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Thai Chinese

August 19, 2023

This article is about people of Chinese origin in Thailand. For people of Chinese origin in Phuket and the Chinese minority in Northern Thailand, see Peranakans and Chin Haw.

Thai Chinese (also known as Chinese Thais, Sino-Thais), Thais of Chinese origin (Thai: ชาวไทยเชื้อสายจีน; exonym and also domestically)[a] are Chinese descendants in Thailand. Thai Chinese are the largest minority group in the country and the largest overseas Chinese community in the world with a population of approximately 7-10 million people, accounting for 11–14% of the total population of the country as of 2012.[4][5][6] It is also the oldest and most prominently integrated overseas Chinese community, with a history dating back to the 1100s. Slightly more than half of the ethnic Chinese population in Thailand trace their ancestry to Chaoshan. This is evidenced by the prevalence of the Teochew dialect among the Chinese community in Thailand as well as other Chinese languages.[7]: 93  The term as commonly understood signifies those whose ancestors immigrated to Thailand before 1949.

Thai Chinese
华裔泰国人 or 華裔泰國人
ชาวไทยเชื้อสายจีน
Wat Mangkon Kamalawat, a Chinese Buddhist temple in Thailand
Total population
c. 7-10 million[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
Thailand
9.5 million (2014)[3]
Throughout the country
Significant diaspora in:
 Australia
 United States
 Canada
 Taiwan
 Malaysia
 Singapore
Languages
Primarily
Thai (lingua franca)
Second language
Hokkien, Hakka, Teochew, Hainan, Cantonese, Mandarin
Religion
Predominantly
Theravada Buddhism
Minorities
Agnostic, Chinese folk religion, Mahayana Buddhism, Christianity, Chinese Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
Thais
Peranakans
Overseas Chinese
Han Chinese
Thai Chinese
Traditional Chinese華裔泰國人
Simplified Chinese华裔泰国人
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHuáyì Tàiguórén
Yue: Cantonese
JyutpingWaa4 Jeoi6 Taai3 Gwok3 Jan4
Southern Min
Hokkien POJHôa-è Thài-kok-lâng
Tâi-lôHuâ-è Thài-kok-lâng
Teochew Peng'imHuê 1 i6 tai3 gog4 nang5

The Thai Chinese have been deeply ingrained into all elements of Thai society over the past 200 years. The present Thai royal family, the Chakri dynasty, was founded by King Rama I who himself was partly Chinese.[8] His predecessor, King Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom, was the son of a Chinese father from Chaoshan.[9] With the successful integration of historic Chinese immigrant communities in Thailand, a significant number of Thai Chinese are the descendants of intermarriages between ethnic Chinese and native Thais. Many of these descendants have assimilated into Thai society and self-identify solely as Thai.[10][11][12]

Thai Chinese are a well-established middle class ethnic group and are well represented at all levels of Thai society.[13][14][15]: 3, 43 [16][17] They play a leading role in Thailand's business sector and dominate the Thai economy today.[18]: 22 [15]: 179 [19][20] In addition, Thai Chinese elites of Thailand have a strong presence in Thailand's political scene with most of Thailand's former Prime Ministers and the majority of parliament having at least some Chinese ancestry.[21][22][18]: 58 [23] Thai Chinese elites of Thailand are well represented among Thailand's rulers and other sectors.[24][25]

Demographics

Thailand has the largest overseas Chinese community in the world outside Greater China.[26] 11 to 14 percent of Thailand's population are considered ethnic Chinese. The Thai linguist Theraphan Luangthongkum claims the share of those having at least partial Chinese ancestry allegedly at about 40 percent of the Thai population without any proof.[5]

A 2013 study of the Thai population genetic structure found the presence of a distinctive Chinese ancestry concentrated in Central Thailand, but it also found that this Chinese ancestry did not constitute a majority of the Central Thai gene pool. Thus somewhat refuting Theraphan Luangthongkum's over-estimated claims on the frequency of Chinese ancestry throughout the general Thai population.[27]

Identity

For assimilated second and third generation descendants of Chinese immigrants, it is principally a personal choice whether or not to identify themselves as ethnic Chinese.[28] Nonetheless, nearly all Thai Chinese solely self-identify as Thai, due to their close integration and successful assimilation into Thai society.[29][30] G. William Skinner observed that the level of assimilation of the descendants of Chinese immigrants in Thailand disproved the "myth about the 'unchanging Chinese'", noting that "assimilation is considered complete when the immigrant's descendant identifies himself in almost all social situations as a Thai, speaks Thai language habitually and with native fluency, and interacts by choice with Thai more often than with Chinese."[31]: 237  Skinner believed that the assimilation success of the Thai Chinese was a result of the wise policy of the Thai rulers who, since the 17th century, allowed able Chinese tradesmen to advance their ranks into the kingdom's nobility.[31]: 240–241  The rapid and successful assimilation of the Thai Chinese has been celebrated by the Chinese descendants themselves, as evident in contemporary literature such as the novel Letters from Thailand (Thai: จดหมายจากเมืองไทย) by Botan.[32]

Today, the Thai Chinese constitute a significant part of the royalist/nationalist movements. When the then prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who is Thai Chinese, was ousted from power in 2006, it was Sondhi Limthongkul, another prominent Thai Chinese businessman, who formed and led People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) movement to protest the successive governments run by Thaksin's allies.[33][34] Mr. Sondhi accused Mr. Thaksin of corruption based on improper business ties between Thaksin's corporate empire and the Singapore-based Temasek Holdings Group.[35] The Thai Chinese in and around Bangkok were also the main participants of the months-long political campaign against the government of Ms. Yingluck (Mr. Thaksin's sister), between November 2013 and May 2014, the event which culminated in the military takeover in May 2014.[36]

History

Traders from China began arriving in Ayutthaya by at least the 12th century. In the 1420s, Chinese merchants were involved in the construction of the major Ayutthaya temple Wat Ratchaburana and left several Chinese inscriptions and cultural objects within the temple's crypt, including the inscribing of several Chinese family names.[37] According to the Chronicles of Ayutthaya, Ekathotsarot (r. 1605–1610) had been "concerned solely with ways of enriching his treasury," and was "greatly inclined toward strangers and foreign nations".

Following the Qing revocation of the private trade ban in 1684, Chinese immigration to Siam steadily increased, particularly following the massive Southern Chinese famines of the early 18th century. Approximately 20,000 Chinese lived in Siam in the 1730s[b] and were prominent in the city of Ayutthaya and were a prominent faction within the Siamese court by 1767.[38]

When King Taksin, himself the son of a Chinese immigrant, ruled Thailand, King Taksin actively encouraged Chinese immigration and trade. Chinese settlers came to Siam in large numbers.[39] Immigration continued over the following years, and the Chinese population in Thailand jumped from 230,000 in 1825 to 792,000 by 1910. By 1932, approximately 12.2 percent of the population of Thailand was Chinese.[40]

The early Chinese immigration consisted almost entirely of men who did not bring women. Therefore, it became common for male Chinese immigrants to marry local Thai women. The children of such relationships were called Sino-Thai[41] or luk-jin (ลูกจีน) in Thai.[42] These Chinese-Thai intermarriages declined somewhat in the early 20th century, when significant numbers of Chinese women also began immigrating to Thailand.

Economic recession and unemployment forced many men to leave China for Thailand in search of work to seek wealth. If successful, they sent money back to their families in China. Many Chinese immigrants prospered under the "tax farming" system, whereby private individuals were sold the right to collect taxes at a price below the value of the tax revenues.

The local Chinese community had long dominated domestic commerce and had served as agents for royal trade monopolies. With the rise of European economic influence, however, many Chinese shifted to opium trafficking and tax collecting, both of which were despised occupations.

From 1882 to 1917, nearly 13,000 to 34,000 Chinese legally entered Thailand per year, mostly settling in Bangkok and along the coast of the Gulf of Siam. They predominated in occupations requiring arduous labor, skills, or entrepreneurship. They worked as blacksmiths, railroad labourers and rickshaw pullers. While most Thais were engaged in rice production, the Chinese brought new farming ideas and new methods to supply labor on its rubber plantations, both domestically and internationally.[43] However, republican ideas brought by the Chinese were considered seditious by the Thai government. For example, a translation of Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People was banned under the Communism Act of 1933. The government had regulated Chinese schools even before compulsory education was established in the country, starting with the Private Schools Act of 1918. This act required all foreign teachers to pass a Thai language test and for principals of all schools to implement standards set by the Thai Ministry of Education.[44]

Legislation by King Rama VI (1910–1925) that required the adoption of Thai surnames was largely directed at the Chinese community as a number of ethnic Chinese families left Burma between 1930 and 1950 and settled in the Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi Provinces of western Thailand. A few of the ethnic Chinese families in that area had already emigrated from Burma in the 19th century.

The Chinese in Thailand also suffered discrimination between the 1930s and 1950s under the military dictatorship of Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram (in spite of having part-Chinese ancestry himself),[45] which allied itself with the Empire of Japan. The Primary Education Act of 1932 made the Thai language the compulsory medium of education, but as a result of protests from Thai Chinese, by 1939, students were allowed two hours per week of Mandarin instruction.[44] State corporations took over commodities such as rice, tobacco, and petroleum and Chinese businesses found themselves subject to a range of new taxes and controls. By 1970, more than 90 percent of the Chinese born in Thailand had abandoned Chinese citizenship and were granted Thai citizenship instead. In 1975, diplomatic relations were established with China.[46]

Culture

Intermarriage with Thais has resulted in many people who claim Thai ethnicity with Chinese ancestry.[47] People of Chinese descent are concentrated in the coastal areas of Thailand, principally Bangkok.[48] Considerable segments of Thailand's academic, business, and political elites are of Chinese descent.[5]

Language

See also: Language and overseas Chinese communities § Thailand

Today, nearly all ethnic Chinese in Thailand speak Thai exclusively. Only elderly Chinese immigrants still speak their native varieties of Chinese. The rapid and successful assimilation of Thai Chinese has been celebrated in contemporary literature such as "Letters from Thailand" (Thai: จดหมายจากเมืองไทย) by a Thai Chinese author Botan.[49] In the modern Thai language there are many signs of Chinese influence.[50] In the 2000 census, 231,350 people identified themselves as speakers of a variant of Chinese (Teochew, Hokkien, Hainanese, Cantonese, or Hakka).[5] The Teochew dialect has served as the language of Bangkok's influential Chinese merchants' circles since the foundation of the city in the 18th century. Although Chinese language schools were closed during the nationalist period before and during the Second World War, the Thai government never tried to suppress Chinese cultural expression. Today, businesses in Yaowarat Road and Charoen Krung Road in Bangkok's Samphanthawong District which constitute the city's "Chinatown" still feature bilingual signs in Chinese and Thai.[51] A number of Chinese words have found their way into the Thai language, especially the names of dishes and foodstuffs, as well as basic numbers (such as those from "three" to "ten") and terms related to gambling.[5] Chin Haw Chinese speak Southwestern Mandarin.

The rise of China's prominence on the global economic stage has prompted many Thai Chinese business families to see Mandarin as a beneficial asset in partaking in economic links and conducting business between Thailand and Mainland China, with some families encouraging their children to learn Mandarin in order to reap the benefits of their ethnic Chinese identity and the increasing role of Mandarin as a prominent language of Overseas Chinese business communities.[15]: 184–185 [18]: 59 [15]: 179 [52]: 55  However, equally there are many Thais, regardless of their ethnic background who study Chinese in order to boost their business and career opportunities, rather than due to reasons of ethnic identity, with some sending their children to newly established Mandarin language schools.[15]: 184–185 

Trade and industry

Main articles: Bamboo network and Economy of Thailand
 
The Stock Exchange of Thailand is now pullulated with a myriad of prospering Chinese-owned businesses. Thai investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Stock Exchange of Thailand as they are estimated to control more than four-fifths of the publicly listed companies by market capitalization.[53][54]

The Thai Chinese community has played a major role in the development of Thailand's economy and national private sector.[55] The early-21st century saw Thais of Chinese ancestry dominate Thai commerce at every level of society.[56][57][58][59][60][15]: 127, 179  Their economic clout plays a critical role in maintaining the country's economic vitality and prosperity.[52]: 47–48  The economic power of the Thai Chinese is far greater than their proportion of the population would suggest.[15]: 179 [61]: 277  With their powerful economic presence, the Chinese continue to remain a major impetus underpinning the Thailand's commercial undertakings and economic activities and virtually make up the country's entire wealthy elite.[15]: 179 [62] Thailand's lack of an indigenous Thai commercial culture led to the private sector being dominated entirely by Thais of Chinese ancestry themselves.[63][64] Development policies imposed by the Thai government provided business opportunities for the Chinese community, where a distinct Thai Chinese business community has emerged as country's the dominant economic group, controlling the entirety of the country's major industry sectors across the Thai economy.[55][65]: 72  The Chinese community has remained active in every sector of Thailand's economy such as agriculture (sugar, maize, vegetables, rubber), industrial manufacturing, financial services, real estate, and the retail and whole trading sector.[55] The contemporary Thai business sector is highly dependent on Han Chinese entrepreneurs and investors who control virtually all the country's banks and large corporate conglomerates all the way to the smaller retail hawking outlets at the humbler end of the business spectrum with their support and patronage being augmented by the presence of lawmakers and political operatives, where the vast majority of whom are of pure or partial Chinese ancestry themselves.[66][21][67][15]: 179  Thais of Chinese ancestry, a disproportionate wealthy, market-dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community, they also form, by and large, an economically advantaged social class: the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to the poorer indigenous Thai majority working and underclass counterparts around them.[15]: 179–183 [21][68][69][70][61]: 261  Highly publicized profiles of wealthy Chinese entrepreneurs and investors attracted great public interest and were used to illustrate the community's strong economic clout.[71] More than 80 percent of the top 40 richest people in Thailand are of pure or partial Chinese ancestry.[72] Of the five billionaires in Thailand in the late-20th century, all of them were of full or at least had partial Han Chinese ancestry.[73][74][75] On March 17, 2012, Chaleo Yoovidhya, of humble Chinese origin, passed away while listed on Forbes list of billionaires as 205th in the world and 3rd in the nation, with an estimated net worth of US$5 billion.[76]

Amounting to 10 percent of Thailand's population, the Thai Chinese own approximately 85 percent of the nation's entire economy.[77] Thai investors of Chinese ancestry control more than 80 percent of public companies listed on the Thai stock exchange.[53][54] With 80% of Thailand's market capital under Chinese hands, many Thai entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were at the forefront of the establishing the country's most prominent wholesale trading cooperatives owned by traders, merchants, and brokers flush with private equity and venture capital bearing connections to some of Thailand's wealthiest business families.[78][54] 10 Thai business families of Chinese ancestry control half of the all corporate assets in the country.[79] 50 Thai business families of Chinese ancestry control the country's entire corporate sectors equivalent to 81–90 percent of the overall market capitalization of the entire Thai economy.[80][81][82][55][83][84][85][11]: 10 [86][87][88]

British East India Company agent John Crawfurd used detailed company records kept on Prince of Wales's Island (present-day Penang) from 1815 to 1824 to report specifically on the economic aptitude of the 8,595 Chinese there as compared to others. He used the data to estimate the Chinese — about five-sixths of whom were unmarried men in the prime of life — "as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37,000, and...to a numerical Malay population of more than 80,000!".[89]: p.30  He surmised this and other differences noted as providing, "a very just estimate of the comparative state of civilization among nations, or, which is the same thing, of the respective merits of their different social institutions."[89]: p.34  In 1879, the Chinese controlled all of the steam-powered rice mills, most of which were sold by the British. Most of the leading businessmen in Thailand at this point in time were of Chinese ancestry and accounted for a significant portion of the Thai upper class.[90] In 1890, despite British shipping domination in Bangkok, Thais of Chinese ancestry conducted 62 percent of the Thai shipping sector, operating as agents for Western shipping lines as well as their own.[90] The Chinese also dominated the rubber industry, market gardening, sugar production, and fish export sectors. In Bangkok, Thais of Chinese ancestry dominate the entertainment and media industries, being the pioneers of Thailand's early publishing houses, newspapers, and film studios.[91] Thai Chinese moneylenders also wielded considerable economic power over the poorer indigenous Thai peasants, prompting accusations of Chinese bribery of government officials, wars between the Chinese secret societies, and the use of violent tactics to collect taxes. Chinese success served to foster Thai resentment against the Chinese at a time when their community was expanding rapidly. Waves of Han Chinese immigration swept into Siam in the 19th and early-20th centuries, peaking in the 1920s. Whereas Chinese bankers were accused of plunging the Thai peasant into poverty by charging high-interest rates, the reality was that the Thai banking business was highly competitive. Chinese millers and rice traders were blamed for the economic recession that gripped Siam for nearly a decade after 1905.[43] The Chinese then moved into extractive industries such as tin mining, logging and sawmilling, rice milling, as well as the construction of ports and railways that would usher in Thailand's modern transportation industry.[52]: 48  Though the Chinese were acknowledged for their industriousness, they were nonetheless scorned by many. In the late 19th century, a British official in Siam said that "the Chinese are the Jews of Siam ... by judicious use of their business faculties and their powers of combination, they hold the Siamese in the palm of their hand."[92] In addition, Chinese millers and rice traders were blamed for an economic recession that gripped Siam for nearly a decade after 1905.[90] Large waves of Han Chinese immigration occurred in the nineteenth and early in the twentieth century, peaking in the 1920s from southern China who was eager to make money and return to their families. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Chinese would lose their control of foreign trade to the European colonial powers and began to act as compradors for Western trading cooperatives. Thais of Chinese ancestry also entered extraction intensive industries such as tin mining, teak-cutting, saw milling, rice-milling, as well as fostered the modernization of the Thai transportation sector through the construction of ports and railways.[93]

 
Bangkok continues to serve as Thailand's major financial district and central business networking nucleus for Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry.

By the early 20th century, the resident Chinese community in Bangkok was sizable, amounting to a third of the capital's population.[94] Anti-Chinese sentiment was rife.[15]: 179–183  In 1914, the Thai nationalist King Vajiravudh (Rama VI), published a pamphlet in Thai and English—The Jews of the East— employing a pseudonym. In it, he lambasted the Chinese.[95][96][97] He described them as "avaricious barbarians who were 'entirely devoid of morals and mercy'."[92] He depicted successful Chinese businessmen as reaping their commercial success at the expense of indigenous Thais, prompting some Thai politicians to blame Thai Chinese businessmen for Thailand's economic hardships.[69] King Vajiravudh's views were influential among elite Thais and were quickly adopted by ordinary Thais, fueling their suspicion of and hostility against the Chinese minority.[15]: 181–183  The glaring wealth disparity and the abject poverty of the indigenous Thais resulted in them blaming their socioeconomic ills on the Chinese, especially Chinese moneylenders. Beginning in the late-1930s and recommencing in the 1950s, the Thai government dealt with wealth disparities by pursuing a campaign of forced assimilation achieved through property confiscation, forced expropriation, coercive social policies, and anti-Chinese cultural suppression, seeking to eradicate Han consciousness and identity.[15]: 183 [18]: 58  Thai Chinese became the targets of state discrimination while indigenous Thais were granted economic privileges.[98] The Siamese revolution of 1932 only coagulated the grip of Thai nationalism, culminating in World War II when Thailand's Japanese ally was at war with China.[94]

After 1947 coup d'état, Thailand was an agrarian economy hobbled by state-owned enterprises.[99] Thais of Chinese ancestry provided the impetus for Thailand's industrialization, transforming the Thai economy into an export-oriented, trade-based economy with a global reach.[61]: 261  Over the next several decades, internationalization and capitalist market-oriented policies led to the dramatic emergence of a massive export-oriented, large-scale manufacturing sector, which in turn catapulted Thailand into joining the Tiger Cub Economies.[100] Virtually all the industrial manufacturing and import-export shipping firms establishments including the auto manufacturing behemoth Siam Motors are Chinese controlled.[100][91] In the years between World War I and World War II, Thailand's major exports, rice, tin, rubber, and timber were under Chinese hands.[101] Despite their small numbers as compared to the indigenous Thai population, the Chinese controlled virtually every line of business, ranging from small retail trade to large industries. Comprising merely ten percent of the population, the Chinese dominated over four-fifths of the country's vital rice, tin, rubber, and timber exports, and virtually controlled the country's entire wholesale and retail trade.[102] By 1924, Thais of Chinese ancestry controlled one-third of all the sawmills in Bangkok. Market gardening, sugar production (The Chinese introduced the sugar industry to Thailand), and fish exporting was also dominated by the Chinese.[103][104] Virtually all of the newly minted manufacturing establishments were Chinese controlled. Despite failed Thai affirmative action-based policies in the 1930s to economically empower the impoverished indigenous Thai majority, 70 percent of retailing outlets and 80 to 90 percent of rice mills remained Chinese-controlled.[105] A survey of Thailand's roughly seventy most powerful business groups found that all but three were owned by Thai Chinese.[106][107] Although Bangkok has its own Chinatown, Chinese economic influence is much more pervasive and subtle throughout the city. With Bangkok's Thai Chinese clan associations are prominent throughout the city as the family clans are major property holders and retain ownership of all the non-profit Chinese-operated schools.[55] With Bangkok being the testament that reflected the extent of Chinese influence on Thailand's economic life, virtually all of Bangkok's most successful business elites are of pure Han Chinese or at least of partial Han Chinese ancestry.[108] Thai entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry who control much of Thai industry, are seen as a wellspring of upfront private equity and venture capital that serve as chief financial backers behind Thailand's latest investment developments including funding Thailand's newest construction projects in addition to financing the country's state-of-the-art telecommunications sector,[108] as Thai entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are the key power players behind Thailand's telecommunications industry, being at the forefront of several well-known Thai telecom operators such as the Shinawatra telecommunications group, True Corporation, Jasmine, Ucom, and Samar.[109] Kukrit Pramoj, the aristocratic former prime minister and distant relative of the Thai royal family, once said that most Thais had a Chinese relative "hanging somewhere on their family tree."[110][111] By the 1930s, the Thai Chinese minority dominated construction, industrial manufacturing, publishing, shipping, finance, commerce, and every industry in the country, minor, and major.[91] Among the minor industries that they presided were food vending, salt, tobacco, port, and bird's nest concessions.[112][113] Among the major lucrative industries, the Chinese involved in shipping, rice milling, rubber and tin manufacturing, teak logging, and petroleum drilling.[112]

By the late-1950s, Thais of Chinese ancestry comprised 70 percent of Bangkok's business owners and senior business managers, and 90 percent of the shares in Thai corporations were said to be held by Thai investors of Chinese ancestry.[114][115] Ninety percent of Thailand's industrial and commercial capital are also held by the Chinese.[116][65]: 73  90 percent of all investments in the industrial and commercial sector and at least 50 percent of all investments in the banking and financial sectors are controlled by the Chinese.[117][116][118][119]: 33 [65][118] Economic advantages would also persist as Thai rice merchants of Chinese ancestry controlled 80–90 percent of Thailand's rice mills, the largest merchant food enterprises in the nation.[43] Of the 25 leading entrepreneurs in the Thai business sector, 23 are of Han Chinese or at least of partial Han Chinese ancestry. Thais of Chinese ancestry also comprise 96 percent of Thailand's 70 most powerful business groups.[120][15]: 35 [121] Family firms are extremely common in the Thai business sector as they are passed down from one generation to the next.[122] 90 percent of Thailand's industrial manufacturing sector and 50 percent of Thailand's service sector are controlled by the Chinese.[123][124][125][126][127] According to a Financial Statistics of the 500 Largest Public Companies in Asia Controlled by Overseas Chinese in 1994 chart released by Singaporean geographer Dr. Henry Yeung of the National University of Singapore, 39 companies were concentrated in Thailand with a market capitalization of US$35 billion and total assets of US$95 billion.[128][124] Thais of Chinese ancestry control Thailand's largest private banks: Bangkok Bank (the largest and most profitable in Southeast Asia), Thai Farmers Bank, and the Bank of Ayudhya.[129][124][130][126][115]: 193 [18]: 22 [67][131][55] Of the 20 Thai banks that were founded in the years between 1930 and 1950, the Thai Chinese were behind the establishment of 14 of them while the remaining 6 banks were established by the Thai Crown Property Bureau.[132] Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry are influential in the country's real estate, agriculture, banking, and finance, and the wholesale trading industries.[55] In Central Siam, Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry control the entirety of the area's residential and commercial real estate and raw land.[112] The Thai Chinese (mainly of Yunnanese origin) also cornered Chiangmai's lucrative gem industry and ended up owning much of the city's fruit orchards, restaurants, and retail shops while profiting handsomely off of the city's land boom that occurred throughout the late 1980s.[133] During the 1980s, Thai-Chinese business groups controlled 37 out of the 100 largest companies in the nation; with much of the wealth merely concentrated in the hands of five Teochew families.[77] In the 1990s, among the top ten Thai businesses in terms of sales, nine of them were Chinese-owned with only Siam Cement being the sole firm that was not Chinese-owned.[103][134] Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis, structural reforms imposed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on Indonesia and Thailand led to the loss of many monopolistic positions long held by the Thai Chinese business elite.[135] In spite of the financial and economic downturn, Thais of Chinese ancestry were still estimated to own 65 percent of the total banking assets, 60 percent of the national trade, 90 percent of all local investments in the commercial sector, 90 percent of all local investments in the manufacturing sector, and 50 percent of all local investments in the banking and financial services sector.[118][136][137]

With the rise of China as a global economic power, Thai businesses under Chinese hands are now at the forefront of opening up the country's economy for foreign direct investment from Mainland China and Thai businesses that are Chinese-owned are now the largest sources of investors in Mainland China among all overseas Chinese communities worldwide.[138][139] The influx of Thai Chinese investment capital into Mainland China has led to a resurgence of Chinese cultural pride among the Thai Chinese community while concurrently pursuing new business and investment opportunities while bringing their influx of foreign capital to create new jobs and economic niches on the Mainland. Many Thais of Chinese ancestry have begun to rekindle with their long-lost Han ancestral roots, have sent their children to newly established Chinese language schools, visited China in record numbers, invested money in the Mainland Chinese economy, and assumed Chinese surnames alongside their Thai names.[140] The Charoen Pokphand (CP Group), a prominent Chinese-owned Thai conglomerate claiming $9 billion in assets with US$25 billion in annual sales founded by the Chearavanonts, a prominent Thai business family of Chinese ancestry which is one of the most powerful conglomerate companies investing in Mainland China today.[141] The conglomerate company is currently the single largest foreign investor in China with over US$1 billion invested with hundreds of businesses across a multivarieted range of industries traversing from agricultural food products, aquaculture, retail, hospitality, and industrial manufacturing while employing more than 150,000 people in Mainland China.[103][134][142][139][141] The company is known in China under well-known household names such as the "Chia Tai Group" and "Zheng Da Ji Tuan". The CP Group also owns and operates Tesco Lotus, one of the largest foreign hypermarket operators with 74 stores and seven distribution centers throughout 30 cities across the Mainland. One of CP Group's flagship businesses in China is a US$400 million Super Brand Mall, the largest mall in Shanghai's exclusive Pudong business district. Reignwood Pine Valley, CP also controls Telecom Asia, a prominent telecommunications and mobile phone manufacturing company in a joint venture with British Telecom since making its foray into the Thai telecommunications industry.[142] Mainland China's most exclusive golf and country clubs, were established and owned by a Thai business tycoon of Chinese ancestry, Chanchai Rouyrungruen (operator of Red Bull drink business in China). It is cited as the most popular golf course in Asia. In 2008, Chanchai became the first owner of a business jet in Mainland China.[143] Anand's Saha-Union, Thailand's leading industrial group, have so far invested over US$1.5 billion in China, and is operating more than 11 power plants in three of China's provinces. With over other 30 businesses in China, the company employs approximately 7000 Chinese workers.[139] Central Group, Thailand's largest operator of shopping centers (and owner of Italy's leading high-end department store, La Rinascente) with US$3.5 billion in annual sales was established by the Chirathivats, a Thai business family of Chinese ancestry, have created three new large scale department store branches in China.[139]

According to Thai historian, Dr. Wasana Wongsurawat, the Thai political elite has remained in power by employing a simple two-part strategy: first, secure the economic base by cultivating the support of the Thai business elites of Chinese ancestry; second, align with the dominant global geopolitical power of the day. As of 2020, increasingly, that power is China.[94] As the Chinese economic might grew, the indigenous Thai hill tribes and aborigines were gradually driven out into poorer land on the hills, on the rural outskirts of major Thai cities or into the mountains. The increased economic clout wielded by Thai Chinese has triggered distrust, resentment, and Anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer working and underclass indigenous Thai majority, many of whom engage in rural agrarian rice peasantry in stark socioeconomic contrast to their modern, wealthier, and cosmopolitan middle and upper class Chinese counterparts.[144]

Religion

 
A Chinese temple in Bangkok

First-generation Chinese immigrants were followers of Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Theravada Buddhism has since become the religion of many ethnic Chinese in Thailand, especially among assimilated Chinese. Many Chinese in Thailand commonly combine certain practices of Chinese folk religion with Theravada Buddhism due to the openness and tolerance of Buddhism.[145] Major Chinese festivals such as Chinese New Year, Mid-Autumn Festival and Qingming are widely celebrated, especially in Bangkok, Phuket, and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations.[146] There are several prominent Buddhist monks with Chinese ancestry like the well-known Buddhist reformer, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and the former abbot of Wat Saket, Somdet Kiaw.

The Peranakans in Phuket are noted for their nine-day vegetarian festival between September and October. During the festival period, devotees will abstain from meat and the Chinese mediums will perform mortification of the flesh to exhibit the power of the Deities, and the rites and rituals seen are devoted to the veneration of various Deities. Such idiosyncratic traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.[147]

In the north, there is a small minority of Chinese Muslims known as Chin Ho. They are mainly the descendants of Hui people migrated from Yunnan, China. There are seven Chinese mosques in Chiang Mai.[148] The best known is the Ban Ho Mosque.

Dialect groups

The vast majority of Thai Chinese belong to various southern Chinese dialect groups. Of these, 56 percent are Teochew (also commonly spelled as Teochiu), 18 percent Hakka and 11 percent Hainanese. The Cantonese, Fuzhounese, Henghua and Hokkien each constitute eight percent of the Chinese population and three percent belong to other Chinese dialect groups.[149] A large number of Thai Chinese are the descendants of intermarriages between Chinese immigrants and Thais, while there are others who are of predominantly or solely of Chinese descent. People who are of mainly Chinese descent are descendants of immigrants who relocated to Thailand as well as other parts of Nanyang (the Chinese term for Southeast Asia used at the time) in the early to mid-20th century due to famine and civil war in the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong (Teochew, Cantonese and Hakka groups), Hainan (Hainanese), Guangxi (Cantonese group) and Fujian (Hokkien, Hockchew and Henghua groups).

Teochew

Traditionally, the Teochews comprise a majority population of coastal provinces like Bangkok, Chonburi and Chachoengsao until the 1950s, in which later it was overwhelmed by Central Thai internal immigrants. Many of Thai military commanders as well as politicians come from Teochew backgrounds, while others were involved in trade. During the reign of King Taksin, some influential Teochew traders were granted certain privileges. These prominent traders were called "royal Chinese" (Jin-luang or จีนหลวง in Thai).

Hakka

Hakkas are mainly concentrated in Chiang Mai, Phuket and central western provinces. The Hakka own many private banks in Thailand, notably Kasikorn Bank and Kiatnakin Bank.

Cantonese

The Cantonese predominantly came from Taishan as well as Xinhui counties in Jiangmen as well as the city of Guangzhou in Guangdong province of China. This group are not very prominent and are mainly concentrated in Bangkok and the central provinces. Although Cantonese from Yulin primarily live in Betong of Yala Province they are more popularly known as Kwongsai in which they are distinguished from the fellow kinsmen from Guangdong province despite sharing the same native dialect (Thai: กวางไส, 廣西; literally: Western Canton).

Hokkien

Hokkiens or Hoklos are a dominant group of Chinese particularly in the south of Thailand, mostly can trace their ancestry from Xiamen; aside from Thais, they also traded with Indians and other foreigners in Thailand. Hokkiens primarily live in Bandon in Surat Thani Province. A smaller Hoklo community can also be found in Hatyai in Songkhla Province. Some Hokkiens live in Bangkok traces their ancestry from Zhangzhou, like Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha.

Hainanese

Hainanese people is another prominent Thai Chinese group which are mainly concentrated in Bangkok, Samui and some central provinces. Notable Hainanese Thai families include the Chirathivat family of Central Group and the Yoovidhya family of Krating Daeng, while politicians from this dialect group include Boonchu Rojanastien, Pote Sarasin, Banyat Bantadtan, Jurin Laksanawisit and Sondhi Limthongkul.

Fuzhou, Fuqing, and Hockchew dialects

This dialect group is the smallest among the ethnic Chinese populace and are found in places such as Chandi located in Nakhon Si Thammarat province as well as in other provinces such as Chumphon (Lamae and Map Ammarit villages) and also Rayong province (in the settlement of Ban Chandi, which was renamed after their main population centre of Chandi in Southern Thailand as a result of internal immigration and resettlement) as well as a lesser extent a pocket of them being internal migrants residing in Bangkok as well as Central Thailand (surrounding provinces of the capital, Bangkok), they trace their ancestries back to Fuzhou and Ningde towns of northern Fujian province, China.

Peranakan

Some ethnic Chinese living in the Malay-dominated provinces in the far south use Malay, rather than Thai as a lingua franca, and many have intermarried with local Malays, and are known as Peranakan. They are mostly concentrated in Phuket, Trang and Phang Nga Provinces.[150]

Family names

Almost all Thai-Chinese or Sino-Thais, especially those who came to Thailand before the 1950s, only use Thai surname in public, while it was required by Rama VI as a condition of Thai citizenship. The few retaining native Chinese surnames are either recent immigrants or resident aliens. For some immigrants who settled in Southern Thailand before the 1950s, it was common to simply prefix Sae- (from Chinese: 姓, 'family name') to a transliteration of their name to form the new family name; Wanlop Saechio's last name thus derived from the Hainanese 周 and Chanin Sae-ear's last name is from Hokkien 楊. Sae is also used by Hmong people in Thailand. In 1950s-1970s Chinese immigrants had that surname in Thailand, although Chinese immigrants to Thailand after the 1970s use their Chinese family names without Sae- therefore these people didn't recognize as Sino-Thais like Thai celebrity, Thassapak Hsu's last name is Mandarin's surname 徐.

Sino-Thai surnames are often distinct from those of the other-Thai population, with generally longer names mimicking those of high officials and upper-class Thais[151] and with elements of these longer names retaining their original Chinese family name in translation or transliteration. For example, former Prime Minister Banharn Silpa-Archa's unusual Archa element is a translation into Thai of his family's former name Ma (trad. 馬, simp. 马, lit. 'horse'). Similarly, the Lim in Sondhi Limthongkul's and Pita Limjaroenrat's name is the pronunciation of the name Lin (林). For an example, see the background of the Vejjajiva Palace name.[152] Note that the latter-day Royal Thai General System of Transcription would transcribe it as Wetchachiwa and that the Sanskrit-derived name refers to 'medical profession'.

Notable figures

Royalty

 
King Taksin the Great
 
King Rama I
 
Princess Consort Indrasakdi Sachi
  • King Taksin of Thonburi - son of a Teochew Chinese father migrant gambler or trader and a Thai mother[153]
  • King Rama I - "a beautiful daughter of a mix of Chinese and Thai family in Ayutthaya"[154]
  • Indrasakdi Sachi, Princess consort of Siam
  • Queen Suthida, Queen consort of Thailand

Prime Ministers

Thai Chinese Prime Ministers:

20th century

Kon Hutasingha,[155] Phot Phahonyothin,[156][157] Plaek Phibunsongkhram,[158] Seni Pramoj,[159] Pridi Banomyong,[160][161] Thawan Thamrongnawasawat,[162][163] Pote Sarasin,[164] Thanom Kittikachorn,[165] Sarit Thanarat,[166][167][168] Kukrit Pramoj,[159] Thanin Kraivichien,[169] Kriangsak Chamanan,[170] Chatichai Choonhavan,[171][172] Anand Panyarachun,[173][174] Suchinda Kraprayoon,[175][176][177] Chuan Leekpai,[7][178] Banharn Silpa-archa,[179] Chavalit Yongchaiyudh,[180]

21st century

Thaksin Shinawatra,[181] Samak Sundaravej,[182] Yingluck Shinawatra,[181] Abhisit Vejjajiva.[183][184]

Cabinet and governors

Business and entrepreneur

Others

See also

Notes

  1. ^ It is generally used to differentiate between Central Thai when they each call themselves Thais.[citation needed]
  2. ^ According to a French missionary.

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Further reading

  • Chansiri, Disaphol (2008). The Chinese Émigrés of Thailand in the Twentieth Century. Cambria Press.
  • Chantavanich, Supang (1997). Leo Suryadinata (ed.). From Siamese-Chinese to Chinese-Thai: Political Conditions and Identity Shifts among the Chinese in Thailand. pp. 232–259. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  • Tong Chee Kiong; Chan Kwok Bun, eds. (2001). Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand. Times Academic Press. ISBN 981-210-142-X.
  • Skinner, G. William. Leadership and Power in the Chinese Community in Thailand. Ithaca (Cornell University Press), 1958.
  • Sng, Jeffery; Bisalputra, Pimpraphai (2015). A History of the Thai-Chinese. Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 978-981-4385-77-0.
  • Wongsurawat, Wasana (October 2019). The Crown and the Capitalists; The Ethnic Chinese and the Founding of the Thai Nation. Critical Dialogues in Southeast Asian Studies (Paper ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295746241. Retrieved 30 April 2020.

External links

  • Dr. Wasana Wongsurawat lectures about her book The Crown and the Capitalists; The Ethnic Chinese and the Founding of the Thai Nation, 15 January 2020 (video)
  • Thai-Chinese chamber of commerce
  • (archived 25 February 2021)
  • (in Thai) Thai Chinese.net

Associations

  • The Chinese Association in Thailand (Chong Hua)
  • (archived 2 November 2007)
  • Hakka Association of Thailand
  • (in Thai) (archived 22 December 2007)
  • (archived 21 November 2007)

Miscellaneous

  • (archived 14 April 2003)
  • (archived 21 September 2005)
  • (archived 6 January 2009)
  • Why do Thais have long surnames? (archived 22 July 2012)

August 19, 2023
thai, chinese, this, article, about, people, chinese, origin, thailand, people, chinese, origin, phuket, chinese, minority, northern, thailand, peranakans, chin, this, article, contain, excessive, number, citations, please, consider, removing, references, unne. This article is about people of Chinese origin in Thailand For people of Chinese origin in Phuket and the Chinese minority in Northern Thailand see Peranakans and Chin Haw This article may contain an excessive number of citations Please consider removing references to unnecessary or disreputable sources merging citations where possible or if necessary flagging the content for deletion April 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Thai Chinese also known as Chinese Thais Sino Thais Thais of Chinese origin Thai chawithyechuxsaycin exonym and also domestically a are Chinese descendants in Thailand Thai Chinese are the largest minority group in the country and the largest overseas Chinese community in the world with a population of approximately 7 10 million people accounting for 11 14 of the total population of the country as of 2012 4 5 6 It is also the oldest and most prominently integrated overseas Chinese community with a history dating back to the 1100s Slightly more than half of the ethnic Chinese population in Thailand trace their ancestry to Chaoshan This is evidenced by the prevalence of the Teochew dialect among the Chinese community in Thailand as well as other Chinese languages 7 93 The term as commonly understood signifies those whose ancestors immigrated to Thailand before 1949 Thai Chinese华裔泰国人 or 華裔泰國人 chawithyechuxsaycinWat Mangkon Kamalawat a Chinese Buddhist temple in ThailandTotal populationc 7 10 million 1 2 Regions with significant populationsThailand9 5 million 2014 3 Throughout the country Significant diaspora in Australia United States Canada Taiwan Malaysia SingaporeLanguagesPrimarilyThai lingua franca Second language Hokkien Hakka Teochew Hainan Cantonese MandarinReligionPredominantlyTheravada BuddhismMinoritiesAgnostic Chinese folk religion Mahayana Buddhism Christianity Chinese BuddhismRelated ethnic groupsThaisPeranakansOverseas Chinese Han ChineseThai ChineseTraditional Chinese華裔泰國人Simplified Chinese华裔泰国人TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinHuayi TaiguorenYue CantoneseJyutpingWaa4 Jeoi6 Taai3 Gwok3 Jan4Southern MinHokkien POJHoa e Thai kok langTai loHua e Thai kok langTeochew Peng imHue 1 i6 tai3 gog4 nang5The Thai Chinese have been deeply ingrained into all elements of Thai society over the past 200 years The present Thai royal family the Chakri dynasty was founded by King Rama I who himself was partly Chinese 8 His predecessor King Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom was the son of a Chinese father from Chaoshan 9 With the successful integration of historic Chinese immigrant communities in Thailand a significant number of Thai Chinese are the descendants of intermarriages between ethnic Chinese and native Thais Many of these descendants have assimilated into Thai society and self identify solely as Thai 10 11 12 Thai Chinese are a well established middle class ethnic group and are well represented at all levels of Thai society 13 14 15 3 43 16 17 They play a leading role in Thailand s business sector and dominate the Thai economy today 18 22 15 179 19 20 In addition Thai Chinese elites of Thailand have a strong presence in Thailand s political scene with most of Thailand s former Prime Ministers and the majority of parliament having at least some Chinese ancestry 21 22 18 58 23 Thai Chinese elites of Thailand are well represented among Thailand s rulers and other sectors 24 25 Contents 1 Demographics 2 Identity 3 History 4 Culture 5 Language 6 Trade and industry 7 Religion 8 Dialect groups 8 1 Teochew 8 2 Hakka 8 3 Cantonese 8 4 Hokkien 8 5 Hainanese 8 6 Fuzhou Fuqing and Hockchew dialects 8 7 Peranakan 9 Family names 10 Notable figures 10 1 Royalty 10 2 Prime Ministers 10 2 1 20th century 10 2 2 21st century 10 3 Cabinet and governors 10 4 Business and entrepreneur 10 5 Others 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links 15 1 Associations 15 2 MiscellaneousDemographics EditThailand has the largest overseas Chinese community in the world outside Greater China 26 11 to 14 percent of Thailand s population are considered ethnic Chinese The Thai linguist Theraphan Luangthongkum claims the share of those having at least partial Chinese ancestry allegedly at about 40 percent of the Thai population without any proof 5 A 2013 study of the Thai population genetic structure found the presence of a distinctive Chinese ancestry concentrated in Central Thailand but it also found that this Chinese ancestry did not constitute a majority of the Central Thai gene pool Thus somewhat refuting Theraphan Luangthongkum s over estimated claims on the frequency of Chinese ancestry throughout the general Thai population 27 Identity EditFor assimilated second and third generation descendants of Chinese immigrants it is principally a personal choice whether or not to identify themselves as ethnic Chinese 28 Nonetheless nearly all Thai Chinese solely self identify as Thai due to their close integration and successful assimilation into Thai society 29 30 G William Skinner observed that the level of assimilation of the descendants of Chinese immigrants in Thailand disproved the myth about the unchanging Chinese noting that assimilation is considered complete when the immigrant s descendant identifies himself in almost all social situations as a Thai speaks Thai language habitually and with native fluency and interacts by choice with Thai more often than with Chinese 31 237 Skinner believed that the assimilation success of the Thai Chinese was a result of the wise policy of the Thai rulers who since the 17th century allowed able Chinese tradesmen to advance their ranks into the kingdom s nobility 31 240 241 The rapid and successful assimilation of the Thai Chinese has been celebrated by the Chinese descendants themselves as evident in contemporary literature such as the novel Letters from Thailand Thai cdhmaycakemuxngithy by Botan 32 Today the Thai Chinese constitute a significant part of the royalist nationalist movements When the then prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra who is Thai Chinese was ousted from power in 2006 it was Sondhi Limthongkul another prominent Thai Chinese businessman who formed and led People s Alliance for Democracy PAD movement to protest the successive governments run by Thaksin s allies 33 34 Mr Sondhi accused Mr Thaksin of corruption based on improper business ties between Thaksin s corporate empire and the Singapore based Temasek Holdings Group 35 The Thai Chinese in and around Bangkok were also the main participants of the months long political campaign against the government of Ms Yingluck Mr Thaksin s sister between November 2013 and May 2014 the event which culminated in the military takeover in May 2014 36 History EditTraders from China began arriving in Ayutthaya by at least the 12th century In the 1420s Chinese merchants were involved in the construction of the major Ayutthaya temple Wat Ratchaburana and left several Chinese inscriptions and cultural objects within the temple s crypt including the inscribing of several Chinese family names 37 According to the Chronicles of Ayutthaya Ekathotsarot r 1605 1610 had been concerned solely with ways of enriching his treasury and was greatly inclined toward strangers and foreign nations Following the Qing revocation of the private trade ban in 1684 Chinese immigration to Siam steadily increased particularly following the massive Southern Chinese famines of the early 18th century Approximately 20 000 Chinese lived in Siam in the 1730s b and were prominent in the city of Ayutthaya and were a prominent faction within the Siamese court by 1767 38 When King Taksin himself the son of a Chinese immigrant ruled Thailand King Taksin actively encouraged Chinese immigration and trade Chinese settlers came to Siam in large numbers 39 Immigration continued over the following years and the Chinese population in Thailand jumped from 230 000 in 1825 to 792 000 by 1910 By 1932 approximately 12 2 percent of the population of Thailand was Chinese 40 The early Chinese immigration consisted almost entirely of men who did not bring women Therefore it became common for male Chinese immigrants to marry local Thai women The children of such relationships were called Sino Thai 41 or luk jin lukcin in Thai 42 These Chinese Thai intermarriages declined somewhat in the early 20th century when significant numbers of Chinese women also began immigrating to Thailand Economic recession and unemployment forced many men to leave China for Thailand in search of work to seek wealth If successful they sent money back to their families in China Many Chinese immigrants prospered under the tax farming system whereby private individuals were sold the right to collect taxes at a price below the value of the tax revenues The local Chinese community had long dominated domestic commerce and had served as agents for royal trade monopolies With the rise of European economic influence however many Chinese shifted to opium trafficking and tax collecting both of which were despised occupations From 1882 to 1917 nearly 13 000 to 34 000 Chinese legally entered Thailand per year mostly settling in Bangkok and along the coast of the Gulf of Siam They predominated in occupations requiring arduous labor skills or entrepreneurship They worked as blacksmiths railroad labourers and rickshaw pullers While most Thais were engaged in rice production the Chinese brought new farming ideas and new methods to supply labor on its rubber plantations both domestically and internationally 43 However republican ideas brought by the Chinese were considered seditious by the Thai government For example a translation of Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat sen s Three Principles of the People was banned under the Communism Act of 1933 The government had regulated Chinese schools even before compulsory education was established in the country starting with the Private Schools Act of 1918 This act required all foreign teachers to pass a Thai language test and for principals of all schools to implement standards set by the Thai Ministry of Education 44 Legislation by King Rama VI 1910 1925 that required the adoption of Thai surnames was largely directed at the Chinese community as a number of ethnic Chinese families left Burma between 1930 and 1950 and settled in the Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi Provinces of western Thailand A few of the ethnic Chinese families in that area had already emigrated from Burma in the 19th century The Chinese in Thailand also suffered discrimination between the 1930s and 1950s under the military dictatorship of Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram in spite of having part Chinese ancestry himself 45 which allied itself with the Empire of Japan The Primary Education Act of 1932 made the Thai language the compulsory medium of education but as a result of protests from Thai Chinese by 1939 students were allowed two hours per week of Mandarin instruction 44 State corporations took over commodities such as rice tobacco and petroleum and Chinese businesses found themselves subject to a range of new taxes and controls By 1970 more than 90 percent of the Chinese born in Thailand had abandoned Chinese citizenship and were granted Thai citizenship instead In 1975 diplomatic relations were established with China 46 Culture EditIntermarriage with Thais has resulted in many people who claim Thai ethnicity with Chinese ancestry 47 People of Chinese descent are concentrated in the coastal areas of Thailand principally Bangkok 48 Considerable segments of Thailand s academic business and political elites are of Chinese descent 5 Language EditSee also Language and overseas Chinese communities Thailand Today nearly all ethnic Chinese in Thailand speak Thai exclusively Only elderly Chinese immigrants still speak their native varieties of Chinese The rapid and successful assimilation of Thai Chinese has been celebrated in contemporary literature such as Letters from Thailand Thai cdhmaycakemuxngithy by a Thai Chinese author Botan 49 In the modern Thai language there are many signs of Chinese influence 50 In the 2000 census 231 350 people identified themselves as speakers of a variant of Chinese Teochew Hokkien Hainanese Cantonese or Hakka 5 The Teochew dialect has served as the language of Bangkok s influential Chinese merchants circles since the foundation of the city in the 18th century Although Chinese language schools were closed during the nationalist period before and during the Second World War the Thai government never tried to suppress Chinese cultural expression Today businesses in Yaowarat Road and Charoen Krung Road in Bangkok s Samphanthawong District which constitute the city s Chinatown still feature bilingual signs in Chinese and Thai 51 A number of Chinese words have found their way into the Thai language especially the names of dishes and foodstuffs as well as basic numbers such as those from three to ten and terms related to gambling 5 Chin Haw Chinese speak Southwestern Mandarin The rise of China s prominence on the global economic stage has prompted many Thai Chinese business families to see Mandarin as a beneficial asset in partaking in economic links and conducting business between Thailand and Mainland China with some families encouraging their children to learn Mandarin in order to reap the benefits of their ethnic Chinese identity and the increasing role of Mandarin as a prominent language of Overseas Chinese business communities 15 184 185 18 59 15 179 52 55 However equally there are many Thais regardless of their ethnic background who study Chinese in order to boost their business and career opportunities rather than due to reasons of ethnic identity with some sending their children to newly established Mandarin language schools 15 184 185 Trade and industry EditMain articles Bamboo network and Economy of Thailand The Stock Exchange of Thailand is now pullulated with a myriad of prospering Chinese owned businesses Thai investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Stock Exchange of Thailand as they are estimated to control more than four fifths of the publicly listed companies by market capitalization 53 54 The Thai Chinese community has played a major role in the development of Thailand s economy and national private sector 55 The early 21st century saw Thais of Chinese ancestry dominate Thai commerce at every level of society 56 57 58 59 60 15 127 179 Their economic clout plays a critical role in maintaining the country s economic vitality and prosperity 52 47 48 The economic power of the Thai Chinese is far greater than their proportion of the population would suggest 15 179 61 277 With their powerful economic presence the Chinese continue to remain a major impetus underpinning the Thailand s commercial undertakings and economic activities and virtually make up the country s entire wealthy elite 15 179 62 Thailand s lack of an indigenous Thai commercial culture led to the private sector being dominated entirely by Thais of Chinese ancestry themselves 63 64 Development policies imposed by the Thai government provided business opportunities for the Chinese community where a distinct Thai Chinese business community has emerged as country s the dominant economic group controlling the entirety of the country s major industry sectors across the Thai economy 55 65 72 The Chinese community has remained active in every sector of Thailand s economy such as agriculture sugar maize vegetables rubber industrial manufacturing financial services real estate and the retail and whole trading sector 55 The contemporary Thai business sector is highly dependent on Han Chinese entrepreneurs and investors who control virtually all the country s banks and large corporate conglomerates all the way to the smaller retail hawking outlets at the humbler end of the business spectrum with their support and patronage being augmented by the presence of lawmakers and political operatives where the vast majority of whom are of pure or partial Chinese ancestry themselves 66 21 67 15 179 Thais of Chinese ancestry a disproportionate wealthy market dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community they also form by and large an economically advantaged social class the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to the poorer indigenous Thai majority working and underclass counterparts around them 15 179 183 21 68 69 70 61 261 Highly publicized profiles of wealthy Chinese entrepreneurs and investors attracted great public interest and were used to illustrate the community s strong economic clout 71 More than 80 percent of the top 40 richest people in Thailand are of pure or partial Chinese ancestry 72 Of the five billionaires in Thailand in the late 20th century all of them were of full or at least had partial Han Chinese ancestry 73 74 75 On March 17 2012 Chaleo Yoovidhya of humble Chinese origin passed away while listed on Forbes list of billionaires as 205th in the world and 3rd in the nation with an estimated net worth of US 5 billion 76 Amounting to 10 percent of Thailand s population the Thai Chinese own approximately 85 percent of the nation s entire economy 77 Thai investors of Chinese ancestry control more than 80 percent of public companies listed on the Thai stock exchange 53 54 With 80 of Thailand s market capital under Chinese hands many Thai entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were at the forefront of the establishing the country s most prominent wholesale trading cooperatives owned by traders merchants and brokers flush with private equity and venture capital bearing connections to some of Thailand s wealthiest business families 78 54 10 Thai business families of Chinese ancestry control half of the all corporate assets in the country 79 50 Thai business families of Chinese ancestry control the country s entire corporate sectors equivalent to 81 90 percent of the overall market capitalization of the entire Thai economy 80 81 82 55 83 84 85 11 10 86 87 88 British East India Company agent John Crawfurd used detailed company records kept on Prince of Wales s Island present day Penang from 1815 to 1824 to report specifically on the economic aptitude of the 8 595 Chinese there as compared to others He used the data to estimate the Chinese about five sixths of whom were unmarried men in the prime of life as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37 000 and to a numerical Malay population of more than 80 000 89 p 30 He surmised this and other differences noted as providing a very just estimate of the comparative state of civilization among nations or which is the same thing of the respective merits of their different social institutions 89 p 34 In 1879 the Chinese controlled all of the steam powered rice mills most of which were sold by the British Most of the leading businessmen in Thailand at this point in time were of Chinese ancestry and accounted for a significant portion of the Thai upper class 90 In 1890 despite British shipping domination in Bangkok Thais of Chinese ancestry conducted 62 percent of the Thai shipping sector operating as agents for Western shipping lines as well as their own 90 The Chinese also dominated the rubber industry market gardening sugar production and fish export sectors In Bangkok Thais of Chinese ancestry dominate the entertainment and media industries being the pioneers of Thailand s early publishing houses newspapers and film studios 91 Thai Chinese moneylenders also wielded considerable economic power over the poorer indigenous Thai peasants prompting accusations of Chinese bribery of government officials wars between the Chinese secret societies and the use of violent tactics to collect taxes Chinese success served to foster Thai resentment against the Chinese at a time when their community was expanding rapidly Waves of Han Chinese immigration swept into Siam in the 19th and early 20th centuries peaking in the 1920s Whereas Chinese bankers were accused of plunging the Thai peasant into poverty by charging high interest rates the reality was that the Thai banking business was highly competitive Chinese millers and rice traders were blamed for the economic recession that gripped Siam for nearly a decade after 1905 43 The Chinese then moved into extractive industries such as tin mining logging and sawmilling rice milling as well as the construction of ports and railways that would usher in Thailand s modern transportation industry 52 48 Though the Chinese were acknowledged for their industriousness they were nonetheless scorned by many In the late 19th century a British official in Siam said that the Chinese are the Jews of Siam by judicious use of their business faculties and their powers of combination they hold the Siamese in the palm of their hand 92 In addition Chinese millers and rice traders were blamed for an economic recession that gripped Siam for nearly a decade after 1905 90 Large waves of Han Chinese immigration occurred in the nineteenth and early in the twentieth century peaking in the 1920s from southern China who was eager to make money and return to their families By the end of the nineteenth century the Chinese would lose their control of foreign trade to the European colonial powers and began to act as compradors for Western trading cooperatives Thais of Chinese ancestry also entered extraction intensive industries such as tin mining teak cutting saw milling rice milling as well as fostered the modernization of the Thai transportation sector through the construction of ports and railways 93 Bangkok continues to serve as Thailand s major financial district and central business networking nucleus for Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry By the early 20th century the resident Chinese community in Bangkok was sizable amounting to a third of the capital s population 94 Anti Chinese sentiment was rife 15 179 183 In 1914 the Thai nationalist King Vajiravudh Rama VI published a pamphlet in Thai and English The Jews of the East employing a pseudonym In it he lambasted the Chinese 95 96 97 He described them as avaricious barbarians who were entirely devoid of morals and mercy 92 He depicted successful Chinese businessmen as reaping their commercial success at the expense of indigenous Thais prompting some Thai politicians to blame Thai Chinese businessmen for Thailand s economic hardships 69 King Vajiravudh s views were influential among elite Thais and were quickly adopted by ordinary Thais fueling their suspicion of and hostility against the Chinese minority 15 181 183 The glaring wealth disparity and the abject poverty of the indigenous Thais resulted in them blaming their socioeconomic ills on the Chinese especially Chinese moneylenders Beginning in the late 1930s and recommencing in the 1950s the Thai government dealt with wealth disparities by pursuing a campaign of forced assimilation achieved through property confiscation forced expropriation coercive social policies and anti Chinese cultural suppression seeking to eradicate Han consciousness and identity 15 183 18 58 Thai Chinese became the targets of state discrimination while indigenous Thais were granted economic privileges 98 The Siamese revolution of 1932 only coagulated the grip of Thai nationalism culminating in World War II when Thailand s Japanese ally was at war with China 94 After 1947 coup d etat Thailand was an agrarian economy hobbled by state owned enterprises 99 Thais of Chinese ancestry provided the impetus for Thailand s industrialization transforming the Thai economy into an export oriented trade based economy with a global reach 61 261 Over the next several decades internationalization and capitalist market oriented policies led to the dramatic emergence of a massive export oriented large scale manufacturing sector which in turn catapulted Thailand into joining the Tiger Cub Economies 100 Virtually all the industrial manufacturing and import export shipping firms establishments including the auto manufacturing behemoth Siam Motors are Chinese controlled 100 91 In the years between World War I and World War II Thailand s major exports rice tin rubber and timber were under Chinese hands 101 Despite their small numbers as compared to the indigenous Thai population the Chinese controlled virtually every line of business ranging from small retail trade to large industries Comprising merely ten percent of the population the Chinese dominated over four fifths of the country s vital rice tin rubber and timber exports and virtually controlled the country s entire wholesale and retail trade 102 By 1924 Thais of Chinese ancestry controlled one third of all the sawmills in Bangkok Market gardening sugar production The Chinese introduced the sugar industry to Thailand and fish exporting was also dominated by the Chinese 103 104 Virtually all of the newly minted manufacturing establishments were Chinese controlled Despite failed Thai affirmative action based policies in the 1930s to economically empower the impoverished indigenous Thai majority 70 percent of retailing outlets and 80 to 90 percent of rice mills remained Chinese controlled 105 A survey of Thailand s roughly seventy most powerful business groups found that all but three were owned by Thai Chinese 106 107 Although Bangkok has its own Chinatown Chinese economic influence is much more pervasive and subtle throughout the city With Bangkok s Thai Chinese clan associations are prominent throughout the city as the family clans are major property holders and retain ownership of all the non profit Chinese operated schools 55 With Bangkok being the testament that reflected the extent of Chinese influence on Thailand s economic life virtually all of Bangkok s most successful business elites are of pure Han Chinese or at least of partial Han Chinese ancestry 108 Thai entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry who control much of Thai industry are seen as a wellspring of upfront private equity and venture capital that serve as chief financial backers behind Thailand s latest investment developments including funding Thailand s newest construction projects in addition to financing the country s state of the art telecommunications sector 108 as Thai entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are the key power players behind Thailand s telecommunications industry being at the forefront of several well known Thai telecom operators such as the Shinawatra telecommunications group True Corporation Jasmine Ucom and Samar 109 Kukrit Pramoj the aristocratic former prime minister and distant relative of the Thai royal family once said that most Thais had a Chinese relative hanging somewhere on their family tree 110 111 By the 1930s the Thai Chinese minority dominated construction industrial manufacturing publishing shipping finance commerce and every industry in the country minor and major 91 Among the minor industries that they presided were food vending salt tobacco port and bird s nest concessions 112 113 Among the major lucrative industries the Chinese involved in shipping rice milling rubber and tin manufacturing teak logging and petroleum drilling 112 By the late 1950s Thais of Chinese ancestry comprised 70 percent of Bangkok s business owners and senior business managers and 90 percent of the shares in Thai corporations were said to be held by Thai investors of Chinese ancestry 114 115 Ninety percent of Thailand s industrial and commercial capital are also held by the Chinese 116 65 73 90 percent of all investments in the industrial and commercial sector and at least 50 percent of all investments in the banking and financial sectors are controlled by the Chinese 117 116 118 119 33 65 118 Economic advantages would also persist as Thai rice merchants of Chinese ancestry controlled 80 90 percent of Thailand s rice mills the largest merchant food enterprises in the nation 43 Of the 25 leading entrepreneurs in the Thai business sector 23 are of Han Chinese or at least of partial Han Chinese ancestry Thais of Chinese ancestry also comprise 96 percent of Thailand s 70 most powerful business groups 120 15 35 121 Family firms are extremely common in the Thai business sector as they are passed down from one generation to the next 122 90 percent of Thailand s industrial manufacturing sector and 50 percent of Thailand s service sector are controlled by the Chinese 123 124 125 126 127 According to a Financial Statistics of the 500 Largest Public Companies in Asia Controlled by Overseas Chinese in 1994 chart released by Singaporean geographer Dr Henry Yeung of the National University of Singapore 39 companies were concentrated in Thailand with a market capitalization of US 35 billion and total assets of US 95 billion 128 124 Thais of Chinese ancestry control Thailand s largest private banks Bangkok Bank the largest and most profitable in Southeast Asia Thai Farmers Bank and the Bank of Ayudhya 129 124 130 126 115 193 18 22 67 131 55 Of the 20 Thai banks that were founded in the years between 1930 and 1950 the Thai Chinese were behind the establishment of 14 of them while the remaining 6 banks were established by the Thai Crown Property Bureau 132 Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry are influential in the country s real estate agriculture banking and finance and the wholesale trading industries 55 In Central Siam Thai businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry control the entirety of the area s residential and commercial real estate and raw land 112 The Thai Chinese mainly of Yunnanese origin also cornered Chiangmai s lucrative gem industry and ended up owning much of the city s fruit orchards restaurants and retail shops while profiting handsomely off of the city s land boom that occurred throughout the late 1980s 133 During the 1980s Thai Chinese business groups controlled 37 out of the 100 largest companies in the nation with much of the wealth merely concentrated in the hands of five Teochew families 77 In the 1990s among the top ten Thai businesses in terms of sales nine of them were Chinese owned with only Siam Cement being the sole firm that was not Chinese owned 103 134 Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis structural reforms imposed by the International Monetary Fund IMF on Indonesia and Thailand led to the loss of many monopolistic positions long held by the Thai Chinese business elite 135 In spite of the financial and economic downturn Thais of Chinese ancestry were still estimated to own 65 percent of the total banking assets 60 percent of the national trade 90 percent of all local investments in the commercial sector 90 percent of all local investments in the manufacturing sector and 50 percent of all local investments in the banking and financial services sector 118 136 137 With the rise of China as a global economic power Thai businesses under Chinese hands are now at the forefront of opening up the country s economy for foreign direct investment from Mainland China and Thai businesses that are Chinese owned are now the largest sources of investors in Mainland China among all overseas Chinese communities worldwide 138 139 The influx of Thai Chinese investment capital into Mainland China has led to a resurgence of Chinese cultural pride among the Thai Chinese community while concurrently pursuing new business and investment opportunities while bringing their influx of foreign capital to create new jobs and economic niches on the Mainland Many Thais of Chinese ancestry have begun to rekindle with their long lost Han ancestral roots have sent their children to newly established Chinese language schools visited China in record numbers invested money in the Mainland Chinese economy and assumed Chinese surnames alongside their Thai names 140 The Charoen Pokphand CP Group a prominent Chinese owned Thai conglomerate claiming 9 billion in assets with US 25 billion in annual sales founded by the Chearavanonts a prominent Thai business family of Chinese ancestry which is one of the most powerful conglomerate companies investing in Mainland China today 141 The conglomerate company is currently the single largest foreign investor in China with over US 1 billion invested with hundreds of businesses across a multivarieted range of industries traversing from agricultural food products aquaculture retail hospitality and industrial manufacturing while employing more than 150 000 people in Mainland China 103 134 142 139 141 The company is known in China under well known household names such as the Chia Tai Group and Zheng Da Ji Tuan The CP Group also owns and operates Tesco Lotus one of the largest foreign hypermarket operators with 74 stores and seven distribution centers throughout 30 cities across the Mainland One of CP Group s flagship businesses in China is a US 400 million Super Brand Mall the largest mall in Shanghai s exclusive Pudong business district Reignwood Pine Valley CP also controls Telecom Asia a prominent telecommunications and mobile phone manufacturing company in a joint venture with British Telecom since making its foray into the Thai telecommunications industry 142 Mainland China s most exclusive golf and country clubs were established and owned by a Thai business tycoon of Chinese ancestry Chanchai Rouyrungruen operator of Red Bull drink business in China It is cited as the most popular golf course in Asia In 2008 Chanchai became the first owner of a business jet in Mainland China 143 Anand s Saha Union Thailand s leading industrial group have so far invested over US 1 5 billion in China and is operating more than 11 power plants in three of China s provinces With over other 30 businesses in China the company employs approximately 7000 Chinese workers 139 Central Group Thailand s largest operator of shopping centers and owner of Italy s leading high end department store La Rinascente with US 3 5 billion in annual sales was established by the Chirathivats a Thai business family of Chinese ancestry have created three new large scale department store branches in China 139 According to Thai historian Dr Wasana Wongsurawat the Thai political elite has remained in power by employing a simple two part strategy first secure the economic base by cultivating the support of the Thai business elites of Chinese ancestry second align with the dominant global geopolitical power of the day As of 2020 update increasingly that power is China 94 As the Chinese economic might grew the indigenous Thai hill tribes and aborigines were gradually driven out into poorer land on the hills on the rural outskirts of major Thai cities or into the mountains The increased economic clout wielded by Thai Chinese has triggered distrust resentment and Anti Chinese sentiment among the poorer working and underclass indigenous Thai majority many of whom engage in rural agrarian rice peasantry in stark socioeconomic contrast to their modern wealthier and cosmopolitan middle and upper class Chinese counterparts 144 Religion Edit A Chinese temple in BangkokFirst generation Chinese immigrants were followers of Mahayana Buddhism Confucianism and Taoism Theravada Buddhism has since become the religion of many ethnic Chinese in Thailand especially among assimilated Chinese Many Chinese in Thailand commonly combine certain practices of Chinese folk religion with Theravada Buddhism due to the openness and tolerance of Buddhism 145 Major Chinese festivals such as Chinese New Year Mid Autumn Festival and Qingming are widely celebrated especially in Bangkok Phuket and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations 146 There are several prominent Buddhist monks with Chinese ancestry like the well known Buddhist reformer Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and the former abbot of Wat Saket Somdet Kiaw The Peranakans in Phuket are noted for their nine day vegetarian festival between September and October During the festival period devotees will abstain from meat and the Chinese mediums will perform mortification of the flesh to exhibit the power of the Deities and the rites and rituals seen are devoted to the veneration of various Deities Such idiosyncratic traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture 147 In the north there is a small minority of Chinese Muslims known as Chin Ho They are mainly the descendants of Hui people migrated from Yunnan China There are seven Chinese mosques in Chiang Mai 148 The best known is the Ban Ho Mosque Dialect groups EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message The vast majority of Thai Chinese belong to various southern Chinese dialect groups Of these 56 percent are Teochew also commonly spelled as Teochiu 18 percent Hakka and 11 percent Hainanese The Cantonese Fuzhounese Henghua and Hokkien each constitute eight percent of the Chinese population and three percent belong to other Chinese dialect groups 149 A large number of Thai Chinese are the descendants of intermarriages between Chinese immigrants and Thais while there are others who are of predominantly or solely of Chinese descent People who are of mainly Chinese descent are descendants of immigrants who relocated to Thailand as well as other parts of Nanyang the Chinese term for Southeast Asia used at the time in the early to mid 20th century due to famine and civil war in the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong Teochew Cantonese and Hakka groups Hainan Hainanese Guangxi Cantonese group and Fujian Hokkien Hockchew and Henghua groups Teochew Edit Traditionally the Teochews comprise a majority population of coastal provinces like Bangkok Chonburi and Chachoengsao until the 1950s in which later it was overwhelmed by Central Thai internal immigrants Many of Thai military commanders as well as politicians come from Teochew backgrounds while others were involved in trade During the reign of King Taksin some influential Teochew traders were granted certain privileges These prominent traders were called royal Chinese Jin luang or cinhlwng in Thai Hakka Edit Hakkas are mainly concentrated in Chiang Mai Phuket and central western provinces The Hakka own many private banks in Thailand notably Kasikorn Bank and Kiatnakin Bank Cantonese Edit The Cantonese predominantly came from Taishan as well as Xinhui counties in Jiangmen as well as the city of Guangzhou in Guangdong province of China This group are not very prominent and are mainly concentrated in Bangkok and the central provinces Although Cantonese from Yulin primarily live in Betong of Yala Province they are more popularly known as Kwongsai in which they are distinguished from the fellow kinsmen from Guangdong province despite sharing the same native dialect Thai kwangis 廣西 literally Western Canton Hokkien Edit Hokkiens or Hoklos are a dominant group of Chinese particularly in the south of Thailand mostly can trace their ancestry from Xiamen aside from Thais they also traded with Indians and other foreigners in Thailand Hokkiens primarily live in Bandon in Surat Thani Province A smaller Hoklo community can also be found in Hatyai in Songkhla Province Some Hokkiens live in Bangkok traces their ancestry from Zhangzhou like Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha Hainanese Edit Hainanese people is another prominent Thai Chinese group which are mainly concentrated in Bangkok Samui and some central provinces Notable Hainanese Thai families include the Chirathivat family of Central Group and the Yoovidhya family of Krating Daeng while politicians from this dialect group include Boonchu Rojanastien Pote Sarasin Banyat Bantadtan Jurin Laksanawisit and Sondhi Limthongkul Fuzhou Fuqing and Hockchew dialects Edit This dialect group is the smallest among the ethnic Chinese populace and are found in places such as Chandi located in Nakhon Si Thammarat province as well as in other provinces such as Chumphon Lamae and Map Ammarit villages and also Rayong province in the settlement of Ban Chandi which was renamed after their main population centre of Chandi in Southern Thailand as a result of internal immigration and resettlement as well as a lesser extent a pocket of them being internal migrants residing in Bangkok as well as Central Thailand surrounding provinces of the capital Bangkok they trace their ancestries back to Fuzhou and Ningde towns of northern Fujian province China Peranakan Edit Some ethnic Chinese living in the Malay dominated provinces in the far south use Malay rather than Thai as a lingua franca and many have intermarried with local Malays and are known as Peranakan They are mostly concentrated in Phuket Trang and Phang Nga Provinces 150 Family names EditAlmost all Thai Chinese or Sino Thais especially those who came to Thailand before the 1950s only use Thai surname in public while it was required by Rama VI as a condition of Thai citizenship The few retaining native Chinese surnames are either recent immigrants or resident aliens For some immigrants who settled in Southern Thailand before the 1950s it was common to simply prefix Sae from Chinese 姓 family name to a transliteration of their name to form the new family name Wanlop Saechio s last name thus derived from the Hainanese 周 and Chanin Sae ear s last name is from Hokkien 楊 Sae is also used by Hmong people in Thailand In 1950s 1970s Chinese immigrants had that surname in Thailand although Chinese immigrants to Thailand after the 1970s use their Chinese family names without Sae therefore these people didn t recognize as Sino Thais like Thai celebrity Thassapak Hsu s last name is Mandarin s surname 徐 Sino Thai surnames are often distinct from those of the other Thai population with generally longer names mimicking those of high officials and upper class Thais 151 and with elements of these longer names retaining their original Chinese family name in translation or transliteration For example former Prime Minister Banharn Silpa Archa s unusual Archa element is a translation into Thai of his family s former name Ma trad 馬 simp 马 lit horse Similarly the Lim in Sondhi Limthongkul s and Pita Limjaroenrat s name is the pronunciation of the name Lin 林 For an example see the background of the Vejjajiva Palace name 152 Note that the latter day Royal Thai General System of Transcription would transcribe it as Wetchachiwa and that the Sanskrit derived name refers to medical profession Notable figures EditRoyalty Edit King Taksin the Great King Rama I Princess Consort Indrasakdi Sachi King Taksin of Thonburi son of a Teochew Chinese father migrant gambler or trader and a Thai mother 153 King Rama I a beautiful daughter of a mix of Chinese and Thai family in Ayutthaya 154 Indrasakdi Sachi Princess consort of Siam Queen Suthida Queen consort of ThailandPrime Ministers Edit Kon Hutasingha Thawan Thamrongnawasawat Chatichai Choonhavan Chuan Leekpai Banharn Silpa archa Yingluck Shinawatra Thai Chinese Prime Ministers 20th century Edit Kon Hutasingha 155 Phot Phahonyothin 156 157 Plaek Phibunsongkhram 158 Seni Pramoj 159 Pridi Banomyong 160 161 Thawan Thamrongnawasawat 162 163 Pote Sarasin 164 Thanom Kittikachorn 165 Sarit Thanarat 166 167 168 Kukrit Pramoj 159 Thanin Kraivichien 169 Kriangsak Chamanan 170 Chatichai Choonhavan 171 172 Anand Panyarachun 173 174 Suchinda Kraprayoon 175 176 177 Chuan Leekpai 7 178 Banharn Silpa archa 179 Chavalit Yongchaiyudh 180 21st century Edit Thaksin Shinawatra 181 Samak Sundaravej 182 Yingluck Shinawatra 181 Abhisit Vejjajiva 183 184 Cabinet and governors Edit Boonchu Rojanastien Banker Deputy Prime Minister Finance Minister Chitchai Wannasathit Minister of Justice Acting Prime Minister Pao Sarasin Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister Chavarat Charnvirakul Acting Prime Minister of Thailand Deputy Prime Minister Minister of Social Development Human Security and Interior Minister Bhichai Rattakul World President of Rotary International Deputy Prime Minister Thailand National Assembly speaker Minister of Foreign Affairs Kalaya Sophonpanich Minister of Science and Technology Bhichit Rattakul Governor of Bangkok and Businessman Kanchana Silpa archa Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Education Apirak Kosayodhin Governor of Bangkok CEO of True Corporation Varawut Silpa archa Minister of Natural Resources and Environment Anutin Charnvirakul Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Public Health Business and entrepreneur Edit Chin Sophonpanich Banker that founded the Bangkok Bank and Bangkok Insurance Chaleo Yoovidhya Billionaire inventor of Red Bull Vanich Chaiyawan Billionaire and chairman of Thai Life Insurance the second largest life insurer in Thailand Prasert Prasarttong Osoth founder and owner of Bangkok Dusit Medical Services Thailand s largest private health care group and the owner of Bangkok Airways Dhanin Chearavanont Billionaire and the senior chairman of CP Group Charoen Sirivadhanabhakdi Billionaire business magnate and investor Krit Ratanarak Billionaire chairman of Bangkok Broadcasting amp Television Company Chalerm Yoovidhya Billionaire Businessman and heir to the Red Bull fortune Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha Billionaire founder owner and chairman of King Power Chartsiri Sophonpanich Billionaire President of Bangkok Bank Panthongtae Shinawatra founding Billionaire of Voice TV Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha youngest Billionaire of Asia Others Edit Chang and Eng Bunker Buddhadasa Bhikkhu Pita Limjaroenrat politician the leader of the Move Forward Party and businessman Atthaya Thitikul professional golfer Chang and Eng Bunker famous conjoined twins Bundit Ungrangsee symphonic conductor Apichatpong Weerasethakul award winning film director Buddhadasa Bhikkhu famous and influential Buddhist reformist monk Piyabutr Saengkanokkul academic and politician He served as a member of the Thai House of Representatives Parit Wacharasindhu politician and television host Joey Boy hip hop singer and producer Puttichai Kasetsin actor DJ television host Tanutchai Wijitwongthong actor Chalida Vijitvongthong actress Utt Panichkul actor host television presenter Nichkhun singer rapper James Ma actor and model Ten singer and dancer BamBam Boy Band rapper record producer Sophida Kanchanarin model Beauty Queen Miss Universe Thailand 2018 See also Edit Thailand portal China portal Taiwan portalKian Un Keng Shrine 建安宮 Wat Mangkon Kamalawat 龍蓮寺 Wat Bamphen Chin Phrot 永福寺 Leng Buai Ia Shrine 龍尾古廟 Gong Wu Shrine San Chaopho Suea Sao Chingcha 打惱路玄天上帝廟 Wat San Chao Chet 七聖媽廟 Chao Mae Thapthim Shrine 水尾聖娘廟 Thian Fah Foundation Hospital 天華醫院 Poh Teck Tung Foundation Lim Ko Niao 林姑娘 Chow Yam nam White Dragon King China Thailand relations Racism in Thailand Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia Burmese Chinese Chinese Koreans English AmericansNotes Edit It is generally used to differentiate between Central Thai when they each call themselves Thais citation needed According to a French missionary References Edit China Countries with the largest number of overseas Chinese 2021 Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission R o c Archived from the original on 4 January 2011 Retrieved 23 September 2016 Thailand World Directory of Minorities amp Indigenous Peoples Minority Rights Group 19 June 2015 John Draper Joel Sawat Selway January 2019 A New Dataset on Horizontal Structural Ethnic Inequalities in Thailand in Order to Address Sustainable Development Goal 10 Social Indicators Research 141 4 280 doi 10 1007 s11205 019 02065 4 S2CID 149845432 Retrieved 6 February 2020 a b c d e Luangthongkum Theraphan 2007 The Position of Non Thai Languages in Thailand In Guan Lee Hock Suryadinata Leo Suryadinata eds Language Nation and Development in Southeast Asia ISEAS Publishing p 191 ISBN 9789812304827 via Google Books Barbara A West 2009 Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania Facts on File p 794 ISBN 978 1438119137 via Google Books a b Baker Chris Phongpaichit Pasuk 2009 A History of Thailand 2nd paper ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521759151 Reid Anthony 2015 A History of Southeast Asia Critical Crossroads John Wiley amp Sons p 215 ISBN 9780631179610 Woodside 1971 p 8 Jiangtao Shi 16 October 2016 Time of uncertainty lies ahead for Bangkok s ethnic Chinese South China Morning Post Retrieved 28 April 2020 a b Gambe Annabelle 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0312234966 Chaloemtiarana Thak 25 December 2014 Are We Them Textual and Literary Representations of the Chinese in Twentieth Century Thailand Southeast Asian Studies 3 3 Retrieved 28 April 2020 Susanto A B Susa Patricia 2013 The Dragon Network Inside Stories of the Most Successful Chinese Family Wiley ISBN 9781118339404 Retrieved 2 December 2014 Choosing Coalition Partners The Politics of Central Bank Independence in Young Hark Byun The University of Texas at Austin Government Google Books 2006 ISBN 9780549392392 Retrieved 23 April 2012 dead link a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Chua Amy 2003 World on Fire How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability Paperback Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 72186 8 Retrieved 27 April 2020 Vatikiotis Michael Daorueng Prangtip 12 February 1998 Entrepreneurs PDF Far Eastern Economic Review Retrieved 27 April 2020 High technology and globalization challenges facing overseas Chinese entrepreneurs SAM Advanced Management Journal Find Articles Retrieved 23 April 2012 not specific enough to verify a b c d e Chua Amy L January 1998 Markets Democracy and Ethnicity Toward A New Paradigm For Law and Development The Yale Law Journal 108 1 58 doi 10 2307 797471 JSTOR 797471 Yeung Henry Wai Chung 2005 Chinese Capitalism in a Global Era Towards a Hybrid Capitalism Routledge ISBN 978 0415309899 World and Its Peoples Eastern and Southern Asia Marshall Cavendish Corporation Not Available NA Google Books Marshall Cavendish 1 September 2007 ISBN 9780761476313 Retrieved 23 April 2012 not specific enough to verify a b c Kolodko Grzegorz W 2005 Globalization And Social Stress Hauppauge NY Nova Science Publishers p 171 ISBN 9781594541940 Retrieved 29 April 2020 Marshall Tyler 17 June 2006 Southeast Asia s new best friend Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 6 March 2016 Retrieved 8 November 2015 Songkunnatham Peera 30 June 2018 Betraying my heritage the riddles of Chinese and Lao The Isaan Record Retrieved 29 April 2020 Smith Anthony 1 February 2005 Thailand s Security and the Sino Thai Relationship China Brief 5 3 Retrieved 29 April 2020 Jiangtao Shi 14 October 2016 In Bangkok s Chinatown grief and gratitude following Thai king s death South China Morning Post Retrieved 29 April 2020 Chinese Diaspora Across the World A General Overview Academy for Cultural Diplomacy Wangkumhang Pongsakorn Shaw Philip James Chaichoompu Kridsadakorn Ngamphiw Chumpol Assawamakin Anunchai Nuinoon Manit Sripichai Orapan Svasti Saovaros Fucharoen Suthat Praphanphoj Verayuth Tongsima Sissades 4 November 2013 Insight into the Peopling of Mainland Southeast Asia from Thai Population Genetic Structure PLOS ONE 8 11 e79522 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 879522W doi 10 1371 journal pone 0079522 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 3817124 PMID 24223962 Peleggi Maurizio 2007 Thailand The Worldly Kingdom Reaktion Books p 46 Paul Richard Kuehn Who Are The Thai Chinese And What Is Their Contribution to Thailand Skinner G William 1957 Chinese Assimilation and Thai Politics The Journal of Asian Studies 16 2 237 250 doi 10 2307 2941381 JSTOR 2941381 S2CID 154714627 a b Skinner G William c 1957 Chinese Society in Thailand An Analytical History Ithaca Cornell University Press hdl 2027 heb 02474 ISBN 9781597400923 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Bōtan 1 January 2002 Letters from Thailand A Novel Silkworm Books ISBN 9747551675 The Symbolism of Sondhi s Hat via PressReader Thai PM condemns race baiting at anti govt rally Asia One Agence France Presse 5 August 2008 Retrieved 29 April 2020 Sondhi Limthongkul Political Prisoners in Thailand 23 January 2009 Banyan 21 January 2014 Why Thai politics is broken The Economist Retrieved 29 April 2020 Baker Chris Phongpaichit Pasuk 11 May 2017 A History of Ayutthaya Kindle ed Cambridge University Press p 54 ISBN 978 1 107 19076 4 Baker Chris Phongpaichit Pasuk 11 May 2017 A History of Ayutthaya Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 19076 4 Lintner Bertil 2003 Blood Brothers The Criminal Underworld of Asia Macmillan Publishers p 234 ISBN 1 4039 6154 9 Stuart Fox Martin 2003 A Short History of China and Southeast Asia Tribute Trade and Influence Allen amp Unwin p 126 ISBN 1 86448 954 5 Smith NieminenWin 2005 Historical Dictionary of Thailand 2nd ed Praeger Publishers p 231 ISBN 0 8108 5396 5 Rosalind C Morris 2000 In the Place of Origins Modernity and Its Mediums in Northern Thailand Duke University Press p 334 ISBN 0 8223 2517 9 a b c Sowell Thomas 1997 Migrations and Cultures A World View Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 04589 1 a b Wongsurawat Wasana November 2008 Contending for a Claim on Civilization The Sino Siamese Struggle to Control Overseas Chinese Education in Siam Journal of Chinese Overseas 4 2 161 182 doi 10 1163 179325408788691264 S2CID 197649902 Leifer Michael 1996 Dictionary of the Modern Politics of South East Asia Routledge p 204 ISBN 0 415 13821 3 Bilateral Relations Ministry of Foreign Affairs the People s Republic of China 23 October 2003 Retrieved 12 June 2010 On July 1 1975 China and Thailand established Diplomatic relations Dixon Chris 1999 The Thai Economy Uneven Development and internationalisation Routledge p 267 ISBN 0 415 02442 0 Paul J Christopher 2006 50 Plus One Greatest Cities in the World You Should Visit Encouragement Press LLC p 25 ISBN 1 933766 01 8 Bōtan 1 January 2002 Letters from Thailand Silkworm Books ISBN 9747551675 Knodel John Hermalin Albert I 2002 The Demographic Socioeconomic and Cultural Context of the Four Study Countries The Well Being of the Elderly in Asia A Four Country Comparative Study University of Michigan Press 38 39 Gorter Durk 2006 Linguistic Landscape A New Approach to Multilingualism Multilingual Matters p 43 ISBN 1 85359 916 6 a b c Unger Danny 1998 Building Social Capital in Thailand Fibers Finance and Infrastructure Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521639316 a b Joint Economic Committee Congress of the United States 1997 China s Economic Future Challenges to U S Policy Studies on Contemporary China Routledge p 425 ISBN 978 0765601278 a b c Witzel Morgen Rae Ian 2008 The Overseas Chinese of Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan p 32 ISBN 978 1 4039 9165 2 a b c d e f g Richter Frank Jurgen 1999 Business Networks in Asia Promises Doubts and Perspectives Praeger p 193 ISBN 978 1567203028 Chen Edward 2018 Corporate Links And Foreign Direct Investment In Asia And The Pacific Routledge pp 93 94 ISBN 9780813389738 Leibo Steven A 2013 East and Southeast Asia 2013 Stryker Post Publications p 260 ISBN 978 1475804751 Freeman Nick J Bartels Frank L 2004 Future Foreign Investment SEA Oxfordshire Routledge p 259 ISBN 978 0415347044 Hipsher Scott 2009 Business Practices in Southeast Asia An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Theravada Buddhist Countries Oxfordshire Routledge published 2010 p 172 ISBN 978 0415562027 Snitwongse Kusuma Thompson Willard Scott 2005 Ethnic Conflicts in Southeast Asia Institute of Southeast Asian Studies published 30 October 2005 p 154 ISBN 978 9812303370 a b c Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony 1997 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe University of Washington Press ISBN 978 0295976136 Etemad Hamid 2004 International Entrepreneurship in Small and Medium Size Enterprises Orientation Environment and Strategy The McGill International Entrepreneurship series Edward Elgar Publishing p 112 ISBN 978 1 84376 194 5 Bafoil Francois 2013 Resilient States from a Comparative Regional Perspective Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia World Scientific Publishing p 23 ISBN 978 9814417464 Richter Frank Jurgen 1999 Business Networks in Asia Promises Doubts and Perspectives Praeger p 194 ISBN 978 1567203028 a b c Yu Bin 1996 Dynamics and Dilemma Mainland Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World Edited by Yu Bin and Chung Tsungting Nova Science ISBN 978 1560723035 Richter Frank Jurgen 1999 Business Networks in Asia Promises Doubts and Perspectives Praeger pp 193 194 ISBN 978 1567203028 a b Redding Gordon 1990 The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism De Gruyter p 32 ISBN 978 3110137941 White Lynn 2009 Political Booms Local Money And Power In Taiwan East China Thailand And The Philippines Contemporary China WSPC p 26 ISBN 978 9812836823 a b Cornwell Grant Hermans Stoddard Eve Walsh 2000 Global Multiculturalism Comparative Perspectives on Ethnicity Race and Nation Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers pp 67 ISBN 978 0742508828 Wongsurawat Wasana 2 May 2016 Beyond Jews of the Orient A New Interpretation of the Problematic Relationship between the Thai State and Its Ethnic Chinese Community Cultural Studies Positions Asia Critique 2 Duke University Press 24 2 555 582 doi 10 1215 10679847 3458721 S2CID 148553252 Malaysian Chinese Business Who Survived the Crisis Kyotoreview cseas kyoto u ac jp Archived from the original on 9 February 2012 Retrieved 23 April 2012 Thailand s 40 Richest Forbes Sowell Thomas 2006 Black Rednecks amp White Liberals Hope Mercy Justice and Autonomy in the American Health Care System Encounter Books p 84 ISBN 978 1594031434 Chua Amy L 1 January 1998 Markets Democracy and Ethnicity Toward A New Paradigm For Law and Development The Yale Law Journal 108 1 22 doi 10 2307 797471 JSTOR 797471 Sowell Thomas 1996 Migrations And Cultures A World View Thomas Sowell Google Books Basic Books ISBN 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Thailand Soma Prakasan ISBN 974 9553 75 6 Mirin MacCarthy Successfully Yours Thanet Supornsaharungsi Pattaya Mail Undated 1998 Archived copy in Thai Archived from the original on 26 April 2005 Retrieved 26 April 2005 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Baker Chris Phongpaichit Pasuk A History of Thailand Third Edition p 25 Cambridge University Press Kindle Edition Baker Chris Phongpaichit Pasuk A History of Thailand Third Edition p 31 Cambridge University Press Preston Paul Partridge Michael Best Antony 1997 British Documents on Foreign Affairs Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print Vol 6 University Publications of America p 464 ISBN 1 55655 674 8 51 Phya Manopakarana Nitidhada spoke perfect English and was always very friendly to England He is three parts Chinese His wife a favorite lady in waiting to the ex Queen was killed in a motor accident in 1929 when on an official visit to Indo China D Insor 1957 Thailand A Political Social and Economic Analysis Praeger p 138 thayathphrayaphhl elathungkhnarasdrinkhwamthrngca thngchiwityxmptiwti 24 mi y idkhrngediyw Prachatai in Thai 30 June 2012 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Batson Benjamin Arthur Shimizu Hajime 1990 The Tragedy of Wanit A Japanese Account of Wartime Thai Politics University of Singapore Press p 64 ISBN 9971622467 Retrieved 29 September 2018 a b An Impressive Day at M R Kukrit s Home Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Thailand Bibliography Gerald W Fry 18 June 2012 Research amp Articles on Pridi Banomyong BookRags Archived from the original on 30 October 2011 Pridi was included in UNESCO s list of Great Personalities and Historic Events for the year 2000 and this year was declared by UNESCO as the centennial of Pridi Also the Universite Paris 1 PantheonSorbonne in 2000 celebrated the centenary of Pridi and honored him as one of the great constitutionalists of the twentieth century comparing him to such figures as Rousseau Montesquieu and de Tocqueville 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 in Chinese 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 p 17 ISBN 962 620 127 4 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 in Chinese 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 pp 17 185 ISBN 962 620 127 4 臺北科技大學紅樓資訊站 in Chinese National Taipei University of Technology Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 in Chinese 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 p 17 ISBN 962 620 127 4 Chaloemtiarana Thak 2007 Thailand The Politics of Despotic Paternalism Ithaca NY Cornell Southeast Asia Program p 88 ISBN 978 0 8772 7742 2 Gale T 2005 Encyclopedia of World Biographies Smith Nieminen Win 2005 Historical Dictionary of Thailand 2nd ed Praeger Publishers p 225 ISBN 978 0 8108 5396 6 Richard Jensen Jon Davidann Yoneyuki Sugita 2003 Trans Pacific Relations America Europe and Asia in the Twentieth Century Praeger Publishers p 222 ISBN 978 0 275 97714 6 Peagam Nelson 1976 Judge picks up the reigns Far Eastern Economic Review p 407 Kriangsak Chamanan thiralưk Ngan Phraratchathan Phlœng Sop Phon ʻek Kriangsak Chamanan ʻadit Nayokratthamontri 12 Pho Yo 2549 translated as Official Documents of Cremation Volumes in honour of former Thai president Kriangsak Chomanan Krung Thep Khunying Wirat Chamanan 2006 Print 曾经叱咤风云的泰国政坛澄海人 ydtz com in Chinese Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 潮汕人 in Chinese permanent dead link Chris Baker Pasuk Phongpaichit 20 April 2005 A History of Thailand Cambridge University Press pp 154 and 280 ISBN 0 521 81615 7 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 p 185 ISBN 962 620 127 4 泰国华裔总理不忘 本 csonline com cn in Chinese Archived from the original on 22 April 2009 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 in Chinese 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 p 185 ISBN 962 620 127 4 LayarKaca21 LayarKaca21 11 June 2021 Archived from the original on 17 March 2008 泰国华裔地位高 出过好几任总理真正的一等公民 Sohu in Chinese Former PM Banharn dies at 83 Bangkok Post 23 April 2016 Duncan McCargo Ukrist Pathmanand 2004 The Thaksinization Of Thailand Nordic Institute of Asian Studies p Introduction Who is Thaksin Shinawatra 4 ISBN 978 87 91114 46 5 a b Tumcharoen Surasak 29 November 2009 A very distinguished province Chanthaburi has had some illustrious citizens Bangkok Post 泰国 洪林 黎道纲主编 April 2006 泰国华侨华人研究 in Chinese 香港社会科学出版社有限公司 p 187 ISBN 962 620 127 4 Profile Abhisit Vejjajiva BBC News 17 March 2010 Archived from the original on 8 February 2011 Retrieved 7 April 2011 Golingai Philip 17 January 2009 Peas in a pod they are not The Star Malaysia Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 Further reading EditChansiri Disaphol 2008 The Chinese Emigres of Thailand in the Twentieth Century Cambria Press Chantavanich Supang 1997 Leo Suryadinata ed From Siamese Chinese to Chinese Thai Political Conditions and Identity Shifts among the Chinese in Thailand pp 232 259 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Tong Chee Kiong Chan Kwok Bun eds 2001 Alternate Identities The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand Times Academic Press ISBN 981 210 142 X Skinner G William Leadership and Power in the Chinese Community in Thailand Ithaca Cornell University Press 1958 Sng Jeffery Bisalputra Pimpraphai 2015 A History of the Thai Chinese Editions Didier Millet ISBN 978 981 4385 77 0 Wongsurawat Wasana October 2019 The Crown and the Capitalists The Ethnic Chinese and the Founding of the Thai Nation Critical Dialogues in Southeast Asian Studies Paper ed Seattle University of Washington Press ISBN 9780295746241 Retrieved 30 April 2020 External links EditDr Wasana Wongsurawat lectures about her book The Crown and the Capitalists The Ethnic Chinese and the Founding of the Thai Nation 15 January 2020 video Thai Chinese chamber of commerce Thai Chinese net archived 25 February 2021 in Thai Thai Chinese netAssociations Edit The Chinese Association in Thailand Chong Hua Teochew Association of Thailand archived 2 November 2007 Hakka Association of Thailand in Thai Thai Hainan Trade association of Thailand archived 22 December 2007 Fujian Association of Thailand archived 21 November 2007 Miscellaneous Edit Thai Chinese BBS archived 14 April 2003 Assessment for Chinese in Thailand archived 21 September 2005 Anti Chinese Labor riot of 1924 amp bottom of page how Thai Army suppressed 1889 riot between Chinese triads Tang Kong Xi Teochew and Siew Li Kue Fujian archived 6 January 2009 Why do Thais have long surnames archived 22 July 2012 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Thai Chinese amp oldid 1170536530, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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