are owned by Filipino businessmen of Chinese ancestry following the exodus of the grip that used to be long held by the Spanish Filipino Mestizo landowning elites such as the Ayala s Lopez s Ortiga s and Araneta s 253 Of the 500 real estate companies operating in the Philippines 120 are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry with the firms mostly specializing in real estate investment land and property development and construction with much of their presence being mainly concentrated in the Manila Metropolitan area 254 Well known real estate companies controlled by the Philippines s top real estate movers and shakers include SMDC owned by the Sy s Robinsons Land by the Gokongwei s Megaworld Properties amp Holdings Inc which is controlled by Andrew Tan Filinvest that is commanded by the Gotianun s and DoubleDragon Properties presided by businessman Edgar Sia II of Mang Inasal fame 255 Large scale commercial real estate projects such as the Eton Centris in Pinyahan the Shangri La Plaza in Mandaluyong and the Tagaytay Highlands Golf Club and Resort development in Tagaytay City were testaments of such joint projects undertaken by Filipino real estate developers of Chinese ancestry in cooperation with other fellow Overseas Chinese dealmakers operating throughout the Southeast Asian real estate markets These corporate partnerships were largely forged by Overseas Chinese business tycoons such as the investor Liem Sioe Liong businessman Robert Kuok and dealmakers Andrew Gotianun Henry Sy George Ty and Lucio Tan 256 Besides being responsible for spearheading the development of the Philippines s modern real estate sector both Sy and Tan have been generous patrons of the Chinese community extending their philanthropic hospitality by actively investing in the economic development and revitalization of their ancestral hometowns 257 With Sy constructing supermalls in Chengdu Chongqing and Suzhou and Tan developing a 30 story banking center in Xiamen 258 Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also pioneered the Filipino shipping industry which eventually germinated into a major industry sector as a means of transporting goods cheaply and quickly between the islands Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have remained dominant in the Philippines s maritime shipping industry and in sea transport as it was one of the few efficient methods of transporting goods cheaply and quickly across the country with the Philippines geographically being an archipelago comprising more than 1000 islands and inlets 219 There are 12 Filipino business families of Chinese ancestry engaged in inter island transport and shipping particularly with the shipping of food products requiring refrigeration amounting to an aggregate capitalization of 10 billion Taiwanese expatriate investors have participated in various joint ventures opening up new shipping lanes on the route between Manila and Cebu 259 Prominent shipping companies owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry include Cokaliong Shipping Lines Gothong Lines Lite Shipping Corporation Sulpicio Lines which was infamously associated with a tragedy that led to the deaths of hundreds and Trans Asia Shipping Lines 260 One enterprising and pioneering Chinese Filipino entrepreneur was William Chiongbian who established William Lines in 1949 which by the end of 1993 became the most profitable inter island Filipino shipping line ranking first in terms of gross revenue generated as well as net income among the country s seven biggest shipping companies 219 Currently the Filipino inter island shipping industry is dominated by four Chinese owned shipping lines led by William Chiongbian s William Lines 10 Likewise Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also own all of the major airlines in the Philippines including the flagship carrier Philippine Airlines AirphilExpress Cebu Pacific South East Asian Airlines Manila Air and Zest Air 10 As Chinese economic might grew much of the indigenous Filipino majority were gradually driven out into poorer land on the hills on the outskirts of major Filipino cities or into the mountains 111 Disenchantment grew among the displaced indigenous Filipinos who felt they were unable compete with ethnic Chinese businesses 261 Underlying resentment and bitterness from the impoverished Filipino majority has been accumulating as there has been no existence of indigenous Filipino having any substantial business equity in the Philippines 111 Decades of free market liberalization brought virtually no economic benefit to the indigenous Filipino majority but rather the opposite resulting a subjugated indigenous Filipino majority underclass where the vast majority still engage in rural peasantry menial labor or domestic service and squatting 104 111 The Filipino government has dealt with this wealth disparity by establishing socialist and communist dictatorships or authoritarian regimes while pursuing a systematic and ruthless affirmative action campaigns giving privileges to allow the indigenous Filipino majority to gain a more equitable economic footing during the 1950s and 1960s 262 263 The rise of economic nationalism among the impoverished indigenous Filipino majority prompted by the Filipino government resulted in the passing of the Retail Trade Nationalization Law of 1954 where ethnic Chinese were barred and pressured to move out of the retail sector restricting engagement to Filipino citizens only 263 In addition the Chinese were prevented from owning land by restricting land ownership to Filipinos only Other restrictions on Chinese economic activities included limiting Chinese involvement in the import export trade while trying to increase the indigenous Filipino involvement to gain a proportionate presence In 1960 the Rice and Corn Nationalization Law was passed restricting trading milling and warehousing of rice and corn only to Filipinos while barring Chinese involvement in which they initially had a significant presence 262 263 264 265 These policies ultimately backfired on the government as the laws had an overall negative impact on the government tax revenue which dropped significantly because the country s biggest share of taxpayers were Chinese who eventually took their capital out of the country to invest elsewhere 262 263 The increased economic clout held in the hands of the Chinese has triggered suspicion instability ethnic hatred and anti Chinese hostility among the indigenous native Filipino majority towards the Chinese minority 112 Such hostility has resulted in the kidnapping of hundreds of Chinese Filipinos by native Filipinos since the 1990s 112 Many victims often children are often brutally murdered even after a ransom is paid 111 112 Numerous incidents of crimes such kidnap for ransom extortion and other forms of harassment were committed against the Chinese Filipino community starting in the early 1990s continues to this very day 37 112 Thousands of displaced Filipino hill tribes and aborigines continue to live in satellite shantytowns on the outskirts of Manila in economic destitution where two thirds of the country s indigenous Filipinos live on less than 2 dollars per day in extreme poverty 111 Such hatred envy grievance insecurity and resentment is ready at any moment to be catalyzed by the indigenous Filipino majority as many Chinese Filipinos are subject to kidnapping vandalism murder and violence 266 Anti Chinese sentiment among the indigenous Filipino majority is deeply rooted in poverty but also feelings of resentment and exploitation are also exhibited among native and mestizo Filipinos blaming their socioeconomic failures on Chinese Filipinos 112 266 267 Future trends EditMost of the younger generations of pure Chinese Filipinos are descendants of Chinese who migrated during the 1800s onward this group retains much of Chinese culture customs and work ethic though not necessarily language whereas almost all Chinese mestizos are descendants of Chinese who migrated even before the Spanish colonial period and have been integrated and assimilated into the general Philippine society as a whole There are four trends that the Chinese Filipino would probably undertake within a generation or so assimilation and integration as in the case of Chinese Thais who eventually lost their genuine Chinese heritage and adopted Thai culture and language as their own separation where the Chinese Filipino community can be clearly distinguished from the other ethnic groups in the Philippines reminiscent of most Chinese Malaysians returning to the ancestral land which is the current phenomenon of overseas Chinese returning to China emigration to North America and Australasia as in the case of some Chinese Malaysians and many Chinese Vietnamese Hoa people During the 1970s Fr Charles McCarthy an expert in Philippine Chinese relations observed that the peculiarly Chinese content of the Philippine Chinese subculture is further diluted in succeeding generations and he made a prediction that the time will probably come and it may not be far off when in this sense there will no more Chinese in the Philippines This view is still controversial however with the constant adoption of new cultures by Filipinos contradicting this thought Integration and assimilation Edit Assimilation is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while integration is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin As of the present day due to the effects of globalization in the Philippines there has been a marked tendency to assimilate to Filipino lifestyles influenced by the US among ethnic Chinese This is especially true for younger Chinese Filipino living in Metro Manila 268 who are gradually shifting to English as their preferred language thus identifying more with Western culture at the same time speaking Chinese among themselves Similarly as the cultural divide between Chinese Filipino and other Filipinos erode there is a steady increase of intermarriages with native and mestizo Filipinos with their children completely identifying with the Filipino culture and way of life Assimilation is gradually taking place in the Philippines albeit at a slower rate as compared to Thailand 269 On the other hand the largest Chinese Filipino organization the Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran openly espouses eventual integration but not assimilation of the Chinese Filipino with the rest of Philippine society and clamors for maintaining Chinese language education and traditions Meanwhile the general Philippine public is largely neutral regarding the role of the Chinese Filipino in the Philippines and many have embraced Chinese Filipino as fellow Filipino citizens and even encouraged them to assimilate and participate in the formation of the Philippines destiny Separation Edit Separation is defined as the rejection of the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin often characterized by the presence of ethnic enclaves The recent rapid economic growth of both China and Taiwan as well as the successful business acumen of Overseas Chinese have fueled among many Chinese Filipino a sense of pride through immersion and regaining interest in Chinese culture customs values and language while remaining in the Philippines citation needed Despite the community s inherent ethnocentrism there are no active proponents for political separation such as autonomy or even independence from the Philippines partly due to the small size of the community relative to the general Philippine population and the scattered distribution of the community throughout the archipelago with only half residing in Metro Manila Returning to the ancestral land Edit Many Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs and professionals have flocked to their ancestral homeland to partake of business and employment opportunities opened up by China s emergence as a global economic superpower 270 As above the fast economic growth of China and the increasing popularity of Chinese culture has also helped fan pro China patriotism among a majority of Chinese Filipino who espouse 愛國愛鄉 ai guo ai xiang sentiments love of ancestral country and hometown Some Chinese Filipino especially those belonging to the older generation still demonstrate ai guo ai xiang by donating money to fund clan halls school buildings Buddhist temples and parks in their hometowns in China Emigration to North America and Australasia Edit During the 1990s to the early 2000s Philippine economic difficulties and more liberal immigration policies in destination countries have led to well to do Chinese Filipino families to acquire North American or Australasian passports and send their children abroad to attend prestigious North America or Australasian Universities 271 Many of these children are opting to remain after graduation to start professional careers in North America or Australasia like their Chinese brethren from other parts of Asia Many Philippine educated Chinese Filipino from middle class families are also migrating to North America and Australasia for economic advantages Those who have family businesses regularly commute between North America or Australasia and the Philippines In this way they follow the well known pattern of other Chinese immigrants to North America who lead astronaut lifestyles family in North America business in Asia 272 With the increase in political stability and economic growth in Asia this trend is becoming significantly less popular for Chinese Filipino Notable people EditSee also List of Chinese FilipinosSee also Edit Philippines portal China portal Taiwan portalChina Philippines relations Chinese Filipinos who migrated to Mexico during the galleon trade CHInoyTV a TV program featuring the Chinese community in the Philippines Filipinos in China List of Chinese schools in the Philippines Manila Chinese Cemetery SangleyNotes Edit English Chinoy Tagalog Tsinoy tʃɪnoɪ Tsinong Pilipino tʃɪno Philippine Hokkien Chinese 咱儂 咱人 菲律賓華僑 Pe h ōe ji Lan nang Lan lang Nan nang Hui li p pin Hoa kiau Mandarin simplified Chinese 菲律宾华人 菲律宾华侨 华菲人 traditional Chinese 菲律賓華人 菲律賓華僑 華菲人 pinyin Feilǜbin huaren Feilǜbin huaqiao Huafei ren Kaisa the organization she heads aims to inform the Filipino mainstream of the contributions of the ethnic Chinese to Philippine historical economic and political life At the same time Kaisa encourages Chinese Filipinos to maintain loyalties to the Philippines rather than China or Taiwan Most prominently the Buddhist Seng Guan Temple in Tondo Manila Filipinos usually cook and serve pansit noodles on birthdays to wish for long life References Edit a b Macrohon Pilar January 21 2013 Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday Press release PRIB Office of the Senate Secretary Senate of the Philippines Archived from the original on May 16 2021 The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia PDF p 96 Archived from the original PDF on November 1 2018 Retrieved April 23 2012 Macrohon Pilar January 21 2013 Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday Press release PRIB Office of the Senate Secretary Senate of the Philippines a b Palanca Ellen H 2002 A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia PDF Asian Studies 38 2 31 42 Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission R O C Ocac gov tw Archived from the original on November 23 2013 Retrieved April 22 2012 a b Carter Lauren 1995 The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia PDF Master of Arts thesis Simon Fraser University Retrieved April 23 2012 Buchholt Helmut 1993 Sangley Intsik und Sino die chinesische Haendlerminoritaet in den Philippine Working paper Universitat Bielefeld Fakultat fur Soziologie Forschungsschwerpunkt Entwicklungssoziologie 0936 3408 Universitat Bielefeld a b c d e Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing p 6 ISBN 978 0385721868 a b c d e Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing p 3 ISBN 978 0385721868 a b c d e f g Gambe Annabelle 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan p 33 ISBN 978 0312234966 a b c Folk Brian 2003 Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia Routledge p 93 ISBN 978 1138811072 Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony October 2011 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe ISBN 9780295800264 Retrieved May 6 2012 via Google Books LaFranco Rob Peterson Withorn Chase eds 2023 Forbes World s Billionaires List Forbes Retrieved May 31 2023 Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony 1997 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe University of Washington Press p 54 ISBN 9780295800264 a b Wickberg Edgar 1964 The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History PDF Journal of Southeast Asian History Lawrence Kansas The University of Kansas CEAS 5 1 62 100 doi 10 1017 S0217781100002222 hdl 1808 1129 Tan Antonio S 1986 The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality Archipel 32 141 162 doi 10 3406 arch 1986 2316 via Persee Palanca Ellen Filipino Chinese TitleLink Archived from the original on April 3 2012 Retrieved May 7 2012 Complete Edition of Style Guide Hyphens California State University Los Angeles Editorial Style Guide Archived from the original on June 26 2008 American Anthropological Association Style Guide txstate edu Archived from the original on September 10 2006 Michigan State University Style Sheet PDF msu edu Archived from the original PDF on September 5 2006 Hyphens en dashes em dashes n d Chicago Style Q amp A Chicago Manual of Style Online 15th ed The Ranking of Ethnic Chinese Population Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission R O C Archived from the original on November 23 2013 Report of the Philippine commission to the President January 31 1900 p 150 Archived from the original on June 2 2021 a b c Pre colonial Manila Malacanan Palace Presidential Museum And Library a b Weightman George H February 1960 The Philippine Chinese A Cultural History of A Marginal Trading Company Ann Arbor Michigan UMI Dissertation Information Service Salvilla Rex S July 26 2007 Molo Athens of the Philippines The News Today Retrieved September 4 2019 Dinggol Araneta Divinagracia THE LOCSIN CLAN OF THE PHILIPPINES Asian Journal San Diego Archived from the original on September 4 2019 Retrieved September 4 2019 Bagares Gavin March 8 2014 Who are the Sansons of Cebu Inquirer Lifestyle Retrieved September 4 2019 Williams Jenny Chinese Exclusion Act 1882 www thenagain info Wickberg Edgar Extract from Pacific Affairs Fall 1962 Early Chinese Economic Influence in the Philippines 1850 1898 PDF East Asian Series Reprint No 3 Lawrence Kansas Center for East Asian Studies University of Kansas Retrieved September 12 2014 Vanzi Sol Jose June 29 2004 Balitang Beterano Fil chinese Guerrilla in WW2 in RP newsflash org Archived from the original on August 24 2004 a b c d e What do Filipinos have against Chinese Filipinos December 22 2018 Palanca Ellen H 2002 A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia PDF Asian Studies 38 2 29 62 Anderson Benedict 1988 Cacique Democracy in the Philippines Origins and Dreams PDF archived from the original PDF on October 3 2008 Mydans Seth March 17 1996 Kidnapping of Ethnic Chinese Rises in Philippines The New York Times Conde Carlos H November 24 2003 Chinese Filipinos Protest Ransom Kidnappings The New York Times a b Hau Caroline S 1999 Who Will Save Us From The Law The Criminal State and the Illegal Alien in Post 1986 Philippines In Rafael Vicente L ed Figures of Criminality in Indonesia the Philippines and Colonial Vietnam Studies on Southeast Asia No 25 SEAP Cornell University pp 128 151 ISBN 9780877277248 The woman who sold Spratlys to China August 9 2018 Aquino The president who brought China to court June 29 2016 Number of POGO workers continues to rise The Philippine Star Scarborough in the eyes of Filipino Chinese Rappler com May 12 2012 Retrieved January 11 2018 Ng Maria N Holden Philip eds 2006 Reading Chinese Transnationalisms Society Literature Film Hong Kong Hong Kong University Press p 20 ISBN 978 962 209 796 4 Chiu Richard T 2010 Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila Leiden The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV pp 29 30 ISBN 978 971 27 2716 0 Tan Gia Lim 2018 An Introduction to the Culture and History of the Teochews in Singapore Singapore World Scientific doi 10 1142 10967 ISBN 9789813239357 a b c d e f g Chow Chino June 10 2020 Chow The Cantonese Chinese cultural minority in the Philippines SunStar a b Bagamaspad Prof Anavic 1983 History of the Baguio Chinese Integration into the Baguio Community PDF Baguio University of the Philippines College Baguio pp 6 15 Tan Samuel K 1994 The Tans and Kongs of Sulu An Analysis of Chinese Integration in a Muslim Society In See Teresita Ang Go Bon Juan eds 華人 Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran Incorporated pp 160 137 127 ISBN 9718857052 While some of the papers tend to view integration as a continuing problem in Chinese Filipino relations Samuel K Tan s paper on The Tans and Kongs of Sulu An Analysis into the Nature and Extent of Chinese Integration in Sulu Society provides a different historical process In Sulu Tan explains that the strong foundation of Sulu China relations has provided Sulu society with a kind of historical consciousness that allows the easy smooth and almost natural integration of Chinese into the local society as shown by the extent of Chinese intermarriages with the native Sama and Tausug This explains why the Chinese in Sulu have become an integral part of the local social economic cultural and political traditions which are shared independently by the Tausug and Sama people Li Ding guo s paper Exploratory Dr Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu Archipelago A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researches 4 The Sulu Kings more accurately datus or rajahs before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A D sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A D This continued regularly until the last embassy in 1762 A D The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders At one time a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking 27 days 5 It was during the visit of 1417 A D when the Sulu King as the Tausug head was called died of illness and was entombed in Te Chow by imperial order A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains His heir named Antuluk decided to remain also Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the Chinese texts as An Lu Chin and Un Chong Kai 6 Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from 17th century on in their works The Philippine Islands 55 volumes It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule 7 Jose Montero y Vidal Historia General de Filipinas desde el Discubrimiento de Dichas Islas hasta Nuestros Dias vol II Madrid 1894 1895 pp 266 269 8 Samuel K Tan Sulu Under American Military Rule 1899 1913 Quezon City University of the Philippines 1967 p 11 9 Najeeb M Saleeby The History of Sulu Manila Filipiniana Book Guild Inc 1963 p 83 10 Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government 11 Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter of recognition of their important role in Sulu s economy In fact Wang also records Sulu s taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage 12 Data on the Tawi Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila As permanent residents of South Ubian Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives The data on the Ullayans Dausans and Aldanis were provided by Mrs Kimlan Lim 13 The information on Chinese families in Bongao etc were provided by Paquito Tan of Sitangkai during the visits of the author to Bongao in late 1988 Francisco Juan R 1999 Palongpalong Artemio Mahiwo Sylvano eds Society and Culture The Asian Heritage Festschrift for Juan R Francisco Ph D Professor of Indology Asian Center University of the Philippines p 63 ISBN 9718992073 The publication is a bimonthly magazine of the Philippine China Resource Center PCRC with office in New Manila Quezon City Dr Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese Texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu archipelago A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researchers The Sulu Kings more accurately datus or rajas before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A D sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A D This continued regularly until the last embassy 1762 A D The ancient Chinese records show the incresing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders At one time a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking for 27 days It was during the visit of 1417 A D when the Sulu King as the Tausug head was called died of illness and was entombed in Te Chow by imperial order A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains His heir named Antuluk decided to stay also Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the texts as An Lu Chih and Un Chong Kai Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from the 17th century in their work The Philippine Islands 55 volumes It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule Jose Montero y Vidal Historia general de Filipinas desde el discubrimento de dichas ilas hasta nuestros dias Madrid 18941895 266 69 5 6 7 8 Samuel K Tan Sulu Under the American Military Rule 1899 1913 Quezon City University of the Philippines 1967 11 Najeeb M Salleby The History of Sulu Manila Filipiniana Book Guild Inc 1963 83 9 10 11 Data on the Tan family of Tan 63 Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter ofrecognition of their important role in Sulu s economy In fact Wang also records Sulu s taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage Data on the Tawi Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila As permanent residents of South Ubian Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives The data on the Ullayans Dausans and Aldanis were provided by Mrs Kimian Lim China Currents A Philippine Quarterly on China Concerns Volumes 5 8 Philippine China Development Resource Center 1994 p 9 p 17 The Overseas Chinese and China s Economic Modernization Tan Samuel K Volume 2 Number 1 January February 1991 p 6 The Chinese of Siasi A Case of Successful Integration Tan Chee Beng Volume 3 Number 1 January PDRC Currents Bi monthly Magazine of the PDRC Volume 2 Philippine China Development Resource Center 1991 pp 7 3 PDRC Volume 2 Number 17 January February 1991 Published by the Philippine China Development Resource Center No 6 THE CHINESE OF SIASI A Case of Successful Integration By Samuel K Tan Ph D 10 Theresa C Carino is the Tong Chee Kiong 2010 Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia Racializing Chineseness Springer Science amp Business Media p 232 ISBN 978 9048189090 With the exception of their names and occasional festivities the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing Tilman 1974 whose study was carried out on the provincial city of Cebu where the Chinese have greater contacts with the PDRC Currents Bi monthly Magazine of the PDRC Volume 2 Philippine China Development Resource Center 1991 p 9 Today with the exception of their names and occasional festivities the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing The implications of this preliminary observation point to two types of Chinese integration Tan Samuel Kong 1992 See Teresita Ang ed China Across the Seas The Chinese as Filipinos Vol 2 3 of Chinese studies Philippine Association for Chinese Studies p 90 ISBN 9719133309 Today with the exception of their names and occasional festivities the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing The implication of this preliminary observation points to the two types of Chinese integration People Group profiles lists resources and maps Joshua Project www joshuaproject net Philippines ethnologue com Legarda Wants Inclusion of Ethnic Origin in Nat l Census to Better Ad lorenlegarda com ph April 16 2013 Archived from the original on April 16 2013 Full text of Report of Austin Craig on a research trip to the United States December 15th 1914 to May 5th 1915 Manila c 1915 a b c d e f Teresita Ang See Chinese in the Philippines 1997 Kaisa p 57 a b c d Palanca Ellen H 2002 A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia PDF Asian Studies 38 2 31 32 Teresita Ang See Chinese in the Philippines 1997 Kaisa p 60 Simmons Richard VanNess August 1 2012 The Language of the Sangleys A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century By Henning Kloter Leiden Brill 2011 xxii 411 pp 32 pages of color plates 179 00 cloth PDF Book Reviews China The Journal of Asian Studies 71 3 775 776 doi 10 1017 S0021911812000769 S2CID 162460859 ProQuest 1031202030 Tsai Hui Ming 蔡惠名 2017 Feilǜbin zanrenhua Lan lang ue yanjiu 菲律賓咱人話 Lan lang ue 研究 A Study of Philippine Hokkien Language Thesis in Chinese National Taiwan Normal University Menegon Eugenio 2020 Ancestors Virgins and Friars Christianity as a Local Religion in Late Imperial China Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law BRILL p 217 ISBN 978 1684170531 Zhi 耿 Geng 直 April 14 2008 The concepts and methods of Western Chinese learning in the early period A study based on Spanish missionary Francisco Varo s Arte de la lenguaMandarina Circulo de Linguistica Aplicada a la Comunicacion 74 45 58 doi 10 5209 CLAC 60513 ISSN 1576 4737 Andrade Pio Education and Spanish in the Philippines Asociacion Cultural Galeon de Manila Feast of Ma cho alineang blogspot com September 28 2006 Philippines people groups languages and religions Joshua Project Shao Joseph T 1999 Heritage of the Chinese Filipino Protestant Churches PDF Journal of Asian Mission 1 1 93 99 Archived from the original PDF on April 9 2008 8th CCOWE Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism CCCOWE Uayan Jean June 2004 Chap Chay Lo Mi Disentangling the Chinese Filipino Worldview PDF Journal of Asian Mission 2 6 6 183 194 Archived from the original PDF on June 17 2006 Retrieved May 7 2012 菲律賓佛光山萬年寺 Fo Guang Shan Mabuhay Temple fgsphilippines org Daoism and Scientific Civilization Archived August 22 2007 at the Wayback Machine Neo Confucian Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy www iep utm edu Malanes Maurice October 13 2010 Keeper of Chinese tradition Philippine Daily Inquirer Retrieved November 28 2020 a b c McCarthy Charles F ed 1974 Philippine Chinese profiles essays and studies Pagkakaisa sa Pag Unlad List of Chinese schools 华校一览 Philippine Chinese Education Research Center 菲律賓華教中心 Archived from the original on August 3 2004 Retrieved October 4 2021 Filipino Math Wizards Reap Medals in Hong Kong Manila Bulletin August 12 2012 Retrieved October 4 2021 Palanca Ellen H 2002 A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia PDF Asian Studies 38 2 55 Alip Eufronio Melo 1959 Ten Centuries of Philippine Chinese Relations historical political social economic Manila Alip amp Sons OCLC 1848041 小川尚義 1932 臺日大辭典 台譯版 大日本帝 國臺灣 臺北市 Taihoku Taiwan Empire of Japan 臺灣總督府 p 427 a b 小川尚義 1932 臺日大辭典 台譯版 大日本帝 國臺灣 臺北市 Taihoku Taiwan Empire of Japan 臺灣總督府 p 306 Tantingco Robby March 15 2010 Tantingco What your surname reveals about your past Sunstar Retrieved September 4 2019 A Guide to the Filipino Chinese Wedding Rituals Wedding Article Kasal com The Essential Philippine Wedding Planning Guide www kasal com July 5 2009 Philippine Funeral Customs MegaScene www megascene net Palanca Clinton July 11 2007 Beyond Binondo and Ma Ling Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism Official Website of Hope Christian High School Alumni Association of America hopealumniofamerica org Archived from the original on March 26 2008 Teresita Ang See Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism Association Of Volunteer Fire Chiefs amp Fire Fighter philippinefirefighter org Archived from the original on March 8 2008 Retrieved February 24 2008 About Yuchengco Museum a b Tong Chee Kiong 2010 Identity and ethnic relations in Southeast Asia Springer p 99 ISBN 978 90 481 8908 3 Katz Paul R Rubinstein Murray A 2003 Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities Springer p 279 ISBN 1403981736 Huang Junjie 1895 2005 Taiwan in transformation Transaction Publishers p 164 ISBN 978 0 7658 0311 5 Tan Michael L October 18 2019 My huan na uncle Philippine Daily Inquirer Retrieved January 10 2021 MANILA S CHINATOWN CLOSES TO PROTEST KIDNAPPINGS Union of Catholic Asian News UCA News December 7 1997 Retrieved January 10 2021 WebSpawner WHK WALANG HANGGANG KASAKIMAN BOOKLET 1 TO 10 Archived from the original on October 29 2013 Retrieved May 17 2013 Suhandinata Ir Justian 2013 Indonesian Chinese Descent in Indonesia s Economy And Political Gramedia Pustaka Utama p 222 ISBN 978 9792237627 Bankoff Greg Weekley Kathleen 2017 Post Colonial National Identity in the Philippines Celebrating the Centennial of Independence Routledge p 68 ISBN 978 1351742092 Dizon David March 28 2008 Hostage taker Jun Ducat continues crusade behind bars ABS CBN News Retrieved January 11 2021 Huang Echo Stegar Isabella 2016 A gullible nation of maids and banana sellers How many Chinese see the Philippines Report via Quartz News OPINION A Chinese Filipino teen speaks out on racism and the coronavirus February 5 2020 Tiu Col February 5 2020 OPINION A Chinese Filipino teen speaks out on racism and the coronavirus Rappler Retrieved January 10 2021 Groups decry racism against Chinese amid coronavirus outbreak CNN Philippines February 1 2020 Retrieved January 10 2021 Blair Emma Helen amp Robertson James Alexander eds 1907 The Philippine Islands 1493 1898 Vol 52 of 55 1841 1898 Cleveland Ohio Arthur H Clark Company p 86 ISBN 978 1150934186 OCLC 769944926 Explorations by early navigators descriptions of the islands and their peoples their history and records of the catholic missions as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts showing the political economic commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century a b c d e f g Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing pp 37 ISBN 978 0385721868 Hodder Rupert 2005 The Study of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia Some Comments on its Political Meanings with Particular Reference to the Philippines Philippine Studies Quezon City Philippines Ateneo de Manila University 53 1 8 Weldon Lucy 1997 Private Banking A Global Perspective Woodhead Publishing p 59 ISBN 978 1855733282 April K Shockley M 2007 Diversity New Realities in a Changing World Palgrave Macmillan published February 6 2007 pp 169 ISBN 978 0230001336 Weldon Lucy 1997 Private Banking A Global Perspective Woodhead Publishing p 59 ISBN 978 1855733282 Galtung Marte Kjaer Stenslie Stig 2014 49 Myths about China Rowman amp Littlefield p 99 ISBN 978 1442236226 Safarian A E Dobson Wendy 1997 The People Link Human Resource Linkages Across The Pacific University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0802042996 a b c d e f Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing pp 3 4 ISBN 978 0385721868 a b c d e f Chua Amy L January 1 1998 Markets Democracy and Ethnicity Toward A New Paradigm For Law and Development The Yale Law Journal 108 1 60 doi 10 2307 797471 JSTOR 797471 Hiebert Murray 2020 Under Beijing s Shadow Southeast Asia s China Challenge Center for Strategic amp International Studies p 518 ISBN 978 1442281387 a b Herr Paul 2009 Primal Management Unraveling the Secrets of Human Nature to Drive High Performance AMACOM ISBN 9780814413975 Retrieved May 7 2012 Suryadinata Leo 2014 Southeast Asia s Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization Coping with the Rise of China Institute of Southeast Asian Studies published January 2 2014 p 276 a b Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing pp 4 ISBN 978 0385721868 Richter Frank Jurgen 1999 Business Networks in Asia Promises Doubts and Perspectives Praeger p 199 ISBN 978 1567203028 Suryadinata Leo 2006 Southeast Asia s Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 258 a b c d e f g h Hedman Eva Lotta Sidel John 2000 Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century Colonial Legacies Post Colonial Trajectories 1st ed Routledge published November 9 2000 pp 77 ISBN 978 0415147903 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 102 ISBN 978 0700714155 Huang Kuo Chu 1999 The Chinese in the Philippine Economy 1898 1941 Ateneo University Press p 2 ISBN 9789715503235 Gomez Terence Tarling Nicholas 2008 The State Development and Identity in Multi Ethnic Societies Ethnicity Equity and the Nation Taylor amp Francis p 158 ISBN 978 1134056811 Santasombat Yos 2017 Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia Cultures and Practices Palgrave Macmillan p 110 ISBN 978 9811046957 Haley G T Haley U C V 1998 Boxing with Shadows Competing Effectively with the Overseas Chinese and Overseas Indian Business Networks in the Asian Arena Journal of Organizational Change Bingley Emerald Group Publishing 11 4 303 doi 10 1108 09534819810225878 Rogers Jim 2014 Hot Commodities How Anyone Can Invest Profitably in the World s Best Market Wiley amp Sons p 105 ISBN 978 0470015322 Naisbitt John 1996 Megatrends Asia The Eight Asian Megatrends that are Changing the World Nicholas Brealey p 20 ISBN 978 1857881400 Slezkine Yuri 2004 The Jewish Century Princeton University Press p 41 Hiebert Murray 2020 Under Beijing s Shadow Southeast Asia s China Challenge Center for Strategic amp International Studies p 518 ISBN 978 1442281387 Ma Laurence J C 2002 The Chinese Diaspora Space Place Mobility and Identity Why of Where Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers p 98 ISBN 978 0742517561 Buzan Barry Foot Rosemary 2004 Does China Matter A Reassessment Essays in Memory of Gerald Segal Routledge published May 10 2004 p 82 ISBN 978 0415304122 Bert Wayne 2003 The United States China and Southeast Asian Security A Changing of the Guard Palgrave Macmillan pp 123 ISBN 978 0333995655 Collas Monsod Solita June 22 2012 Ethnic Chinese dominate PH economy The Inquirer Kreisler Harry January 22 2004 Origins of an Idea Institute of International Studies Chua Amy 2014 A World On The Edge The Wilson Quarterly Brzezinski Zbigniew 2004 The Choice Global Domination or Global Leadership Basic Books pp 174 ISBN 978 0465008001 Carney Michael 2008 Asian Business Groups Context Governance and Performance Chandos Publishing p 238 ISBN 978 1843342441 Pablos Patricia 2008 The China Information Technology Handbook Springer p 206 Parker Barbara 2005 Introduction to Globalization and Business Relationships and Responsibilities SAGE Publications ISBN 9780761944959 Retrieved May 9 2012 Hodder Rupert 2005 The Study of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia Some Comments on its Political Meanings with Particular Reference to the Philippines Philippine Studies Quezon City Philippines Ateneo de Manila University 53 1 8 Slezkine Yuri 2004 The Jewish Century Princeton University Press p 41 Hiebert Murray 2020 Under Beijing s Shadow Southeast Asia s China Challenge Center for Strategic amp International Studies p 518 ISBN 978 1442281387 a b Chua Amy 2018 Political Tribes Group Instinct and the Fate of Nations Penguin Press p 48 ISBN 978 0399562853 Carney Michael 2008 Asian Business Groups Context Governance and Performance Chandos Asian Studies Series Chandos Publishing p 238 ISBN 978 1843342441 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 8 ISBN 978 0700714155 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 109 ISBN 978 0700714155 Slezkine Yuri 2004 The Jewish Century Princeton University Press p 41 Philippines Market Capsule Review Asiamarketresearch com Archived from the original on April 27 2012 Retrieved April 23 2012 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees September 19 1997 Refworld Chronology for Chinese in Thailand UNHCR Retrieved April 23 2012 a b Gambe Annabelle 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan p 34 ISBN 978 0312234966 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 107 ISBN 978 0700714155 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 107 ISBN 978 0700714155 Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 107 ISBN 978 0700714155 Collings Anthony 2001 Words of Fire Independent Journalists who Challenge Dictators Drug Lords and Other Enemies of a Free Press New York City NYU Press published June 1 2001 p 149 ISBN 978 0814716052 Philippine Democracy Agenda Civil society making civil society Third World Studies Center 1997 p 249 ISBN 978 9719111153 Chang Maria Hsia 1998 The Labors of Sisyphus The Economic Development of Communist China Routledge p 243 ISBN 9780765806611 Redding S G 1993 The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism Walter de Gruyter ISBN 9783110137941 Retrieved April 23 2012 Chang Maria Hsia 1998 The Labors of Sisyphus The Economic Development of Communist China Routledge p 243 ISBN 9780765806611 Bafoil Francois 2013 Resilient States from a Comparative Regional Perspective Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia World Scientific Publishing p 23 ISBN 978 9814417464 Baron Barnett FUNDING CIVIL SOCIETY IN ASIA PDF THE ASIA FOUNDATION Tipton Frank B 2008 Asian Firms History Institutions and Management Edward Elgar Publishing p 277 ISBN 978 1847205148 Pablos Patricia Ordonez de Lytras Miltiadis D 2010 The China Information Technology Handbook Springer Science amp Business Media ISBN 9780387777436 Retrieved April 23 2012 a b Gomez Terence E Hsiao Michael Hsin Huang 2013 Chinese Business in Southeast Asia Contesting Cultural Explanations Researching Entrepreneurship Routledge p 108 ISBN 978 0700714155 Yu Bin Chung Tsungting 1996 Dynamics and Dilemma Mainland Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World Nova Science Publishing Inc published September 1 1996 p 72 ISBN 978 1560723035 a b c d e Gambe Annabelle 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan p 32 ISBN 978 0312234966 Yen Ching Hwang 2008 The Chinese In Southeast Asia And Beyond The Socioeconomic And Political Dimensions Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions World Scientific Publishing p 321 ISBN 978 9812790477 Yeung Henry Wai Chung Olds Kris 1999 The Globalisation of Chinese Business Firms Palgrave Macmillan p 8 ISBN 978 0333716298 Chaisse Julien Gugler Philippe 2009 Expansion of Trade and FDI in Asia Strategic and Policy Challenges Taylor amp Francis p 42 ISBN 978 1135786755 Tongzon Jose L 2002 The Economies of Southeast Asia Before and After the Crisis Edward Elgar Publishing p 216 ISBN 978 1843767442 Yeung Henry Wai Chung 2005 Chinese Capitalism in a Global Era Towards a Hybrid Capitalism Routledge p 15 ISBN 978 0415309899 Branson Douglas M 2007 No Seat at the Table How Corporate Governance and Law Keep Women Out of the Boardroom NYU Press p 140 ISBN 9780814799734 Retrieved April 23 2012 overseas chinese control percent of largest companies Santasombat Yos 2017 Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia Cultures and Practices Palgrave Macmillan p 110 ISBN 978 9811046957 Hiebert Murray 2020 Under Beijing s Shadow Southeast Asia s China Challenge Center for Strategic amp International Studies p 518 ISBN 978 1442281387 Freidheim Cyrus December 13 2007 The Trillion Dollar Enterprise How the Alliance Revolution Will Transform Cyrus F Freidheim Cyrus Freidheim Google Books ISBN 9780465010561 Retrieved April 23 2012, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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