The meaning of life pertains to the inherent significance or philosophical meaning of living (or existence in general). There is not a definitive answer, and thinking or discourse on the topic is sought in the English language through the question, "What is the meaning of life?" (or the related "Why are wehere?" or "What is the purpose of existence?"). There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much philosophical, scientific, theological, and metaphysical speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question. Opinions vary on the usefulness of using time and resources in the pursuit of an answer. Excessive pondering can be indicative of, or lead to, an existential crisis.
Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.[2]
Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression der Sinn des Lebens by German Romantic writers Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel. Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel Lucinde (1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the word lebenssinn, translated as life's meaning, had been used by Goethe in a 1796 letter to Schiller.[3] These authors grappled with the rationalism and materialism of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the "Wilderness" of "the wide World in an Atheistic Century".[4]
Arthur Schopenhauer was the first to explicitly ask the question,[1] in an essay entitled "Character".
Since a man does not alter, and his moral character remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises, What is the meaning of life at all? To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?[5]
Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:
What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we?[6][7][8]
Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
Psychological significance and value in life
Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,[20] full engagement in activities,[21] making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths,[22] and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.[23] Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example[21] is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast he/she can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.
Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.
Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems. It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.
Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.[24][25]
Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.
Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,[26][27] reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,[28] reduced risk of stroke,[29] and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.[30] There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.[31]
In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:[32]
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known organisms.
The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via geneticmutation and natural selection is explained by evolution.[33] At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.[34][35] Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", James Watson stated "I don't think we're for anything. We're just the products of evolution."[36]
Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.[37][38] Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy"[39][40][41] which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment.[42][43][44] Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.[45]
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.[46] However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.[47] For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.[48]
The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch.
Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe.[49]Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.
On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[54] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",[54] often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[55]Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.[56][57]Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is an alternative to determinism.
Parapsychology
Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".[14][58][59] Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporealhigher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.[60][61][62][63]
Nature of meaning in life
Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221).[64] In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.[65] In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,[66][67] with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):
You need to choose a worthy purpose or a significant life goal.
You need to have sufficient understanding of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life.
You and you alone are responsible for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal.
You will enjoy a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self-determination and actively pursue a worthy life-goal.
Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.
Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.[68][69] Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard.[67]
Western philosophical perspectives
The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.
Ancient Greek philosophy
Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco by Raphael. Plato is pointing heavenwards, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.
Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals. His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of the Republic, the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:
Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor [...] Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".
What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.
Antisthenes. Roman copy after a Hellenistic original. From the Villa of Cassius at Tivoli, 1774.
Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character.
The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.[70][71] As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society.
Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.[72][73]
Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:
"When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."[74]
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[75]
Zeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from suffering" through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having "clear judgement", not indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."[75] The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[75]
The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.
The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).
Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appeared in Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus (1833–August 1834): "Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle."[76]
The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham,[77] who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the Rule of Utility: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle".
Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.[78]
Nihilism
Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning.
Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".[79] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.[80]
To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[79] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism:
If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.[81]
The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meursault,[82] but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.[83]
The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;[84] and philosophy—particularly following the linguistic turn—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism, secular humanism).
Pragmatism
Pragmatism originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with truth, and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.[85][86] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.
Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.[87]
According to existentialism, each person creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and the concomitant awareness of death. According to Jean-Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence.
Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.[88]
Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.[89][90]
For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective.[80]
"... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell if so it must be."
In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942):
Suicide (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option.
Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide".
Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel The Plague or La Peste), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!"[92]
The "Happy Human" symbol representing secular humanism
Per secular humanism, the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature, which is self-existing.[93][94] Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be.[93] Likewise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[93] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.[95][96] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[94]
People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:[93] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".[95] Humanism aims to promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture.[94][95]
The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".[97]
From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of my life?"[98] This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)[99]
Logical positivism
Logical positivists ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"[100][101] and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"[102]Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said:[citation needed] "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:[75]
When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[103]
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism).
Naturalistic pantheism
According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
Embodied cognition
Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought. Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency.
George Lakoff, a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.[104] Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network. Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean.[citation needed] Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.[105] Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.[citation needed]
The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial love. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with him or her.[106] The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[107]
The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.
Religious perspectives
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the Charter for Compassion, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the golden rule of 'treat others as you would have them treat you'. The Charter's founder, Karen Armstrong, quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that 'the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule.
In the Judaic worldview, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the messianic era. This is called Tikkun Olam ("Fixing the World"). Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order. However, Judaism is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal (between man and man) and individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions in this world.
Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible, absolute Being, who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of His Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving the Jewish commandments. Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further developed through the generations. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"[108] and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of Noah. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.
Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of mitzvot. Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God. The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe.[109] Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.[110][111] The world to come,[112] prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God.[113]Simeon the Righteous says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The prayer book relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." Of this context, the Talmud states, "Everything that God does is for the good." including suffering.
The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.[114] Through this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.[115]
Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology. Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.[117] The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven.[118]
In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the First Parents to inherit Original Sin and its consequences. Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). That this restoration from sin is possible is called the gospel.
The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different denominations of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:8–9[8] "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;[9] not as a result of works, that no one should boast." (NASB; 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be regenerated by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the term saved almost always refer to.
In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, an important creed for Reformed Christians,[119] the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".[120] The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."[121]
Areopagus from the Acropolis (Athens, 2006)
The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."[122]
Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola: "The human person is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her soul. All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created. It follows from this that one must use other created things, in so far as they help towards one's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are obstacles to one's end. To do this, we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things, provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition. Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not want health more than illness, wealth more than poverty, fame more than disgrace, a-long life more than a short one, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created."[123]
Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.[124] Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.[124] The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.[125][126] Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,[127] so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;[128] nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross.
Islam
In Islam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, Allah (English: The God), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the tradition of the Prophet (with the exception of Quranists). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in Jannah (Paradise) or far away in Jahannam (Hell).
For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".[129] The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).[130][citation needed] However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.[131]
Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree;[133] the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states "I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá of the Baháʼí Faith,[134] and in Ibn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.[135]
The Baháʼí Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity.[136] To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this.[137][138]
Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.[139] Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul)—the person's true self—is eternal.[140] In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): (i) Kāma (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii) Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii) Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics), encompassing notions such as ahimsa (non-violence) and satya (truth) and (iv) Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation from Saṃsāra, the cycle of reincarnation).[141][142][143]
In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas ("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman)).
Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, "The One Without a Second",[144] as a central God-like figure.
In monist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's Ātman (soul) is identical to Brahman.[145] To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom).[140][146][147]
Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.[146]
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas.[149]
One popular school of thought, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda. In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[150]
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jiva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[151]
Buddhism
Early Buddhism
Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth.[152]
Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path.
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from individual Suffering (Duhkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.[153]
Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the Vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that Bodhisattva should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.[154]
The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[155] Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.[156] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[157]
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[158]Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[158]
Taoistcosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves."[159]
Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the kami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[160]
New religions
There are many new religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.
Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is asha, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, druj, falsehood and disorder.[161]
Since humanity possesses free will, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.
Popular views
"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?".[15] Some popular answers include:
To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.[210]
To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.[162]
Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.[190]
Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.[162]
There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.[162]
One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life
The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.[190]
You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.[162]
The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.[162]
Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible.[232]
In popular culture
Charles Allan Gilbert's All is Vanity, an example of vanitas, depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes, preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her vanity. But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear, expressing memento mori, that no matter how good she looks, it won't last, as death is inevitable.
Monty Python's The Meaning of Life includes a character played by Michael Palin being handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."[233][234][235]
In Douglas Adams' book The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution "42", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."[236][8][237][238][239] Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine",[240] and it is realised that the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.
Hamlet meditating upon Yorick's skull has become the most lasting embodiment of the imagery of vanitas, conveying the theme memento mori ('Remember you shall die'). Whatever the meaning of life, it (life) is fleeting.
In Person of Interest season 5 episode 13, an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale.[241]
Related concepts
Existential crisis
Existential crises are crises of meaning. They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.[242][243][244] This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong desire to find some form of meaning in life. In the existentialist literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termed the absurd.[245][246][247] It may be summarized by the question "How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?".[248] While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises. This level leads to various negative experiences, such as stress, anxiety, despair, and depression.[248][243][244] In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life. A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue. This opens the opportunity of developing as a person and improving one's way of life.[248][249]
Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life. An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.[248][250] In the cosmic sense, the term "meaning of life" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here. One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question. This often takes the form of a religious explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.[248][251][252] Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level. This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.[248][250][253] In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career. This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.[248][244][251]
Importance
The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has importance or what matters. This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.[254][255] Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.[254][256] This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with self-transcendence. Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a more egoistic or narcissistic aim in comparison.[254]
Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference. Some only require that this causal impact is big enough. Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.[257][256][258] This is often interpreted with reference to well-being: the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.[259][256][260] However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance. In this regard, some things may be important accidentally or unintentionally without being guided by a higher goal. For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a butterfly effect of extreme proportions. In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.[254]
Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking. Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.[254][256] For example, Alexander Fleming was important in a positive sense since his discovery of penicillin helped many people cure their bacterial infections.[261]Adolf Hitler, on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people.[257]
World riddle – Term in ontology and consciousness studies
World view – Fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or societyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
References
^ abO'Brien, Wendell. "Meaning of Life, The: Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^"Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^"How meaning of life was invented: Thomas Carlyle on how to overcome an existential crisis". Frank Martela. 4 December 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^"The Essays of Arthur Schopenhauer: on Human Nature., by Arthur Schopenhauer". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^Jonathan Westphal (1998). Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-17053-6.
^Dennis Marcellino (1996). Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand). Lighthouse Pub. ISBN978-0-945272-10-6.
^ abcHsuan Hua (2003). Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. ISBN978-0-88139-302-6.
^ abPaul Davies (2000). . Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-86309-2. Archived from the original on 16 June 2001. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
^Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002). (PDF). Philosophy of Education. University of Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
^Stan Van Hooft (2004). Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics. Rodopi. ISBN978-90-420-1912-6.
^Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-2951-0.
^E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." Psychological Inquiry, Lawrence Erlbaum.
^ abCsíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN0-06-092043-2.
^Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-516701-5. "See brief summary".
^Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Free Press. ISBN0-7432-2297-0. Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN0-7432-2298-9.
^Lu, Jun; Gao, Qin (1 May 2017). "Faith and Happiness in China: Roles of Religious Identity, Beliefs, and Practice". Social Indicators Research. 132 (1): 273–290. doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1372-8. ISSN 1573-0921. S2CID 148091125.
^Rizvi, Mohd Ahsan Kabir; Hossain, Mohammad Zakir (1 October 2017). "Relationship Between Religious Belief and Happiness: A Systematic Literature Review". Journal of Religion and Health. 56 (5): 1561–1582. doi:10.1007/s10943-016-0332-6. ISSN 1573-6571. PMID 27909930. S2CID 1389245.
^Sutin, DAR; Luchetti, M; Aschwanden, D; Stephan, Y; Sesker, AA; Terracciano, A (February 2023). "Sense of meaning and purpose in life and risk of incident dementia: New data and meta-analysis". Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 105: 104847. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2022.104847. PMC10015423. PMID 36347158.
^Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment in community-dwelling older persons. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:304–310.
^Kim E, Sun J, Park N, Kubzansky L, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. (2):124–133.
^Kim ES, Sun JK, Park N, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults: The Health and Retirement Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2013;74(5):427–432.
^Boyle PA, Barnes LL, Buchman AS, Bennett DA. Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community-dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2009;71:574–579.
^Sutin, Angelina R.; Luchetti, Martina; Stephan, Yannick; Terracciano, Antonio (13 September 2023). "Change in Purpose in Life Before and After Onset of Cognitive Impairment". JAMA Network Open. 6 (9): e2333489. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.33489. ISSN 2574-3805. PMC10500383. PMID 37703016.
^"Five steps to mental wellbeing". nhs.uk. 21 December 2017.
^Lovelock, James (2000). Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-286218-1.
^Avery, John (2003). Information Theory and Evolution. World Scientific. ISBN978-981-238-399-0.
^O'Dowd, Matt, Ph.D. (11 April 2018). "The Physics of Life (ft. It's Okay to be Smart & PBS Eons!) Space Time". PBS Space Time. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Davison, Paul G. . The University of North Alabama. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
^Helge Kragh (1996). Cosmology and Controversy. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-00546-1.
^Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle (2000). Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-77098-9.
^Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze (1999). Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace. North Atlantic Books. ISBN978-1-55643-306-1.
^McFadden, J. (2002). . Journal of Consciousness Studies. 9 (4): 23–50. Archived from the original on 18 December 2005.
^R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga (2000). Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy. Springer. ISBN978-0-306-46439-3.
^Alexandra Bruce (2005). Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!?. The Disinformation Company. ISBN978-1-932857-22-1.
^Akers, C. (1986). . PesquisaPSI. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^Child, I.L. (1987). . PesquisaPSI. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^Wiseman, Richard; Smith, Matthew; et al. (1996). "Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments – Psychophysical Research Laboratories". The Journal of Parapsychology. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2007.
^Lobach, E.; Bierman, D. (2004). (PDF). Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention. pp. 77–90. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2007.
^Reker, G.T., & Wong, P.T.P. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Towards a theory of personal meaning. In J.E. Birren, & V.L. Bengston (Eds.), Emergent theories of aging (pp. 214–246). New York: Springer.
^Martela, F., & Steger, M.F. (2016). The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing coherence, purpose, and significance. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 531–545.
^Wong, P.T.P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69–81.
^ abWong, P.T.P. (2012). From Logotherapy to Meaning-Centered Counseling and Therapy. In P.T.P. Wong (Ed.), The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications (2nd ed., pp. 619–647). New York: Routledge.
^Metz, Thaddeus (2013). Meaning in Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-959931-8.
^ Haybron, Daniel M. (2013). Happiness: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-959060-5.
^Kidd, I., "Cynicism," in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy, (eds. J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Rée), Routledge, (2005).
^Long, A.A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics," in The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (eds. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).
^"Meaning of Life, The: Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 28. ISBN0-415-22094-7. "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."
^Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty, ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, ed.'s introduction, p. 11.
^ abJérôme Bindé (2004). The Future of Values: 21st-Century Talks. Berghahn Books. ISBN978-1-57181-442-5.
^ abcd. American Humanist Association. 1933. Archived from the original on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
^ abc. American Humanist Association. 1973. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
^ abc. American Humanist Association. 2003. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
^. Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism). 1980. Archived from the original on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
^Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., Philosophie als Wissenschaft.
^McNaughton, David (August 1988). "Section 1.5: Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life". Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-0-631-15945-2.
^Russell, Bertrand (1961), , archived from the original on 14 November 2007.
^"BLENDING AND METAPHOR". markturner.org. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
^Landau, Mark J. (March 2018). "Using Metaphor to Find Meaning in Life". Review of General Psychology. 22 (1): 62–72. doi:10.1037/gpr0000105. PMC5889147. PMID 29632431.
^One Hundred Philosophers: A Guide to the World's Greatest Thinkers Peter J. King.
^Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
^Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism, Menachem Kellner, Littman Library. Particularly the parable of the King's Palace in divine worship, in the Guide for the Perplexed.
^Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-23661-4.
^Abraham Joshua Heschel (2005). Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-8264-0802-0.
^Wilfred Shuchat (2006). The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah. Devora Publishing. ISBN978-1-932687-31-6.
^Randolph L. Braham (1983). Contemporary Views on the Holocaust. Springer. ISBN978-0-89838-141-2.
^Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter "Early modern era: Safed spirituality".
^Habad intellectual Hasidic thought: source text Tanya I: 36, 49; secondary text Heaven on Earth, Faitel Levin, Kehot publications.
^"The new Seven Wonders of the World". Hindustan Times. 8 July 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^In most English translations of Qur'an 51:56 translates the last word to "worship", but any Arabic (and Urdu) speaking person can confirm that "ABADON" means to follow the Will of Allah (NOT worship). This is relevant because the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM; to be just and good with humanity is equally important.
^. Iqra.net. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
^"Pillars of Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
^Bahá, Abdu'l. "Commentary on the Islamic Tradition "I Was a Hidden Treasure ..."". Baháʼí Studies Bulletin. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
^Chittick, William C. "The Imprint of the Bezels of the Wisdom" (PDF). Ibn 'Arabi's Own Summary of the Fusûs. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
^"Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2007.
^Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 325–328. ISBN978-1-85168-184-6.
^For a more detailed Baháʼí perspective, see . Archived from the original on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
^Simon Weightman (1998). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). The new Penguin handbook of living religions. Penguin books. ISBN978-0-14-051480-3.
^ abMonier Monier-Williams (1974). Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus. Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN978-1-4212-6531-5. Retrieved 8 July 2007.
^For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
^For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kama, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.
^For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (puruṣa-artha) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, Middle column, Compound #1.
^Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994). The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion. Seattle, WA: Viveka Press. ISBN978-1-884852-02-2.
^ abWerner, Karel (1994). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN978-0-7007-0279-4.
^See also the Vedic statement "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman).
^Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Gavin Flood; University of Stirling (eds.). The Chaitanya Vaishnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami When Knowledge Meets Devotion. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-40548-5.
^Arana, Juan Hincapié (1 January 2021). "A SEED IN AMITABHA'S HAND- Pure Land Buddhism's path to peace in this life and the next by Juan Hincapie Arana". Amazon KDP. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
^ abcRoger Ellerton, CMC (2013). Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Renewal Technologies. ISBN978-0-9784452-7-0.
^Steve Chandler (2005). Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career Press. ISBN978-1-56414-817-9.
^Matthew Kelly (2005). The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose. Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0-7432-6510-2.
^Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". Social Indicators Research. 50 (3): 351–362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. S2CID 141773177.
^John Kultgen (1995). Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press US. ISBN978-0-19-508531-0.
^ abcdGeorge Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home. Emmis Books. ISBN978-1-57860-148-6.
^ abJohn G. West (2002). Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization. Inkling Books. ISBN978-1-58742-012-2.
^Rachel Madorsky (2003). Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House. ISBN978-0-9705349-4-1.
^A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the Best Way to Live. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
^Brooks, Mike (8 October 2020). "What Is the Purpose of Life? Why are we here? Here's a reasonable answer". Psychology Today. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
^Lopez, Mike (22 September 1999). . The Michigan Daily. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
^Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). . Universal Publishers. ISBN978-1-58112-960-1. Archived from the original on 14 March 2007.
^ ab"Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever". www.fantastic-voyage.net. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
^Bryan Appleyard (2007). How To Live Forever Or Die Trying: On The New Immortality. Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0-7432-6868-4.
^Cameron, Donald (2001). . Woodhill Publishing. ISBN978-0-9540291-0-4. Archived from the original on 13 November 2001.
^Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-280481-5.
^Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). Genetics and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN978-0-471-23805-8.
^Jennifer Ackerman (2001). Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN978-0-618-21909-4.
^Boyce Rensberger (1996). Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-512500-9.
^Chris Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-518107-4.
^John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing. ISBN978-0-87220-349-5.
^John E. Findling; Frank W. Thackeray (2001). Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-29079-4.
^Richard A. Bowell (2004). The Seven Steps of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN978-1-85788-344-2.
^John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN978-0-8058-0425-6.
^ abcTimothy Tang (2007). Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse. ISBN978-0-595-45941-4.
^Tyler T. Roberts (1998). Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-00127-2.
^Costigan, Lucy (2004). What is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse. ISBN978-0-595-33880-1.
^Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN978-1-84619-181-7.
^David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN978-0-8028-3634-2.
^Williams, Dana A. (2005). In the Light of Likeness-Transformed: The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio State University Press. ISBN978-0-8142-0994-3.
^Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-03711-0.
^Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN978-1-84310-024-9.
^Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-64430-3.
^Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. ISBN978-0-7619-7049-1.
^Anil Goonewardene (1994). Buddhist Scriptures. Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN978-0-435-30355-6.
^ abLuc Ferry (2002). Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-24484-6.
^ abcEric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life. FT Press. ISBN978-0-13-066836-3.
^Cumberland, Dan (18 May 2015). "Finding Purpose in Life". TheMeaningMovement. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
^Dominique Moyse Steinberg (2004). The Mutual-Aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another. Haworth Press. ISBN978-0-7890-1462-7.
^T.M.P. Mahadevan (1974). Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy). Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras.
^John T. Scully (2007). The Five Commandments. Trafford Publishing. ISBN978-1-4251-1910-2.
^ abThomas Patrick Burke (2004). The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-1049-5.
^Book of Mormon: Mosiah 2:17. 1830. And behold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God.
^Book of Mormon: Alma 32:32. 1830. For behold, this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God; yea, behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors.
^Holy Bible: Genesis 3:22. And the Lord God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil...
^Holy Bible: Matthew 5:48. Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.
^. 1830. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019. And the Lord God spake unto Moses, saying: ... For behold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man.
^"Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Lorenzo Snow". Lorenzo Snow. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 2011 [1884]. p. 83. As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Book of Mormon: Alma 29:5. 1830. Yea, and I know that good and evil have come before all men; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy or remorse of conscience.
^Book of Mormon: 2 Nephi 2:25. 1830. Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy.
^Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 5:11. 1830. And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed, and never should have known good and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient.
^Holisiajay Quran 51:56. Quranic Arabic Corpus. I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me.
^Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press. ISBN978-0-292-71345-1.
^Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN978-0-86171-173-4.
^Stewart, John (5 March 2010). "Is this the meaning of life? John Stewart argues that despite the perception that science has stripped the meaning from life, recent developments in evolutionary theory suggest that humans have a central role to play in the future of the universe". The Guardian.
^. intriguing.com. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
^Terry Burnham (2005). Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN978-0-471-71695-2.
^Yolanda Fernandez (2002). In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN978-1-885473-48-6.
^Adams, Douglas (29 March 1978). The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Fourth) (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was.
^Glenn Yeffeth (2005). The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. BenBella Books, Inc. ISBN978-1-932100-56-3.
^William B. Badke (2005). The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything. Kregel Publications. ISBN978-0-8254-2069-6.
^Adams, Douglas (12 April 1978). The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Sixth) (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. That's it. Six by nine… forty-two! I always said there was something fundamentally wrong about the universe!
^""Person of Interest" recap (5.13): The sound of my voice". After Ellen. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
^"APA Dictionary of Psychology: existential crisis". dictionary.apa.org.
^ abAndrews, Mary (April 2016). "The existential crisis". Behavioral Development Bulletin. 21 (1): 104–109. doi:10.1037/bdb0000014.
^ abcButenaitė, Joana; Sondaitė, Jolanta; Mockus, Antanas (2016). "Components of existential crises: a theoretical analysis". International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach. 18: 9–27. doi:10.7220/2345-024X.18.1.
^Crowell, Steven (2020). "Existentialism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
^Blomme, Robert J. (2013). "Absurdism as a Fundamental Value: Camusian Thoughts on Moral Development in Organisations". International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy. 7 (2): 116. doi:10.1504/IJMCP.2013.055720.
^Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). "absurd, the". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press.
^ abcdefgYalom, Irvin D. (17 March 2020). "10. Meaninglessness". Existential Psychotherapy. Basic Books. ISBN978-1-5416-4744-2.
^Greer, Frank (October 1980). "Toward a Developmental View of Adult Crisis: a Re-Examination of Crisis Theory". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 20 (4): 17–29. doi:10.1177/002216788002000404. ISSN 0022-1678. S2CID 146743538.
^ abPratt, Alan. "Nihilism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
^ abYang, William; Staps, Ton; Hijmans, Ellen (2010). "Existential crisis and the awareness of dying: the role of meaning and spirituality". Omega. 61 (1): 53–69. doi:10.2190/OM.61.1.c. ISSN 0030-2228. PMID 20533648. S2CID 22290227.
^Zapffe, Peter Wessel. "The Last Messiah". Philosophy Now (45).
^ abcdeKahane, Guy (10 June 2022). "Meaningfulness and Importance". In Landau, Iddo (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Meaning in Life. pp. 92–108. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.013.6. ISBN978-0-19-006350-4.
^Nozick, Robert (1981). "6. Philosophy and the meaning of life". Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-66479-1.
^ abcdNozick, Robert (15 December 1990). "16. Importance and Weight". Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations. Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-671-72501-3.
^ abKahane, Guy (13 August 2021). "Importance, Value, and Causal Impact". Journal of Moral Philosophy. 19 (6): 577–601. doi:10.1163/17455243-20213581. ISSN 1745-5243. S2CID 238678531.
^Benatar, David (5 May 2017). "3. Meaninglessness". The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-063382-0.
^Benbaji, Yitzhak (2001). "The Moral, the Personal, and the Importance of What We Care about". Philosophy. 76 (297): 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0031819101000365. ISSN 0031-8191. JSTOR 3751779. S2CID 143737564.
^Tugendhat, Ernst (4 October 2016). "2. "Good" and "Important"". Egocentricity and Mysticism: An Anthropological Study. Columbia University Press. ISBN978-0-231-54293-7.
^Morris, Chris (28 March 2016). "10 wonder drugs that changed our lives forever". CNBC. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
External links
Look up meaning of life in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Meaning of life.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Life.
Wikiversity has learning resources about What Matters
Wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?
January 01, 1970
meaning, life, theory, life, redirects, here, work, samuel, taylor, coleridge, coleridge, theory, life, other, uses, meaning, life, disambiguation, meaning, life, pertains, inherent, significance, philosophical, meaning, living, existence, general, there, defi. Theory of life redirects here For the work by Samuel Taylor Coleridge see Coleridge s theory of life For other uses see Meaning of Life disambiguation The meaning of life pertains to the inherent significance or philosophical meaning of living or existence in general There is not a definitive answer and thinking or discourse on the topic is sought in the English language through the question What is the meaning of life or the related Why are we here or What is the purpose of existence There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds The search for life s meaning has produced much philosophical scientific theological and metaphysical speculation throughout history Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question Opinions vary on the usefulness of using time and resources in the pursuit of an answer Excessive pondering can be indicative of or lead to an existential crisis A graffito in Dublin depicts a stick figure pondering its existence The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of and scientific inquiries about existence social ties consciousness and happiness Many other issues are also involved such as symbolic meaning ontology value purpose ethics good and evil free will the existence of one or multiple gods conceptions of God the soul and the afterlife Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe exploring the context and parameters concerning the how of life Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well being and a related conception of morality An alternative humanistic approach poses the question What is the meaning of my life Contents 1 Origin of the expression 2 Origin of the question 3 Scientific inquiry and perspectives 3 1 Psychological significance and value in life 3 2 Origin and nature of biological life 3 3 Origins and ultimate fate of the universe 3 4 Scientific questions about the mind 3 4 1 Parapsychology 3 5 Nature of meaning in life 4 Western philosophical perspectives 4 1 Ancient Greek philosophy 4 1 1 Platonism 4 1 2 Aristotelianism 4 1 3 Cynicism 4 1 4 Cyrenaicism 4 1 5 Epicureanism 4 1 6 Stoicism 4 2 Enlightenment philosophy 4 2 1 Kantianism 4 3 19th century philosophy 4 3 1 Utilitarianism 4 3 2 Nihilism 4 4 20th century philosophy 4 4 1 Pragmatism 4 4 2 Theism 4 4 3 Existentialism 4 4 4 Absurdism 4 4 5 Secular humanism 4 4 6 Logical positivism 4 4 7 Postmodernism 4 4 8 Naturalistic pantheism 4 4 9 Embodied cognition 5 East Asian philosophical perspectives 5 1 Mohism 5 2 Confucianism 5 3 Legalism 6 Religious perspectives 6 1 Abrahamic religions 6 1 1 Judaism 6 1 2 Christianity 6 1 3 Islam 6 1 4 Bahaʼi Faith 6 2 South Asian religions 6 2 1 Hindu philosophies 6 2 1 1 Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism 6 2 1 2 Vaishnavism 6 2 2 Jainism 6 2 3 Buddhism 6 2 3 1 Early Buddhism 6 2 3 2 Mahayana Buddhism 6 2 4 Sikhism 6 3 East Asian religions 6 3 1 Taoism 6 3 2 Shinto 6 3 3 New religions 6 4 Iranian religions 6 4 1 Zoroastrianism 7 Popular views 7 1 To realize one s potential and ideals 7 2 To evolve or to achieve biological perfection 7 3 To seek wisdom and knowledge 7 4 To do good to do the right thing 7 5 Meanings relating to religion 7 6 To love to feel to enjoy the act of living 7 7 To have power to be better 7 8 Life has no meaning 7 9 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life 8 In popular culture 9 Related concepts 9 1 Existential crisis 9 2 Importance 10 See also 11 References 12 External linksOrigin of the expression nbsp The Storm Fiend Heading to Book II Chapter IX of Thomas Carlyle s Sartor Resartus 1898 illustration by E J SullivanThe first English use of the expression meaning of life appears in Thomas Carlyle s Sartor Resartus 1833 1834 book II chapter IX The Everlasting Yea 1 Our Life is compassed round with Necessity yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom than Voluntary Force thus have we a warfare in the beginning especially a hard fought battle 2 Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression der Sinn des Lebens by German Romantic writers Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel Lucinde 1799 though Novalis had done so in a 1797 1798 manuscript in which he wrote Only an artist can divine the meaning of life Additionally the word lebenssinn translated as life s meaning had been used by Goethe in a 1796 letter to Schiller 3 These authors grappled with the rationalism and materialism of modernity Carlyle called this the Torch of Science which burned more fiercely than ever and made religion all parched away under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief resulting in the Wilderness of the wide World in an Atheistic Century 4 Origin of the question nbsp Philosopher in Meditation detail by RembrandtArthur Schopenhauer was the first to explicitly ask the question 1 in an essay entitled Character Since a man does not alter and his moral character remains absolutely the same all through his life since he must play out the part which he has received without the least deviation from the character since neither experience nor philosophy nor religion can effect any improvement in him the question arises What is the meaning of life at all To what purpose is it played this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined 5 Questions about the meaning of life and similar have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways including What is the meaning of life What s it all about Who are we 6 7 8 Why are we here What are we here for 9 10 11 What is the origin of life 12 What is the nature of life What is the nature of reality 12 13 14 What is the purpose of life What is the purpose of one s life 13 15 16 What is the significance of life 16 See also Psychological significance and value in life What is meaningful and valuable in life 17 What is the value of life 18 What is the reason to live What are we living for 11 19 These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications from scientific theories to philosophical theological and spiritual explanations Scientific inquiry and perspectivesFurther information Eudaimonia Eudaimonia and modern psychology and Meaningful Life Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life In their view science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality such as the Big Bang the origin of life and evolution and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness Psychological significance and value in life Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction 20 full engagement in activities 21 making a fuller contribution by using one s personal strengths 22 and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self 23 Large data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task For example flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities and occur only slightly more often in billionaires A classic example 21 is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast he she can make each unit and achieves flow in the process Neuroscience describes reward pleasure and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this Likewise some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures suggesting that they may be innate whilst others are culture specific The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility based theories Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta analyses 24 25 Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory norms anomie etc One value system suggested by social psychologists broadly called Terror Management Theory states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death Alongside this there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives For example depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences providing bias towards an over optimistic view of life Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer s disease 26 27 reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease 28 reduced risk of stroke 29 and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples 30 There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment 31 In 2014 the British National Health Service began recommending a five step plan for mental well being based on meaningful lives whose steps are 32 Connect with community and family Physical exercise Lifelong learning Giving to others Mindfulness of the world around you Origin and nature of biological life nbsp DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known organisms The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis RNA based replicators and the iron sulfur world hypothesis metabolism without genetics The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution 33 At the end of the 20th century based upon insight gleaned from the gene centered view of evolution biologists George C Williams Richard Dawkins and David Haig among others concluded that if there is a primary function to life it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one s genes 34 35 Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about what it is all for James Watson stated I don t think we re for anything We re just the products of evolution 36 Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge 37 38 Physically one may say that life feeds on negative entropy 39 40 41 which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment 42 43 44 Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state metabolism serves to provide energy and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations Typically organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation resulting in adaptation through evolution this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively 45 Non cellular replicating agents notably viruses are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism This classification is problematic though since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA Origins and ultimate fate of the universe nbsp Modern view of the expansion of space The inflationary epoch is a period of rapidly accelerating expansion at left Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced it has become well supported by several independent observations 46 However current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10 43 seconds after the Big Bang where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time Nevertheless many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit and how the universe came into being 47 For example one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally and when considering the anthropic principle it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse 48 The ultimate fate of the universe and implicitly of humanity is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable such as through a Big Freeze Big Rip or Big Crunch Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory A recent trend has been models of the creation of baby universes inside black holes with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe 49 Many worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes Scientific questions about the mind The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind are also widely debated in science The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science neuroscience e g the neuroscience of free will and philosophy of mind though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject 50 51 nbsp Hieronymus Bosch s Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures often described in reports of near death experiences Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches for example the Multiple Drafts Model hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons thus adhering to biological naturalism 51 52 53 On the other hand some scientists like Andrei Linde have considered that consciousness like spacetime might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom and that one s perceptions may be as real as or even more real than material objects 54 Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a space of conscious elements 54 often encompassing a number of extra dimensions 55 Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind 56 57 Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is an alternative to determinism Parapsychology Based on the premises of non materialistic explanations of the mind some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness asserting that consciousness is actually the ground of all being 14 58 59 Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations 60 61 62 63 Nature of meaning in life Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the cognizance of order coherence and purpose in one s existence the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals and an accompanying sense of fulfillment p 221 64 In 2016 Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence purpose and significance 65 In contrast Wong has proposed a four component solution to the question of meaning in life 66 67 with the four components purpose understanding responsibility and enjoyment PURE You need to choose a worthy purpose or a significant life goal You need to have sufficient understanding of who you are what life demands of you and how you can play a significant role in life You and you alone are responsible for deciding what kind of life you want to live and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal You will enjoy a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self determination and actively pursue a worthy life goal Thus a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning rather than standing as a separate factor Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment most philosophers e g Thaddeus Metz Daniel Haybron propose that there are also objective concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life 68 69 Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but more importantly on whether a person s goal striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard 67 Western philosophical perspectivesThe philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans Ancient Greek philosophy nbsp Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco by Raphael Plato is pointing heavenwards and Aristotle is gesturing to the world Platonism Main article Platonism Plato a pupil of Socrates was one of the earliest most influential philosophers His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist like objects but as heavenly forms In the dialogue of the Republic the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life In Platonism the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge which is the Idea Form of the Good from which all good and just things derive utility and value Aristotelianism Main article Aristotelian ethics Aristotle an apprentice of Plato was another early and influential philosopher who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge such as metaphysics and epistemology but is general knowledge Because it is not a theoretical discipline a person had to study and practice in order to become good thus if the person were to become virtuous he could not simply study what virtue is he had to be virtuous via virtuous activities To do this Aristotle established what is virtuous Every skill and every inquiry and similarly every action and choice of action is thought to have some good as its object This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor Everything is done with a goal and that goal is good Nicomachean Ethics 1 1 Yet if action A is done towards achieving goal B then goal B also would have a goal goal C and goal C also would have a goal and so would continue this pattern until something stopped its infinite regression Aristotle s solution is the Highest Good which is desirable for its own sake It is its own goal The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good and all other goods desirable for its sake This involves achieving eudaemonia usually translated as happiness well being flourishing and excellence What is the highest good in all matters of action To the name there is an almost complete agreement for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living They disagree however about the meaning of happiness Nicomachean Ethics 1 4 Cynicism Main article Cynicism philosophy nbsp Antisthenes Roman copy after a Hellenistic original From the Villa of Cassius at Tivoli 1774 Antisthenes a pupil of Socrates first outlined the themes of Cynicism stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature Happiness depends upon being self sufficient and master of one s mental attitude suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth power health and fame by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional 70 71 As reasoning creatures people could achieve happiness via rigorous training by living in a way natural to human beings The world equally belongs to everyone so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society Cyrenaicism Main article Cyrenaics Aristippus of Cyrene a pupil of Socrates founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates s teachings that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good thus a hedonistic world view wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long term gain of delayed gratification denial is unpleasant unhappiness 72 73 Epicureanism Main article Epicureanism Epicurus a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ataraxia via knowledge friendship and virtuous temperate living bodily pain aponia is absent through one s knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one s desires Combined freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form Epicurus lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi ascetic abstention from sex and the appetites When we say that pleasure is the end and aim we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality as we are understood to do by some through ignorance prejudice or willful misrepresentation By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry not by sexual lust nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table which produce a pleasant life it is sober reasoning searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul 74 The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism there is a soul but it is as mortal as the body There is no afterlife yet one need not fear death because Death is nothing to us for that which is dissolved is without sensation and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us 75 Stoicism Main article Stoicism nbsp Bust of Zeno of Citium at the Neues Museum Zeno of Citium a pupil of Crates of Thebes established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe s divine order entailed by one s recognition of the universal logos or reason an essential value of all people The meaning of life is freedom from suffering through apatheia Gr apa8eia that is being objective and having clear judgement not indifference Stoicism s prime directives are virtue reason and natural law abided to develop personal self control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic reflection and concentration The Stoic ethical foundation is that good lies in the state of the soul itself exemplified in wisdom and self control thus improving one s spiritual well being Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature 75 The principle applies to one s personal relations thus to be free from anger envy and jealousy 75 Enlightenment philosophy Further information Enlightenment philosophy The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom equality and citizenship The meaning of life changed as well focusing less on humankind s relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order Kantianism nbsp Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late Enlightenment Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical epistemological and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation the Categorical Imperative derived from the concept of duty Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle and for actions to be ethical they must adhere to the categorical imperative Simply put the test is that one must universalize the maxim imagine that all people acted in this way and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction In Groundwork Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back The maxim of this action says Kant results in a contradiction in conceivability and thus contradicts perfect duty Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one s full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it 19th century philosophy Further information 19th century philosophyThe first English use of the expression meaning of life appeared in Thomas Carlyle s Sartor Resartus 1833 August 1834 Our Life is compassed round with Necessity yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom than Voluntary Force thus have we a warfare in the beginning especially a hard fought battle 76 Utilitarianism nbsp Jeremy Bentham The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus but as a school of thought it is credited to Jeremy Bentham 77 who found that nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters pain and pleasure then from that moral insight he derived the Rule of Utility that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people He defined the meaning of life as the greatest happiness principle Jeremy Bentham s foremost proponent was James Mill a significant philosopher in his day and father of John Stuart Mill The younger Mill was educated per Bentham s principles including transcribing and summarizing much of his father s work 78 Nihilism Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning purpose comprehensible truth and essential value succinctly nihilism is the process of the devaluing of the highest values 79 Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead and insisting it was something to overcome his questioning of the nihilist s life negating values returned meaning to the Earth 80 To Martin Heidegger nihilism is the movement whereby being is forgotten and is transformed into value in other words the reduction of being to exchange value 79 Heidegger in accordance with Nietzsche saw in the so called death of God a potential source for nihilism If God as the supra sensory ground and goal of all reality is dead if the supra sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and up building power then nothing more remains to which Man can cling and by which he can orient himself 81 nbsp The End of the World by John Martin The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them Camus writes of value nihilists such as Meursault 82 but also of values in a nihilistic world that people can instead strive to be heroic nihilists living with dignity in the face of absurdity living with secular saintliness fraternal solidarity and rebelling against and transcending the world s indifference 83 20th century philosophy Further information 20th century philosophy The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras 84 and philosophy particularly following the linguistic turn has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms as in pragmatism and logical positivism to efforts to meta theorize about meaning making as a personal individual driven activity existentialism secular humanism Pragmatism Pragmatism originated in the late 19th century US concerning itself mostly with truth and positing that only in struggling with the environment do data and derived theories have meaning and that consequences like utility and practicality are also components of truth Moreover pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true In practice theoretical claims must be practically verifiable i e one should be able to predict and test claims and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life William James argued that truth could be made but not sought 85 86 To a pragmatist the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience Theism Main article Philosophical theism Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God s purpose in creating Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning value and purpose then life would be absurd 87 Existentialism Main article Meaning existential nbsp Edvard Munch s The Scream a representation of existential angst According to existentialism each person creates the essence meaning of their life life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority one is free As such one s ethical prime directives are action freedom and decision thus existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism In seeking meaning to life the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread felt in considering one s free will and the concomitant awareness of death According to Jean Paul Sartre existence precedes essence the essence of one s life arises only after one comes to existence Soren Kierkegaard spoke about a leap arguing that life is full of absurdity and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world One can live meaningfully free of despair and anxiety in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so 88 Arthur Schopenhauer answered What is the meaning of life by stating that one s life reflects one s will and that the will life is an aimless irrational and painful drive Salvation deliverance and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation sympathy for others and asceticism 89 90 For Friedrich Nietzsche life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live Accordingly he saw nihilism all that happens is meaningless as without goals He stated that asceticism denies one s living in the world stated that values are not objective facts that are rationally necessary universally binding commitments our evaluations are interpretations and not reflections of the world as it is in itself and therefore all ideations take place from a particular perspective 80 Absurdism Main article Absurdism in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it to take it along almost defying his torment For to hope in the possibility of help not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd that for God all things are possible no that he will not do And as for seeking help from any other no that he will not do for all the world rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself with all the tortures of hell if so it must be Soren Kierkegaard The Sickness Unto Death 91 In absurdist philosophy the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual s search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works The Sickness Unto Death 1849 and The Myth of Sisyphus 1942 Suicide or escaping existence a solution in which a person simply ends one s own life Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd and as such has meaning Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing now commonly referred to as a leap of faith However Camus regarded this solution as philosophical suicide Acceptance of the Absurd a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it Camus endorsed this solution notably in his 1947 allegorical novel The Plague or La Peste while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as demoniac madness He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him 92 Secular humanism Further information Secular humanism nbsp The Happy Human symbol representing secular humanism Per secular humanism the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature which is self existing 93 94 Human knowledge comes from human observation experimentation and rational analysis the scientific method and not from supernatural sources the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be 93 Likewise values and realities are determined by means of intelligent inquiry 93 and are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience that is by critical intelligence 95 96 As far as we know the total personality is a function of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context 94 People determine human purpose without supernatural influence it is the human personality general sense that is the purpose of a human being s life which humanism seeks to develop and fulfill 93 Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity 95 Humanism aims to promote enlightened self interest and the common good for all people It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well being of all humanity in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture 94 95 The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism sometimes used synonymously are extensions of humanistic values One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century s technoscientific culture In this light every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social meaning of life 97 From a humanism psychotherapeutic point of view the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as What is the meaning of my life 98 This approach emphasizes that the question is personal and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose There are many therapeutic responses to this question For example Viktor Frankl argues for Dereflection which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self instead engage in life On the whole the therapeutic response is that the question itself what is the meaning of life evaporates when one is fully engaged in life The question then morphs into more specific worries such as What delusions am I under What is blocking my ability to enjoy things Why do I neglect loved ones 99 Logical positivism Logical positivists ask What is the meaning of life What is the meaning in asking 100 101 and If there are no objective values then is life meaningless 102 Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said citation needed Expressed in language the question is meaningless because in life the statement the meaning of x usually denotes the consequences of x or the significance of x or what is notable about x etc thus when the meaning of life concept equals x in the statement the meaning of x the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life The things people events in the life of a person can have meaning importance as parts of a whole but a discrete meaning of the life itself aside from those things cannot be discerned A person s life has meaning for themselves others as the life events resulting from their achievements legacy family etc but to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language since any note of significance or of consequence is relevant only in life to the living so rendering the statement erroneous Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli he found no satisfactory empirical method of proving this 75 When we try to be definite as to what we mean when we say that this or that is the Good we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties Bentham s creed that pleasure is the Good roused furious opposition and was said to be a pig s philosophy Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument In a scientific question evidence can be adduced on both sides and in the end one side is seen to have the better case or if this does not happen the question is left undecided But in a question as to whether this or that is the ultimate Good there is no evidence either way each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others Questions as to values that is to say as to what is good or bad on its own account independently of its effects lie outside the domain of science as the defenders of religion emphatically assert I think that in this they are right but I draw the further conclusion which they do not draw that questions as to values lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge That is to say when we assert that this or that has value we are giving expression to our own emotions not to a fact which would still be true if our personal feelings were different 103 Postmodernism Further information Postmodernism Postmodernist thought broadly speaking sees human nature as constructed by language or by structures and institutions of human society Unlike other forms of philosophy postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them Anything resembling a meaning of life in postmodernist terms can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction As a rule postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals as in deconstructionism to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society without real autonomy as in poststructuralism Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pantheism the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment Embodied cognition Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion speech and cognition to understand the nature of thought Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency George Lakoff a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation 104 Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean citation needed Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life 105 Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains When combined with more effective training a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one s life should be straightforward citation needed East Asian philosophical perspectivesFurther information Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy and Ikigai Mohism Further information Mohism The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal impartial love Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring a person should care equally for all other individuals regardless of their actual relationship with him or her 106 The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional it should not be indiscriminate For example children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers Confucianism Further information Confucianism Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei Ming s quote We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence 107 Legalism Further information Legalism Chinese philosophy The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort To the Legalists only practical knowledge was valuable especially as it related to the function and performance of the state Religious perspectivesThe religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans According to the Charter for Compassion signed by many of the world s leading religious and secular organizations the core of religion is the golden rule of treat others as you would have them treat you The Charter s founder Karen Armstrong quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that the rest is commentary This is not to reduce the commentary s importance and Armstrong considers that its study interpretation and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule Abrahamic religions nbsp Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions Judaism Christianity and Islam Further information Abrahamic religion Judaism In the Judaic worldview the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world Olam HaZeh and prepare it for the world to come Olam HaBa the messianic era This is called Tikkun Olam Fixing the World Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife and there is debate concerning the eschatological order However Judaism is not focused on personal salvation but on communal between man and man and individual between man and God spiritualised actions in this world Judaism s most important feature is the worship of a single incomprehensible transcendent one indivisible absolute Being who created and governs the universe Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of His Torah and adherence to its mitzvot divine laws In traditional Judaism God established a special covenant with a people the people of Israel at Mount Sinai giving the Jewish commandments Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition further developed through the generations The Jewish people are intended as a kingdom of priests and a holy nation 108 and a light to the Nations influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio ethical Seven Laws of Noah The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual affirmative and prohibitive injunctions Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature relevance and emphases of mitzvot Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God with its love and awe 109 Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice compassion peace kindness hard work prosperity humility and education 110 111 The world to come 112 prepared in the present elevates man to an everlasting connection with God 113 Simeon the Righteous says The world stands on three things on Torah on worship and on acts of loving kindness The prayer book relates Blessed is our God who created us for his honor and planted within us everlasting life Of this context the Talmud states Everything that God does is for the good including suffering The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God personal theism in Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God s Being panentheism related to the Shekhinah Divine feminine Jewish observance unites the sephirot Divine attributes on high restoring harmony to creation In Lurianic Kabbalah the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God s persona exiled in physical existence the Kelipot shells through the actions of Jewish observance 114 Through this in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential desire of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul 115 Christianity nbsp Christ the Redeemer statue on Corcovado mountain in Rio de Janeiro is symbolic of Christianity 116 illustrating the concept of seeking redemption through Jesus Christ Christianity has its roots in Judaism and shares much of the latter faith s ontology Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament Life s purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ 117 The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come which can happen only if one s sins are forgiven 118 In the Christian view humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the First Parents to inherit Original Sin and its consequences Christ s passion death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state Romans 6 23 That this restoration from sin is possible is called the gospel The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different denominations of Christians but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point Salvation through faith in God is found in Ephesians 2 8 9 8 For by grace you have been saved through faith and that not of yourselves it is the gift of God 9 not as a result of works that no one should boast NASB 1973 The gospel maintains that through this belief the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed thereby allowing believers to be regenerated by God and to instill in them a new heart after God s own will with the ability to live righteously before him This is what the term saved almost always refer to In Reformed theology it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God In the Westminster Shorter Catechism an important creed for Reformed Christians 119 the first question is What is the chief end of Man that is What is Man s main purpose The answer is Man s chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying Love the Lord your God with all your heart with all your soul with all your strength and with all your mind and your neighbour as yourself 120 The Baltimore Catechism answers the question Why did God make you by saying God made me to know Him to love Him and to serve Him in this world and to be happy with Him forever in heaven 121 nbsp Areopagus from the Acropolis Athens 2006 The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings so that they should seek the Lord in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him though He is not far from each one of us 122 Catholicism s way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St Ignatius of Loyola The human person is created to praise reverence and serve God Our Lord and by doing so to save his or her soul All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created It follows from this that one must use other created things in so far as they help towards one s end and free oneself from them in so far as they are obstacles to one s end To do this we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition Thus as far as we are concerned we should not want health more than illness wealth more than poverty fame more than disgrace a long life more than a short one and similarly for all the rest but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created 123 Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy 124 Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth which is considered a crucial stage in their development wherein a mortal body coupled with the freedom to choose makes for an environment to learn and grow 124 The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God s original plan for a paradise rather the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God s plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges difficulties and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil 125 126 Because God is just he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world 127 so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God and reach their full potential A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering 128 nonetheless the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus death on the cross Islam In Islam humanity s ultimate purpose is to worship their creator Allah English The God through his signs and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the Qur an and the tradition of the Prophet with the exception of Quranists Earthly life is a test determining one s position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter A person will either be close to him and his love in Jannah Paradise or far away in Jahannam Hell For Allah s satisfaction via the Qur an all Muslims must believe in God his revelations his angels his messengers and in the Day of Judgment 129 The Qur an describes the purpose of creation as follows Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom he is powerful over all things who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds and he is the almighty the forgiving Qur an 67 1 2 and And I Allah created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient to Allah Qur an 51 56 Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship his names and his attributes Terrenal life is a test how one acts behaves determines whether one s soul goes to Jannat Heaven or to Jahannam Hell 130 citation needed However on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone 131 The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim they are Shahadah profession of faith Salat ritual prayer Zakat charity Sawm fasting during Ramadan and Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca 132 They derive from the Hadith works notably of Sahih Al Bukhari and Sahih Muslim The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran Beliefs differ among the Kalam The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre destination is divine decree 133 the Shi a concept of pre destination is divine justice in the esoteric view of the Sufis the universe exists only for God s pleasure Creation is a grand game wherein Allah is the greatest prize The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states I God was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure that is God However this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people such as Abdu l Baha of the Bahaʼi Faith 134 and in Ibn Arabi s Fuṣuṣ al Ḥikam 135 Bahaʼi Faith nbsp The Ringstone symbol represents humanity s connection to God The Bahaʼi Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity 136 To Bahaʼis the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings People s lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow to develop divine qualities and virtues and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this 137 138 South Asian religions Further information Indian religions and Indian philosophy Hindu philosophies Further information Hinduism Hindu philosophy and Dharma nbsp A golden Aum written in Devanagari The Aum is sacred in Hindu Jain and Buddhist religions Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature generally non exclusive suggestive and tolerant in content 139 Most believe that the atman spirit soul the person s true self is eternal 140 In part this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes and goals should match the state of development of the individual There are four possible aims to human life known as the purusharthas ordered from least to greatest i Kama wish desire love and sensual pleasure ii Artha wealth prosperity glory iii Dharma righteousness duty morality virtue ethics encompassing notions such as ahimsa non violence and satya truth and iv Moksha liberation i e liberation from Saṃsara the cycle of reincarnation 141 142 143 In all schools of Hinduism the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma causal action sansara the cycle of birth and rebirth and moksha liberation Existence is conceived as the progression of the atman similar to the western concept of a soul across numerous lifetimes and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas practices or dharma correct living which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations though they are generally positive acts in this life as well Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara a personal or chosen God these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with as a form of spiritual improvement In short the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself This thought is conveyed in the Mahavakyas Tat Tvam Asi thou art that Aham Brahmasmi Prajnanam Brahma and Ayam Atma Brahma This Atman is Brahman Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism Further information Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita Vedanta Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman The One Without a Second 144 as a central God like figure In monist Advaita Vedanta atman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman and the goal of life is to know or realize that one s Atman soul is identical to Brahman 145 To the Upanishads whoever becomes fully aware of the Atman as one s core of self realizes identity with Brahman and thereby achieves Moksha liberation freedom 140 146 147 Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities The Atman depends upon Brahman for its existence the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace 146 Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God This belief contrasts with the Krishna centered traditions such as Vallabha Nimbaraka and Gaudiya in which Krishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the source of all avataras 148 Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism reincarnation samsara karma and the various Yoga systems but with a particular emphasis on devotion bhakti to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga often including singing Vishnu s name s bhajan meditating upon his form dharana and performing deity worship puja The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pancaratra and various Samhitas 149 One popular school of thought Gaudiya Vaishnavism teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda In this Krishna is worshipped as the single true God and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating sleeping mating and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna Jainism Further information Jainism and Jain philosophy Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India its ethical system promotes self discipline above all else Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina a human achieves enlightenment perfect knowledge Jainism divides the universe into living and non living beings Only when the living becomes attached to the non living does suffering result Therefore happiness is the result of self conquest and freedom from external objects The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self realization and bliss 150 Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul jiva Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha The Jain view of karma is that every action every word every thought has effect on the soul Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa or ahinsa a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat 151 Buddhism Early Buddhism Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness the ill being suffering and well being that is present in life Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill being and well being in life For example one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non material The Buddhist sutras and tantras do not speak about the meaning of life or the purpose of life but about the potential of human life to end suffering for example through embracing not suppressing or denying cravings and conceptual attachments Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth 152 nbsp The eight spoked Dharmachakra Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada Pali literally Teaching of Analysis which says that insight must come from the aspirant s experience critical investigation and reasoning instead of by blind faith However the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise considering such advice and evaluation of one s own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged The Theravadin goal is liberation or freedom from suffering according to the Four Noble Truths This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth old age sickness and death The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path Mahayana Buddhism Further information Mahayana Mahayana Buddhist schools de emphasize the traditional view still practiced in Theravada of the release from individual Suffering Duhkha and attainment of Awakening Nirvana In Mahayana the Buddha is seen as an eternal immutable inconceivable omnipresent being The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings and the existence of the transcendent Buddha nature which is the eternal Buddha essence present but hidden and unrecognised in all living beings 153 Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism such as Chan Zen and the Vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools explicitly teach that Bodhisattva should refrain from full liberation allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma and use that accumulation to aid all 154 Sikhism nbsp The Khanda an important symbol of Sikhism The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus or enlightened leaders as well as the holy scripture entitled the Guru Granth Sahib which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio economic and religious backgrounds The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation The Lord dwells in every heart and every heart has its own way to reach Him 155 Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God 156 Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action 157 A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non anthropomorphic concept of God to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself pantheism Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings 158 Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable and stressed that God must be seen from the inward eye or the heart of a human being devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings 158 East Asian religions Taoism nbsp Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self cultivation and self realization All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living the simple answer is here within ourselves 159 Shinto nbsp Shinto torii a traditional Japanese gate Shinto is the native religion of Japan Shinto means the path of the kami but more specifically it can be taken to mean the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way The divine crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit This foundation of free will choosing one s way means that life is a creative process Shinto wants life to live not to die Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self development Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms The presence of evil in the world as conceived by Shinto does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world 160 New religions There are many new religious movements in East Asia and some with millions of followers Chondogyo Tenrikyo Cao Đai and Seicho No Ie New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life For example in Tenrikyo one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others Iranian religions Further information Iranian philosophy Zoroastrianism Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God Ahura Mazda to whom all worship is ultimately directed Ahura Mazda s creation is asha truth and order and it is in conflict with its antithesis druj falsehood and disorder 161 Since humanity possesses free will people must be responsible for their moral choices By using free will people must take an active role in the universal conflict with good thoughts good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay Popular views What is the meaning of life is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives most in the context What is the purpose of life 15 Some popular answers include To realize one s potential and ideals To chase dreams 162 To live one s dreams 163 To spend it for something that will outlast it 164 To matter to count to stand for something to have made some difference that you lived at all 164 To expand one s potential in life 163 To become the person you ve always wanted to be 165 To become the best version of yourself 166 To seek happiness 167 and flourish 8 To be a true authentic human being 168 To be able to put the whole of oneself into one s feelings one s work one s beliefs 164 To follow or submit to our destiny 169 170 171 To achieve eudaimonia 172 a flourishing of human spirit To evolve or to achieve biological perfection To evolve 173 changing from generation to generation To survive 174 that is to live as long as possible 175 including pursuit of immortality through scientific means 176 To live forever 176 or die trying 177 To maximize one s genes advantage in terms of natural selection by having many children or indirect descendants via relatives 178 To replicate to reproduce 162 The dream of every cell is to become two cells 179 180 181 182 To seek wisdom and knowledge To expand one s perception of the world 163 To follow the clues and walk out the exit 183 To learn as many things as possible in life 184 To know as much as possible about as many things as possible 185 To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness 186 To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us 169 To find the meaning or purpose of life 187 188 To find a reason to live 189 To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality 190 To do good to do the right thing See also ethics To leave the world as a better place than you found it 162 To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it 162 To benefit others 11 To give more than you take 162 To end suffering 191 192 193 To create equality 194 195 196 To challenge oppression 197 To distribute wealth 198 199 To be generous 200 201 To contribute to the well being and spirit of others 202 203 To help others 8 201 to help one another 204 To take every chance to help another while on your journey here 162 To be creative and innovative 202 To forgive 162 To accept and forgive human flaws 205 206 To be emotionally sincere 164 To be responsible 164 To be honorable 164 To seek peace 164 nbsp Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels from Gustave Dore s illustrations for the Divine Comedy Meanings relating to religion To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine 207 To have a pure soul and experience God 164 To understand the mystery of God 169 To know or attain union with God 208 209 To know oneself know others and know the will of heaven 210 To love something bigger greater and beyond ourselves something we did not create or have the power to create something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it 162 To love God 208 and all of his creations 211 To glorify God by enjoying him forever 212 To spread your religion and share it with others 213 214 To act justly love mercy and walk humbly with your God 215 To be fruitful and multiply 216 Genesis 1 28 To obtain freedom Romans 8 20 21 To fill the Earth and subdue it 216 Genesis 1 28 To serve humankind 217 to prepare to meet 218 and become more like God 219 220 221 222 to choose good over evil 223 and have joy 224 225 He is the One Who created death and life in order to test which of you is best in deeds And He is the Almighty All Forgiving Quran 67 2 To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife 226 To love to feel to enjoy the act of living To love more 162 To love those who mean the most Every life you touch will touch you back 162 To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has 162 To seek beauty in all its forms 162 To have fun or enjoy life 169 202 To seek pleasure 164 and avoid pain 227 To be compassionate 164 To be moved by the tears and pain of others and try to help them out of love and compassion 162 To love others as best we possibly can 162 To eat drink and be merry 228 To have power to be better To strive for power 80 and superiority 227 To rule the world 170 To know and master the world 213 229 To know and master nature 230 To help life become as powerful as possible 231 Life has no meaning Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose 190 Life has no meaning but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence 162 There is no point in life and that is exactly what makes it so special 162 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood 190 You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life 162 The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life 162 Ultimately a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked In a word each person is questioned by life and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life to life they can only respond by being responsible 232 In popular culture nbsp Charles Allan Gilbert s All is Vanity an example of vanitas depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her vanity But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear expressing memento mori that no matter how good she looks it won t last as death is inevitable The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture featured in entertainment media and various forms of art Monty Python s The Meaning of Life includes a character played by Michael Palin being handed an envelope containing the meaning of life which she opens and reads out to the audience Well it s nothing very special Uh try to be nice to people avoid eating fat read a good book every now and then get some walking in and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations 233 234 235 In Douglas Adams book The Hitchhiker s Guide to the Galaxy the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life the Universe and Everything is given the numeric solution 42 after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors Deep Thought explains that I think the problem such as it was was too broadly based You never actually stated what the question was 236 8 237 238 239 Deep Thought then constructs another computer the Earth to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it That question turns out to be what do you get if you multiply six by nine 240 and it is realised that the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on Earth and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life The Universe And Everything remains unknown nbsp Hamlet meditating upon Yorick s skull has become the most lasting embodiment of the imagery of vanitas conveying the theme memento mori Remember you shall die Whatever the meaning of life it life is fleeting In Person of Interest season 5 episode 13 an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is Everyone dies alone But if you mean something to someone if you help someone or love someone If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale 241 Related conceptsExistential crisis Existential crises are crises of meaning They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning 242 243 244 This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong desire to find some form of meaning in life In the existentialist literature the discrepancy between the individual s desire for meaning and the world s apparent lack thereof is termed the absurd 245 246 247 It may be summarized by the question How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning 248 While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises This level leads to various negative experiences such as stress anxiety despair and depression 248 243 244 In the more serious cases these symptoms disturb the individual s normal functioning in everyday life A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue This opens the opportunity of developing as a person and improving one s way of life 248 249 Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning 248 250 In the cosmic sense the term meaning of life refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question This often takes the form of a religious explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose 248 251 252 Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level This usually takes a more secular form the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living 248 250 253 In this regard they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful for example by dedicating themselves to their family or their career This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything 248 244 251 Importance The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has importance or what matters This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose which is seen as having special importance 254 255 Nonetheless some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical 254 256 This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with self transcendence Craving importance on the other hand seems to be a more egoistic or narcissistic aim in comparison 254 Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference Some only require that this causal impact is big enough Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world 257 256 258 This is often interpreted with reference to well being the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well being of sentient entities 259 256 260 However the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance In this regard some things may be important accidentally or unintentionally without being guided by a higher goal For example a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a butterfly effect of extreme proportions In such a case the person s life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused Nonetheless this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose 254 Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking Importance however can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved 254 256 For example Alexander Fleming was important in a positive sense since his discovery of penicillin helped many people cure their bacterial infections 261 Adolf Hitler on the other hand was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people 257 See also nbsp Philosophy portal Scientific explanations Darwin s Dangerous Idea Evolution and the Meanings of Life 1995 book by Daniel Dennett The Death of God and the Meaning of Life 2014 book by Julian Young Power Sex Suicide Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life 2005 book by Nick Lane Sex Death and the Meaning of Life 2010 three part television documentary Origin and nature of life and reality Abiogenesis Life arising from non living matter Awareness State or ability to perceive to feel or to be conscious of events objects or sensory patterns Being State of being realPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Biosemiotics Biology interpreted as a sign system Dao Chinese conceptPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Existence State of being real Human condition Ultimate concerns of human existence Logos Concept in philosophy religion rhetoric and psychology Metaphysical naturalism Philosophical worldview rejecting supernatural Perception Interpretation of sensory information Reality Sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent Simulated reality Concept of a false version of reality Theory of everything Hypothetical physical concept Teleology Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose Ultimate fate of the universe Theories about the end of the universe Value of life Culture of life Way of life highlighting life s sanctity opposes abortion and assisted suicide Bioethics Study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine Meaningful life Fulfilling life guided by a purpose Quality of life Degree of individual well being Value of life Economic value Purpose of life Destiny Predetermined course of events Ethical living philosophyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Intentional living LifestylePages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Life extension Concept of extending human lifespan by improvements in medicine or biotechnology Man s Search for Meaning 1946 book by Viktor Frankl Means to an end Philosophical conceptPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Philosophy of life German philosophical movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuriesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Miscellaneous Human extinction Hypothetical end of the human species Ikigai Japanese concept referring to a sense of purpose Life stance Person s relation with what they accept as being of ultimate importance Meaning making Process of understanding changes in life Perennial philosophy All religions share a single truth Vale of tears Religious phrase in Christianity World riddle Term in ontology and consciousness studies World view Fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or societyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targetsReferences a b O Brien Wendell Meaning of Life The Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 28 December 2022 Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle www gutenberg org Retrieved 28 December 2022 Leach Stephen Tartaglia James 2018 The Original Meaning of Life Philosophy Now Retrieved 28 December 2022 How meaning of life was invented Thomas Carlyle on how to overcome an existential crisis Frank Martela 4 December 2020 Retrieved 28 December 2022 The Essays of Arthur Schopenhauer on Human Nature by Arthur Schopenhauer www gutenberg org Retrieved 28 December 2022 Jonathan Westphal 1998 Philosophical Propositions An Introduction to Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 17053 6 Robert Nozick 1981 Philosophical Explanations Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 66479 1 a b c d Julian Baggini 2004 What s It All About Philosophy and the Meaning of Life US Granta Books ISBN 978 1 86207 661 7 Ronald F Thiemann William Carl Placher 1998 Why Are We Here Everyday Questions and the Christian Life Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 56338 236 9 Dennis Marcellino 1996 Why Are We Here The Scientific Answer to this Age old Question that you don t need to be a scientist to understand Lighthouse Pub ISBN 978 0 945272 10 6 a b c Hsuan Hua 2003 Words of Wisdom Beginning Buddhism Dharma Realm Buddhist Association ISBN 978 0 88139 302 6 a b Paul Davies 2000 The Fifth Miracle The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 86309 2 Archived from the original on 16 June 2001 Retrieved 17 September 2016 a b Charles Christiansen Carolyn Manville Baum Julie Bass Haugen 2005 Occupational Therapy Performance Participation and Well Being SLACK Incorporated ISBN 978 1 55642 530 1 a b Evan Harris Walker 2000 The Physics of Consciousness The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life Perseus Books ISBN 978 0 7382 0436 9 a b Question of the Month What Is The Meaning of Life Philosophy Now Issue 59 Archived from the original on 24 August 2007 Retrieved 26 July 2007 a b Jiddu Krishnamurti 2001 What Are You Doing With Your Life Krishnamurti Foundation of America ISBN 978 1 888004 24 3 Puolimatka Tapio Airaksinen Timo 2002 Education and the Meaning of Life PDF Philosophy of Education University of Helsinki Archived from the original PDF on 26 September 2007 Retrieved 26 July 2007 Stan Van Hooft 2004 Life Death and Subjectivity Moral Sources in Bioethics Rodopi ISBN 978 90 420 1912 6 Russ Shafer Landau Terence Cuneo 2007 Foundations of Ethics An Anthology Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1 4051 2951 0 E Diener J J Sapyta E Suh 1998 Subjective Well Being Is Essential to Well Being Psychological Inquiry Lawrence Erlbaum a b Csikszentmihalyi Mihaly 1990 Flow The Psychology of Optimal Experience New York Harper and Row ISBN 0 06 092043 2 Peterson Christopher Seligman Martin 2004 Character strengths and virtues A handbook and classification Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 516701 5 See brief summary Seligman M E P 2002 Authentic Happiness Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment New York Free Press ISBN 0 7432 2297 0 Paperback edition 2004 Free Press ISBN 0 7432 2298 9 Lu Jun Gao Qin 1 May 2017 Faith and Happiness in China Roles of Religious Identity Beliefs and Practice Social Indicators Research 132 1 273 290 doi 10 1007 s11205 016 1372 8 ISSN 1573 0921 S2CID 148091125 Rizvi Mohd Ahsan Kabir Hossain Mohammad Zakir 1 October 2017 Relationship Between Religious Belief and Happiness A Systematic Literature Review Journal of Religion and Health 56 5 1561 1582 doi 10 1007 s10943 016 0332 6 ISSN 1573 6571 PMID 27909930 S2CID 1389245 Sutin DAR Luchetti M Aschwanden D Stephan Y Sesker AA Terracciano A February 2023 Sense of meaning and purpose in life and risk of incident dementia New data and meta analysis Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 105 104847 doi 10 1016 j archger 2022 104847 PMC 10015423 PMID 36347158 Boyle PA Buchman AS Barnes LL Bennett DA Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer s disease and mild cognitive impairment in community dwelling older persons Archives of General Psychiatry 2010 67 304 310 Kim E Sun J Park N Kubzansky L Peterson C Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease A two year follow up Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2 124 133 Kim ES Sun JK Park N Peterson C Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults The Health and Retirement Study Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2013 74 5 427 432 Boyle PA Barnes LL Buchman AS Bennett DA Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community dwelling older persons Psychosomatic Medicine 2009 71 574 579 Sutin Angelina R Luchetti Martina Stephan Yannick Terracciano Antonio 13 September 2023 Change in Purpose in Life Before and After Onset of Cognitive Impairment JAMA Network Open 6 9 e2333489 doi 10 1001 jamanetworkopen 2023 33489 ISSN 2574 3805 PMC 10500383 PMID 37703016 Five steps to mental wellbeing nhs uk 21 December 2017 Charles Darwin 1859 On the Origin of Species Richard Dawkins 1976 The Selfish Gene Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 857519 1 Richard Dawkins 1995 River out of Eden New York Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 06990 3 Dawkins Richard 2006 The God Delusion Houghton Mifflin pp 99 100 ISBN 978 0 618 68000 9 Complete Archive for Astrobiology Press Release News Exclusive News Briefs Astrobiology Magazine Archived from the original on 13 October 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Defining Life Explaining Emergence nbi dk Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 2 November 2008 Griffith J 2012 What is the Meaning of Life The Book of Real Answers to Everything ISBN 978 1 74129 007 3 Retrieved 19 November 2012 Schrodinger Erwin 1944 What is Life Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 42708 1 Margulis Lynn Sagan Dorion 1995 What is Life University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 22021 8 Lovelock James 2000 Gaia a New Look at Life on Earth Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 286218 1 Avery John 2003 Information Theory and Evolution World Scientific ISBN 978 981 238 399 0 O Dowd Matt Ph D 11 April 2018 The Physics of Life ft It s Okay to be Smart amp PBS Eons Space Time PBS Space Time Archived from the original on 30 October 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Davison Paul G How to Define Life The University of North Alabama Archived from the original on 1 November 2008 Retrieved 17 October 2008 Helge Kragh 1996 Cosmology and Controversy Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 00546 1 Nikos Prantzos Stephen Lyle 2000 Our Cosmic Future Humanity s Fate in the Universe Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77098 9 Rem B Edwards 2001 What Caused the Big Bang Rodopi ISBN 978 90 420 1407 7 Poplawski Nikodem J April 2010 Radial motion into an Einstein Rosen bridge Physics Letters B Vol 687 pp 110 113 Harvey Whitehouse 2001 The Debated Mind Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography Berg Publishers ISBN 978 1 85973 427 8 a b Jeffrey Alan Gray 2004 Consciousness Creeping Up on the Hard Problem Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 852090 0 Paul M Churchland 1989 A Neurocomputational Perspective The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 53106 1 Daniel Clement Dennett 1991 Consciousness Explained Little Brown and Co ISBN 978 0 316 18066 5 a b John D Barrow Paul C W Davies Charles L Harper 2004 Science and Ultimate Reality Quantum Theory Cosmology and Complexity Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 83113 0 Jean Millay Ruth Inge Heinze 1999 Multidimensional Mind Remote Viewing in Hyperspace North Atlantic Books ISBN 978 1 55643 306 1 McFadden J 2002 Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain s Electromagnetic Field Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness Journal of Consciousness Studies 9 4 23 50 Archived from the original on 18 December 2005 R Buccheri V Di Gesu Metod Saniga 2000 Studies on the Structure of Time From Physics to Psycho patho logy Springer ISBN 978 0 306 46439 3 Alexandra Bruce 2005 Beyond the Bleep The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know The Disinformation Company ISBN 978 1 932857 22 1 Mae Wan Ho 1998 The Rainbow and the Worm The Physics of Organisms World Scientific pp 218 231 ISBN 978 981 02 3427 0 Akers C 1986 Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 PesquisaPSI Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 30 July 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Child I L 1987 Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 PesquisaPSI Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 Retrieved 30 July 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Wiseman Richard Smith Matthew et al 1996 Exploring possible sender to experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments Psychophysical Research Laboratories The Journal of Parapsychology Archived from the original on 9 July 2012 Retrieved 30 July 2007 Lobach E Bierman D 2004 The Invisible Gaze Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake s Staring Effects PDF Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention pp 77 90 Archived from the original PDF on 10 August 2007 Retrieved 30 July 2007 Reker G T amp Wong P T P 1988 Aging as an individual process Towards a theory of personal meaning In J E Birren amp V L Bengston Eds Emergent theories of aging pp 214 246 New York Springer Martela F amp Steger M F 2016 The three meanings of meaning in life Distinguishing coherence purpose and significance The Journal of Positive Psychology 11 5 531 545 Wong P T P 2011 Positive psychology 2 0 Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life Canadian Psychology 52 2 69 81 a b Wong P T P 2012 From Logotherapy to Meaning Centered Counseling and Therapy In P T P Wong Ed The Human Quest for Meaning Theories Research and Applications 2nd ed pp 619 647 New York Routledge Metz Thaddeus 2013 Meaning in Life Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 959931 8 Haybron Daniel M 2013 Happiness A Very Short Introduction Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 959060 5 Kidd I Cynicism in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy eds J O Urmson and Jonathan Ree Routledge 2005 Long A A The Socratic Tradition Diogenes Crates and Hellenistic Ethics in The Cynics The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy eds Branham and Goulet Caze University of California Press 1996 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy utm edu The Future of Hardcore Hedonism hedonism org Archived from the original on 22 May 2020 Retrieved 30 July 2020 Epicurus Letter to Menoeceus contained in Diogenes Laertius Lives of Eminent Philosophers Book X a b c d Bertrand Russell 1946 A History of Western Philosophy New York Simon and Schuster London George Allen and Unwin Meaning of Life The Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 28 December 2022 Rosen Frederick 2003 Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill Routledge p 28 ISBN 0 415 22094 7 It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice Mill John Stuart On Liberty ed Himmelfarb Penguin Classics 1974 ed s introduction p 11 a b Jerome Binde 2004 The Future of Values 21st Century Talks Berghahn Books ISBN 978 1 57181 442 5 a b c Bernard Reginster 2006 The Affirmation of Life Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 02199 0 Heidegger The Word of Nietzsche 61 Camus 1946 L Etranger Camus 1955 The Myth of Sisyphus For example see hygiene antibiotics and vaccination William James 1909 The Meaning of Truth Prometheus Books ISBN 978 1 57392 138 1 Walter Robert Corti 1976 The Philosophy of William James Meiner Verlag ISBN 978 3 7873 0352 6 Philosophy 446 Theistic Perspectives on the Meaning of Life www webpages uidaho edu Retrieved 13 July 2022 Amy Laura Hall 2002 Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 89311 4 Dale Jacquette 1996 Schopenhauer Philosophy and the Arts Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 47388 0 Durno Murray 1999 Nietzsche s Affirmative Morality Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 016601 9 Kierkegaard Soren 1941 The Sickness Unto Death Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4486 7502 9 Kierkegaard Soren 1941 The Sickness Unto Death Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4486 7502 9 Part I Ch 3 a b c d Humanist Manifesto I American Humanist Association 1933 Archived from the original on 30 July 2007 Retrieved 26 July 2007 a b c Humanist Manifesto II American Humanist Association 1973 Archived from the original on 9 August 2007 Retrieved 1 August 2007 a b c Humanist Manifesto III American Humanist Association 2003 Archived from the original on 9 August 2007 Retrieved 1 August 2007 A Secular Humanist Declaration Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism now the Council for Secular Humanism 1980 Archived from the original on 17 August 2008 Retrieved 1 August 2007 Nick Bostrom 2005 Transhumanist Values Oxford University Archived from the original on 1 July 2007 Retrieved 28 July 2007 Irvin Yalom Existential Psychotherapy 1980 See also Existential therapy and Irvin D Yalom Richard Taylor 1970 Chapter 5 The Meaning of Life Good and Evil Macmillan Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 02 616690 4 Wohlgennant Rudolph 1981 Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning Chapter 4 In E Morscher ed Philosophie als Wissenschaft McNaughton David August 1988 Section 1 5 Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life Moral Vision An Introduction to Ethics Oxford Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 0 631 15945 2 Russell Bertrand 1961 Science and Ethics archived from the original on 14 November 2007 BLENDING AND METAPHOR markturner org Retrieved 28 February 2023 Landau Mark J March 2018 Using Metaphor to Find Meaning in Life Review of General Psychology 22 1 62 72 doi 10 1037 gpr0000105 PMC 5889147 PMID 29632431 One Hundred Philosophers A Guide to the World s Greatest Thinkers Peter J King Tu Wei Ming Confucian Thought Selfhood as Creative Transformation Albany State University of New York Press 1985 Exodus 19 6 Maimonides Confrontation with Mysticism Menachem Kellner Littman Library Particularly the parable of the King s Palace in divine worship in the Guide for the Perplexed Dan Cohn Sherbok 2003 Judaism History Belief and Practice Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 23661 4 Abraham Joshua Heschel 2005 Heavenly Torah As Refracted Through the Generations Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8264 0802 0 Wilfred Shuchat 2006 The Garden of Eden amp the Struggle to Be Human According to the Midrash Rabbah Devora Publishing ISBN 978 1 932687 31 6 Randolph L Braham 1983 Contemporary Views on the Holocaust Springer ISBN 978 0 89838 141 2 Kabbalah A Very Short Introduction Joseph Dan Oxford University Press Chapter Early modern era Safed spirituality Habad intellectual Hasidic thought source text Tanya I 36 49 secondary text Heaven on Earth Faitel Levin Kehot publications The new Seven Wonders of the World Hindustan Times 8 July 2007 Retrieved 6 January 2024 John 11 26 John 3 16 21 2 Peter 3 9 Bower John 25 March 2021 9 Things You Should Know About The Westminster Confession The Westminster Shorter Catechism Archived from the original on 11 March 2008 Retrieved 21 March 2008 The Baltimore Catechism Retrieved 12 June 2008 Bible Acts 17 26 27 NKJV St Ignatius Ignatian Spirituality Bc edu Archived from the original on 3 October 2013 Retrieved 29 October 2013 a b Gospel Principles churchofjesuschrist org Archived from the original on 10 July 2019 Retrieved 27 August 2017 2 Nephi 2 www churchofjesuschrist org Retrieved 14 July 2022 Moses 6 www churchofjesuschrist org Retrieved 14 July 2022 Doctrine and Covenants 138 churchofjesuschrist org Drake Brockman Tom 2012 Christian Humanism The Compassionate Theology of a Jew Called Jesus Quran 2 4 Quran 2 285 Quran 4 136 In most English translations of Qur an 51 56 translates the last word to worship but any Arabic and Urdu speaking person can confirm that ABADON means to follow the Will of Allah NOT worship This is relevant because the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM to be just and good with humanity is equally important The Day of Judgement Iqra net Archived from the original on 30 May 2013 Retrieved 29 October 2013 Pillars of Islam Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Retrieved 2 May 2007 Sahih Muslim 1 1 Baha Abdu l Commentary on the Islamic Tradition I Was a Hidden Treasure Bahaʼi Studies Bulletin Retrieved 3 August 2013 Chittick William C The Imprint of the Bezels of the Wisdom PDF Ibn Arabi s Own Summary of the Fusus Retrieved 3 August 2013 Bahaism The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth ed Houghton Mifflin Company 2007 Smith P 1999 A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha i Faith Oxford Oneworld Publications pp 325 328 ISBN 978 1 85168 184 6 For a more detailed Bahaʼi perspective see The Purpose of Life Bahaʼi Topics An Information Resource of the Bahaʼi International Community Archived from the original on 29 August 2009 Retrieved 13 September 2009 Simon Weightman 1998 Hinduism In Hinnells John ed The new Penguin handbook of living religions Penguin books ISBN 978 0 14 051480 3 a b Monier Monier Williams 1974 Brahmanism and Hinduism Or Religious Thought and Life in India as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus Elibron Classics Adamant Media Corporation ISBN 978 1 4212 6531 5 Retrieved 8 July 2007 For dharma artha and kama as brahmanic householder values see Flood 1996 p 17 For the Dharma Sastras as discussing the four main goals of life dharma artha kama and moksha see Hopkins p 78 For definition of the term प र ष अर थ puruṣa artha as any of the four principal objects of human life i e धर म अर थ क म and म क ष see Apte p 626 Middle column Compound 1 Bhaskarananda Swami 1994 The Essentials of Hinduism A Comprehensive Overview of the World s Oldest Religion Seattle WA Viveka Press ISBN 978 1 884852 02 2 Vivekananda Swami 1987 Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Calcutta Advaita Ashrama ISBN 978 81 85301 75 4 a b Werner Karel 1994 Hinduism In Hinnells John ed A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism Richmond Surrey Curzon Press ISBN 978 0 7007 0279 4 See also the Vedic statement Ayam Atma Brahma This Atman is Brahman Gupta Ravi M 2007 Gavin Flood University of Stirling eds The Chaitanya Vaishnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami When Knowledge Meets Devotion Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 40548 5 Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism Archived from the original on 25 May 2011 Shah Natubhai Jainism The World of Conquerors Sussex Academic Press 1998 Viren Jain PDF RE Today Archived from the original PDF on 14 June 2007 Retrieved 14 June 2007 The Four Noble Truths Thebigview com Archived from the original on 11 November 2009 Retrieved 6 November 2009 University c Stanford 17 February 2015 The Chief Characteristics and Doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism The Martin Luther King Jr Research and Education Institute Retrieved 7 March 2023 Arana Juan Hincapie 1 January 2021 A SEED IN AMITABHA S HAND Pure Land Buddhism s path to peace in this life and the next by Juan Hincapie Arana Amazon KDP Retrieved 7 March 2023 Daljeet Singh 1971 Guru Tegh Bahadur Punjab a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Jon Mayled 2002 Modern World Religions Sikhism Harcourt Heinemann ISBN 978 0 435 33626 4 The Sikh Coalition sikhcoalition org Archived from the original on 1 July 2020 Retrieved 30 July 2020 a b Parrinder Geoffrey 1971 World Religions From Ancient History to the Present United States Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited ISBN 978 0 87196 129 7 Ming Dao Deng 1990 Scholar Warrior An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 250232 2 J W T Mason 2002 The Meaning of Shinto Trafford Publishing ISBN 978 1 4122 4551 7 See also Zoroastrian eschatology a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r David Seaman 2005 The Real Meaning of Life New World Library ISBN 978 1 57731 514 8 a b c Roger Ellerton CMC 2013 Live Your Dreams Let Reality Catch Up NLP and Common Sense for Coaches Managers and You Renewal Technologies ISBN 978 0 9784452 7 0 a b c d e f g h i j John Cook 2007 The Book of Positive Quotations Fairview Press ISBN 978 1 57749 169 9 Steve Chandler 2005 Reinventing Yourself How to Become the Person You ve Always Wanted to Be Career Press ISBN 978 1 56414 817 9 Matthew Kelly 2005 The Rhythm of Life Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 6510 2 Lee Dong Yul Park Sung Hee Uhlemann Max R Patsult Philip June 2000 What Makes You Happy A Comparison of Self reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures Social Indicators Research 50 3 351 362 doi 10 1023 A 1004647517069 S2CID 141773177 John Kultgen 1995 Autonomy and Intervention Parentalism in the Caring Life Oxford University Press US ISBN 978 0 19 508531 0 a b c d George Cappannelli Sedena Cappannelli 2004 Authenticity Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home Emmis Books ISBN 978 1 57860 148 6 a b John G West 2002 Celebrating Middle Earth The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization Inkling Books ISBN 978 1 58742 012 2 Rachel Madorsky 2003 Create Your Own Destiny Spiritual Path to Success Avanty House ISBN 978 0 9705349 4 1 A C Grayling What is Good The Search for the Best Way to Live Weidenfeld amp Nicolson 2003 Brooks Mike 8 October 2020 What Is the Purpose of Life Why are we here Here s a reasonable answer Psychology Today Retrieved 5 November 2022 Lopez Mike 22 September 1999 Episode III Relativism A Jedi craves not these things The Michigan Daily Archived from the original on 11 August 2007 Retrieved 26 July 2007 Lovatt Stephen C 2007 New Skins for Old Wine Universal Publishers ISBN 978 1 58112 960 1 Archived from the original on 14 March 2007 a b Fantastic Voyage Live Long Enough to Live Forever www fantastic voyage net Retrieved 16 July 2022 Bryan Appleyard 2007 How To Live Forever Or Die Trying On The New Immortality Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 6868 4 Cameron Donald 2001 The Purpose of Life Woodhill Publishing ISBN 978 0 9540291 0 4 Archived from the original on 13 November 2001 Nick Lane 2005 Power Sex Suicide Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 280481 5 Kenneth M Weiss Anne V Buchanan 2004 Genetics and the Logic of Evolution Wiley IEEE ISBN 978 0 471 23805 8 Jennifer Ackerman 2001 Chance in the House of Fate A Natural History of Heredity Houghton Mifflin Books ISBN 978 0 618 21909 4 Boyce Rensberger 1996 Life Itself Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 512500 9 Chris Grau 2005 Philosophers Explore the Matrix Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 518107 4 John M Cooper D S Hutchinson 1997 Plato Complete Works Hackett Publishing ISBN 978 0 87220 349 5 John E Findling Frank W Thackeray 2001 Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 29079 4 Tenzin Gyatso 14th Dalai Lama 1954 The Meaning of Life Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect Doubleday a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Ernest Joseph Simmons 1973 Tolstoy Routledge ISBN 978 0 7100 7395 2 Richard A Bowell 2004 The Seven Steps of Spiritual Intelligence The Practical Pursuit of Purpose Success and Happiness Nicholas Brealey Publishing ISBN 978 1 85788 344 2 John C Gibbs Karen S Basinger Dick Fuller 1992 Moral Maturity Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection Lawrence Erlbaum Associates ISBN 978 0 8058 0425 6 a b c Timothy Tang 2007 Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness iUniverse ISBN 978 0 595 45941 4 Tyler T Roberts 1998 Contesting Spirit Nietzsche Affirmation Religion Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 00127 2 Costigan Lucy 2004 What is the Meaning of Your Life A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning iUniverse ISBN 978 0 595 33880 1 Steven L Jeffers Harold Ivan Smith 2007 Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care Radcliffe Publishing ISBN 978 1 84619 181 7 David L Jeffrey 1992 A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0 8028 3634 2 Williams Dana A 2005 In the Light of Likeness Transformed The Literary Art of Leon Forrest Ohio State University Press ISBN 978 0 8142 0994 3 Jerry Z Muller 1997 Conservatism An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 03711 0 Mary Nash Bruce Stewart 2002 Spirituality and Social Care Contributing to Personal and Community Well being Jessica Kingsley Publishers ISBN 978 1 84310 024 9 Xinzhong Yao 2000 An Introduction to Confucianism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 64430 3 Bryan S Turner Chris Rojek 2001 Society and Culture Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity SAGE ISBN 978 0 7619 7049 1 Anil Goonewardene 1994 Buddhist Scriptures Harcourt Heinemann ISBN 978 0 435 30355 6 a b Luc Ferry 2002 Man Made God The Meaning of Life University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 24484 6 a b c Eric G Stephan R Wayne Pace 2002 Powerful Leadership How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life FT Press ISBN 978 0 13 066836 3 Cumberland Dan 18 May 2015 Finding Purpose in Life TheMeaningMovement Retrieved 10 August 2015 Dominique Moyse Steinberg 2004 The Mutual Aid Approach to Working with Groups Helping People Help One Another Haworth Press ISBN 978 0 7890 1462 7 John Caunt 2002 Boost Your Self Esteem Kogan Page ISBN 978 0 7494 3871 5 Ho oponopono Z ev ben Shimon Halevi 1993 The Work of the Kabbalist Weiser ISBN 978 0 87728 637 0 a b Michael Joachim Girard 2006 Essential Believing for the Christian Soul Xulon Press ISBN 978 1 59781 596 3 Jaideva Singh 2003 Vijnanabhairava Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0820 1 T M P Mahadevan 1974 Philosophy Theory and Practice Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy University of Madras John T Scully 2007 The Five Commandments Trafford Publishing ISBN 978 1 4251 1910 2 John Piper 2006 Desiring God Multnomah Books ISBN 978 1 59052 119 9 a b Peter Harrison 2001 The Bible Protestantism and the Rise of Natural Science Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 00096 3 Matthew 28 18 20 Micah 6 8 a b Thomas Patrick Burke 2004 The Major Religions An Introduction with Texts Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1 4051 1049 5 Book of Mormon Mosiah 2 17 1830 And behold I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God Book of Mormon Alma 32 32 1830 For behold this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God yea behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors Holy Bible Genesis 3 22 And the Lord God said Behold the man is become as one of us to know good and evil Holy Bible Matthew 5 48 Be ye therefore perfect even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect Pearl of Great Price Book of Moses 1 37 39 1830 Archived from the original on 15 July 2019 Retrieved 16 July 2019 And the Lord God spake unto Moses saying For behold this is my work and my glory to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man Teachings of Presidents of the Church Lorenzo Snow Lorenzo Snow The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints 2011 1884 p 83 As man now is God once was As God now is man may be a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint others link Book of Mormon Alma 29 5 1830 Yea and I know that good and evil have come before all men he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless but he that knoweth good and evil to him it is given according to his desires whether he desireth good or evil life or death joy or remorse of conscience Book of Mormon 2 Nephi 2 25 1830 Adam fell that men might be and men are that they might have joy Pearl of Great Price Book of Moses 5 11 1830 And Eve his wife heard all these things and was glad saying Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed and never should have known good and evil and the joy of our redemption and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient Holisiajay Quran 51 56 Quranic Arabic Corpus I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me a b T W Mitchell 1927 Problems in Psychopathology Harcourt Brace amp Company Ecclesiastes 8 Steven Dillon 2006 The Solaris Effect Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 71345 1 Raymond Aron 2000 The Century of Total War Wisdom Publications ISBN 978 0 86171 173 4 Stewart John 5 March 2010 Is this the meaning of life John Stewart argues that despite the perception that science has stripped the meaning from life recent developments in evolutionary theory suggest that humans have a central role to play in the future of the universe The Guardian Man s Search for Meaning Viktor Frankl Beacon Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 8070 1426 4 Monty Python s Completely Useless Web Site Monty Python s The Meaning of Life Complete Script intriguing com Archived from the original on 15 December 2007 Retrieved 17 December 2007 Terry Burnham 2005 Mean Markets and Lizard Brains How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality John Wiley and Sons ISBN 978 0 471 71695 2 Yolanda Fernandez 2002 In Their Shoes Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders Wood N Barnes Publishing ISBN 978 1 885473 48 6 Adams Douglas 29 March 1978 The Hitch Hiker s Guide to the Galaxy Fit the Fourth Audio Radio BBC Radio 4 I think the problem such as it was was too broadly based You never actually stated what the question was Glenn Yeffeth 2005 The Anthology at the End of the Universe Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams The Hitchhiker s Guide to the Galaxy BenBella Books Inc ISBN 978 1 932100 56 3 William B Badke 2005 The Hitchhiker s Guide to the Meaning of Everything Kregel Publications ISBN 978 0 8254 2069 6 Douglas Adams 1979 The Hitchhiker s Guide to the Galaxy London Pan Books ISBN 978 0 330 25864 7 Adams Douglas 12 April 1978 The Hitch Hiker s Guide to the Galaxy Fit the Sixth Audio Radio BBC Radio 4 That s it Six by nine forty two I always said there was something fundamentally wrong about the universe Person of Interest recap 5 13 The sound of my voice After Ellen Retrieved 24 August 2019 APA Dictionary of Psychology existential crisis dictionary apa org a b Andrews Mary April 2016 The existential crisis Behavioral Development Bulletin 21 1 104 109 doi 10 1037 bdb0000014 a b c Butenaite Joana Sondaite Jolanta Mockus Antanas 2016 Components of existential crises a theoretical analysis International Journal of Psychology A Biopsychosocial Approach 18 9 27 doi 10 7220 2345 024X 18 1 Crowell Steven 2020 Existentialism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 14 January 2022 Blomme Robert J 2013 Absurdism as a Fundamental Value Camusian Thoughts on Moral Development in Organisations International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy 7 2 116 doi 10 1504 IJMCP 2013 055720 Honderich Ted ed 2005 absurd the The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Oxford University Press a b c d e f g Yalom Irvin D 17 March 2020 10 Meaninglessness Existential Psychotherapy Basic Books ISBN 978 1 5416 4744 2 Greer Frank October 1980 Toward a Developmental View of Adult Crisis a Re Examination of Crisis Theory Journal of Humanistic Psychology 20 4 17 29 doi 10 1177 002216788002000404 ISSN 0022 1678 S2CID 146743538 a b Pratt Alan Nihilism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 25 January 2022 a b Yang William Staps Ton Hijmans Ellen 2010 Existential crisis and the awareness of dying the role of meaning and spirituality Omega 61 1 53 69 doi 10 2190 OM 61 1 c ISSN 0030 2228 PMID 20533648 S2CID 22290227 Zapffe Peter Wessel The Last Messiah Philosophy Now 45 nihilism www britannica com 14 August 2023 a b c d e Kahane Guy 10 June 2022 Meaningfulness and Importance In Landau Iddo ed The Oxford Handbook of Meaning in Life pp 92 108 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780190063504 013 6 ISBN 978 0 19 006350 4 Nozick Robert 1981 6 Philosophy and the meaning of life Philosophical Explanations Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 66479 1 a b c d Nozick Robert 15 December 1990 16 Importance and Weight Examined Life Philosophical Meditations Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 72501 3 a b Kahane Guy 13 August 2021 Importance Value and Causal Impact Journal of Moral Philosophy 19 6 577 601 doi 10 1163 17455243 20213581 ISSN 1745 5243 S2CID 238678531 Benatar David 5 May 2017 3 Meaninglessness The Human Predicament A Candid Guide to Life s Biggest Questions Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 063382 0 Benbaji Yitzhak 2001 The Moral the Personal and the Importance of What We Care about Philosophy 76 297 415 433 doi 10 1017 S0031819101000365 ISSN 0031 8191 JSTOR 3751779 S2CID 143737564 Tugendhat Ernst 4 October 2016 2 Good and Important Egocentricity and Mysticism An Anthropological Study Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 54293 7 Morris Chris 28 March 2016 10 wonder drugs that changed our lives forever CNBC Retrieved 24 June 2022 External links nbsp Look up meaning of life in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Meaning of life nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Life nbsp Wikiversity has learning resources about What Matters Meaning of Life The Analytic Perspective article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Meaning of Life in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Wikiversity Do living things on Earth have a purpose Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Meaning of life amp oldid 1221107578, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
