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Vishnu

January 13, 2023

For other uses, see Vishnu (disambiguation).

Vishnu (/ˈvɪʃnuː/ VISH-noo; Sanskrit: विष्णु, romanized: Viṣṇu, lit. 'the pervader', pronounced [ʋɪʂɳʊ]), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.[9][10]

Vishnu
God of Preservation

God of Time, The Protector of Good, Bestower of Karma[1]

Para Brahman, the Supreme Being[2][3][4]
Member of Trimurti
Vishnu bearing his four attributes
Other namesHari, Narayana, Madhava, Keshava, Achyuta, Janardana, various others (Vishnu Sahasranama)
AffiliationParabrahman, Trimurti, Brahman, Bhagavan, Ishvara, Dashavatara
Abode
Mantra
Weapon [5]
SymbolsPadma (Lotus), Shaligrama, Dvaravati sila
DayThursday
MountGaruda,[5] Shesha[6]
FestivalsHoli, Rama Navami, Krishna Janmashtami, Narasimha Jayanti, Deepavali, Onam, Vishu, Vivaha Panchami, Vijayadashami, Ananta Chaturdashi, Shayani Ekadashi, Prabodhini Ekadashi and other ekadashis, Kartik Purnima, Tulasi Vivaha[7]
Personal information
SiblingsParvati or Durga (ceremonial sister; according to Shaivism)
ConsortLakshmi
Children
Translations of
विष्णु (Viṣṇu)
Sanskritविष्णु (Viṣṇu)
Assameseবিষ্ণু (Biṣṇu)
Bengaliবিষ্ণু (Biṣṇu)
Gujaratiવિષ્ણુ (Viṣṇu)
Hindiविष्णु (Viṣṇu)
Kannadaವಿಷ್ಣು (Viṣṇu)
Malayalamവിഷ്ണു (Viṣṇu)
Marathiविष्णु (Viṣṇu)
Odiaବିଷ୍ଣୁ (Biṣṇu)
Tamilவிஷ்ணு (Viṣṇu)
Teluguవిష్ణు (Viṣṇu)
Glossary of Hinduism terms

Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within the Trimurti, the triple deity of supreme divinity that includes Brahma and Shiva.[11][12] In Vaishnavism, Vishnu is the supreme being who creates, protects, and transforms the universe. In the Shaktism tradition, the Goddess, or Adi Shakti, is described as the supreme Para Brahman, yet Vishnu is revered along with Shiva and Brahma. Tridevi is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with Lakshmi being the equal complementary partner of Vishnu.[13] He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[12]

According to Vaishnavism, the highest form of Ishvara is with qualities (Saguna), and have certain form, but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, and the primal Atman (Self) of the universe.[14] There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent Adishesha (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk called Kshira Sagara with his consort, Lakshmi.[15]

Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in the form of an avatar (incarnation) to restore the cosmic order, and protect dharma. The Dashavatara are the ten primary avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu. Out of these ten, Rama and Krishna are the most important.[16]

Nomenclature

Vishnu (or Viṣṇu, Sanskrit: विष्णु) means 'all pervasive'[17] and, according to Medhātith (c. 1000 CE), 'one who is everything and inside everything'.[18] Vedanga scholar Yaska (4th century BCE) in the Nirukta defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā ('one who enters everywhere'); also adding atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati ('that which is free from fetters and bondage is Vishnu').[19]

In the tenth part of the Padma Purana (4-15th century CE), Danta (Son of Bhīma and King of Vidarbha) lists 108 names of Vishnu (17.98–102).[20] These include the ten primary avatars (see Dashavarara, below) and descriptions of the qualities, attributes, or aspects of God.

The Garuda Purana (chapter XV)[21] and the "Anushasana Parva" of the Mahabharata both list over 1000 names for Vishnu, each name describing a quality, attribute, or aspect of God. Known as the Vishnu Sahasranama, Vishnu here is defined as 'the omnipresent'.

Other notable names in this list include :

Iconography

 
A statue of Vishnu.

Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue, blue-gray or black coloured skin, and as a well-dressed jewelled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks.[22][23]

The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell (shankha named Panchajanya) between the first two fingers of one hand (left back), a chakra – war discus named Sudarshana – in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil.[22] One of his arms sometimes carries a gada (club, mace named Kaumodaki) which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge.[22] In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower (padma) which symbolizes purity and transcendence.[22][23][24] The items he holds in various hands varies, giving rise to twenty four combinations of iconography, each combination representing a special form of Vishnu. Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the Agni Purana and Padma Purana. These texts, however, are inconsistent.[25] Rarely, Vishnu is depicted bearing the bow Sharanga or the sword Nandaka. He is depicted with the Kaustubha gem in a necklace and wearing Vaijayanti, a garland of forest flowers. The shrivatsa mark is depicted on his chest in the form of a curl of hair. He generally wears yellow garments.

Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose, seated in a yoga pose, or reclining.[23] A traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of him reclining on the coils of the serpent Shesha, accompanied by his consort Lakshmi, as he "dreams the universe into reality."[26]

The Trimurti

Main article: Trimurti
 
The Trimurti at Ellora, with Vishnu in the middle.

Particularly in Vaishnavism, the Trimurti (also known as the Hindu Triad or Great Trinity)[27][28] represents the three fundamental forces (guṇas) through which the universe is created, maintained, and destroyed in cyclic succession. Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity:[29][30]

  • Brahma: presiding deity of Rajas (passion, creation)
  • Vishnu: presiding deity of Sattva (goodness, preservation)
  • Shiva: presiding deity of Tamas (darkness, destruction)

The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it.[31]

In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh. All have the same meaning of three in One; different forms or manifestations of One person the Supreme Being.[32]

Avatars

Main articles: Avatar and Dashavatara
 
Vishnu and his avatars (Vaikuntha Chaturmurti): Vishnu himself or Krishna in human form, Narasimha as a lion, Varaha as a boar. Art of Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum.[33]

The concept of the avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trimurti. The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring Dharma and relieving the burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the Bhagavad Gita describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu:

Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.
For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil,
and for the establishment of righteousness,
I come into being age after age.

— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8

Vedic literature, in particular the Puranas ('ancient'; similar to encyclopedias) and Itihasa ('chronicle, history, legend'), narrate numerous avatars of Vishnu. The most well-known of these avatars are Krishna (most notably in the Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, and Mahabharata; the latter encompassing the Bhagavad Gita), and Rama (most notably in the Ramayana). Krishna in particular is venerated in Vaishnavism as the ultimate, primeval, transcendental source of all existence, including all the other demigods and gods such as Vishnu.

The Mahabharata

In the Mahabharata, Vishnu (as Narayana) states to Narada that He will appear in the following ten incarnations:

Appearing in the forms of a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise [Kurma], a fish [Matsya], O foremost of regenerate ones, I shall then display myself as a boar [Varaha], then as a Man-lion (Nrisingha), then as a dwarf [Vamana], then as Rama of Bhrigu's race, then as Rama, the son of Dasaratha, then as Krishna the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly as Kalki.

— Book 12, Santi Parva, Chapter CCCXL (340), translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883-1896[34]

The Puranas

Specified avatars of Vishnu are listed against some of the Puranas in the table below. However, this is a complicated process and the lists are unlikely to be exhaustive because:

  • Not all Puranas provide lists per se (e.g. the Agni Purana dedicates entire chapters to avatars, and some of these chapters mention other avatars within them)
  • A list may be given in one place but additional avatars may be mentioned elsewhere (e.g. the Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars in Canto 1, but mentions others elsewhere)
  • Manava Purana, the only Upa Purana listed 42 avatars of Vishnu.
  • A personality in one Purana may be considered an avatar in another (e.g. Narada is not specified as an avatar in the Matsya Purana but is in the Bhagavata Purana)
  • Some avatars consist of two or more people considered as different aspects of a single incarnation (e.g. Nara-Narayana, Rama and his three brothers)
Purana Avatars Names / Descriptions (with chapters and verses) - Dashavatara lists are in bold
Agni[35] 12[a] Matsya (2), Kurma (3), Dhanvantari (3.11), Mohini (3.12), Varaha (4), Narasimha (4.3-4), Vamana (4.5-11), Parasurama (4.12-20), Rama (5-11; one of the 'four forms' of Vishnu, including his brothers Bharata, Laksmana and Satrughna), Krishna (12), Buddha (16), Kalki (16)
10[b] Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Buddha, and Kalki (Chapter 49)
Bhagavata 22[c][36] Kumaras, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Yajna, Rsabha, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanvantari, Mohini, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Vyasadeva, Rama, Balarama and Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 1, Chapter 3).
20[d][37] Varaha, Suyajna (Hari), Kapila, Dattātreya, Four Kumaras, Nara-Narayana, Prthu, Rsabha, Hayagriva, Matsya, Kurma, Nṛsiṁha, Vamana, Manu, Dhanvantari, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 2, Chapter 7)
Brahma[38] 15 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Hayagriva, Buddha, Rama, Kalki, Ananta, Acyuta, Jamadagnya (Parashurama), Varuna, Indra, and Yama (Volume 4: 52.68-73)
Garuda[39] 20[e] Kumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Datta (Dattatreya), Yajna, Urukrama, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanavantari, Mohini, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Vyasadeva, Balarama, Krishna, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter 1)
10[e] Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1, Chapter 86, Verses 10–11)
10[e][40] Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Balarama, Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 3, Chapter 30, Verse 37)
Linga[41] 10[f] Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 2, Chapter 48, Verses 31–32)
Matsya[42] 10[g] 3 celestial incarnations of Dharma, Nrishimha, and Vamana; and 7 human incarnations of Dattatreya, Mandhitri, Parasurama, Rama, Vedavyasa (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter XLVII / 47)
Narada[43] 10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, Kalki (Part 4, Chapter 119, Verses 14–19), and Kapila[44]
Padma[45][46] 10 Part 7: Yama (66.44-54) and Brahma (71.23-29) name 'Matsya, Kurma, and Varaha. Narasimha and Vamana, (Parasu-)rama, Rama, Krsna, Buddha, and Kalki'; Part 9: this list is repeated by Shiva (229.40-44); Kapila[44]
Shiva[47] 10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, 'Rama trio' [Rama, Parasurama, Balarama], Krishna, Kalki (Part 4: Vayaviya Samhita: Chapter 30, Verses 56-58 and Chapter 31, verses 134–136)
Skanda 14[48] Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Nrsimha, Vamana, Kapila, Datta, Rsabha, Bhargava Rama (Parashurama), Dasarathi Rama, Krsna, Krsna Dvaipayana (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Part 7: Vasudeva-Mamatmya: Chapter 18)
10[49] Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 15: Reva Khanda: Chapter 151, Verses 1–7)
Manavā 42 Adi Purusha, Kumaras, Narada, Kapila, Yajna, Dattatreya, Nara-Narayana, Vibhu, Satyasena, Hari, Vaikunta, Ajita, Shaligram, Sarvabhauma, Vrishbha, Visvaksena, Sudhama(not krishna's friend Sudama), Dharmasetu, Yogeshwara, Brihadbhanu, Hamsa, Hayagriva, Vyasa, Prithu, Vrishbha deva, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Balrama, Krishna, Buddha, Venkateswara, Dnyaneshwar, Chaitanya, Kalki
Varaha[50][51] 10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Chapter 4, Verses 2–3; Chapter 48, Verses 17–22; and Chapter 211, Verse 69)
  1. ^ Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit. Volume 3, Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations. Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha have not been counted; a list of the Dashavatara is provided in chapter 49.
  2. ^ Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit. Volume 3, Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations. Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha have not been counted; a list of the Dashavatara is provided in chapter 49.
  3. ^ Others such as Hamsa, Ajita, Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted. For a complete list, see Bhagavata Purana
  4. ^ Others such as Hamsa, Ajita, Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted. For a complete list, see Bhagavata Purana
  5. ^ a b c Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras (one unit) than - as the translator believes - Karttikeya, one of Shiva's sons and the Hindu god of war
  6. ^ These avatars are stated to incarnate 'for the good of the world' in every cycle of yugas; It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of Bhrgu
  7. ^ Narada, Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, etc., have not been counted

Dashavatara

 
Hindu god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his avatars namely (counter-clockwise, from left-top) Matsya; Kurma; Varaha; Narasimha; Vamana; Parashurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha and Kalki, Raja Ravi Varma oleograph
Main article: Dashavatara

The Dashavatara is a list of the so-called Vibhavas, or '10 [primary] Avatars' of Vishnu. The Agni Purana, Varaha Purana, Padma Purana, Linga Purana, Narada Purana, Garuda Purana, and Skanda Purana all provide matching lists. The same Vibhavas are also found in the Garuda Purana Saroddhara, a commentary or ‘extracted essence’ written by Navanidhirama about the Garuda Purana (i.e. not the Purana itself, with which it seems to be confused):

The Fish, the Tortoise, the Boar, the Man-Lion, the Dwarf, Parasurama, Rama, Krisna, Buddha, and also Kalki: These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite them near the diseased are called relatives.

— Navanidhirama, Garuda Purana Saroddhara, Chapter VIII, Verses 10-11, translated by E. Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam[52][53]

Apparent disagreements concerning the placement of either the Buddha or Balarama in the Dashavarara seems to occur from the Dashavarara list in the Shiva Purana (the only other list with ten avatars including Balarama in the Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana, not Buddha). Regardless, both versions of the Dashavarara have a scriptural basis in the canon of authentic Vedic literature (but not from the Garuda Purana Saroddhara).

Perumal

Main article: Perumal (deity)
 
Venkatesvara, one of the forms of Perumal (Vishnu)

Perumal (Tamil: பெருமாள்)—also known as Thirumal (Tamil: திருமால்), or Mayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)— was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism. He is a popular Hindu deity among Tamilians in Tamil Nadu, as well among the Tamil diaspora.[54][55] Revered by the Sri Vaishnava denomination of Hinduism, Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as Venkateshwara at Tirupati,[56] and Sri Ranganathaswamy at Srirangam.[57]

Literature

Vishnu icons across cultures
 
180 BCE Indo-Greek coin of Agathocles.
 
Vishnu Nicolo Seal, 4th–6th century CE, Gandhara.
 
13th century Cambodian Vishnu.
 
India
 
 
The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history.

Vedas

Vishnu is a Rigvedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni and others.[58] Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda are dedicated to Vishnu, although he is mentioned in other hymns.[18] Vishnu is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in the Vedas, thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian scriptures, states Jan Gonda, Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the Supreme Being.[58][59]

Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.[58] In these hymns, the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed Atman (Self) reside, an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu soteriology.[58][60] He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth.[18]

In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named Vritra.[18][63] His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana. Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities.[64]

In hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu is equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all.[64] In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a close friend of Indra.[65] Elsewhere in Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts, Vishnu is equivalent to Prajapati, both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb, and according to Klaus Klostermaier, this may be the root behind the post-Vedic fusion of all the attributes of the Vedic Prajapati unto the avatars of Vishnu.[18]

In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.13.1), "Narayana sukta", Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being. The first verse of "Narayana Suktam" mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean 'highest post' and may be understood as the 'supreme abode for all Selfs'. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam, or Vaikuntha. Rigveda 1.22.20 also mentions the same paramam padam.[66]

In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names. In post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu.[63]

Trivikrama: The Three Steps of Vishnu

The Three Strides of Vishnu
 
 
 
The depiction of the "three strides of Vishnu" is common in Hindu art, wherein his leg is shown raised like a gymnast, symbolizing a huge step. Left: Trivikrama in the Art of Mathura, Gupta period. Center: at a temple in Bhaktapur, Nepal; Right: at 6th-century Badami cave temples, India.

Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama, which is one of the lasting mythologies in Hinduism since the Vedic times.[67] It is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu.[68][69] Trivikrama refers to the celebrated three steps or "three strides" of Vishnu. Starting as a small insignificant looking being, Vishnu undertakes a herculean task of establishing his reach and form, then with his first step covers the earth, with second the ether, and the third entire heaven.[67][70]

विष्णोर्नु कं वीर्याणि प्र वोचं यः पार्थिवानि विममे रजांसि ।
यो अस्कभायदुत्तरं सधस्थं विचक्रमाणस्त्रेधोरुगायः ॥१॥…

viṣṇōrnu kaṃ vīryāṇi pra vōcaṃ yaḥ pārthivāni vimamē rajāṃsi |
yō askabhāyaduttaraṃ sadhasthaṃ vicakramāṇastrēdhōrugāyaḥ ||1||

I will now proclaim the heroic deeds of Visnu, who has measured out the terrestrial regions,
who established the upper abode having, wide-paced, strode out triply…

— Rigveda 1.154.1, Translated by Jan Gonda[71]

The Vishnu Sukta 1.154 of Rigveda says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those encompassing the earth and air) are visible to the mortals and the third is the realm of the immortals. The Trivikrama describing hymns integrate salvific themes, stating Vishnu to symbolize that which is freedom and life.[67] The Shatapatha Brahmana elaborates this theme of Vishnu, as his herculean effort and sacrifice to create and gain powers that help others, one who realizes and defeats the evil symbolized by the Asuras after they had usurped the three worlds, and thus Vishnu is the saviour of the mortals and the immortals (Devas).[67]

Brahmanas

To what is One

Seven germs unripened yet are heaven's prolific seed:
their functions they maintain by Vishnu's ordinance.
Endued with wisdom through intelligence and thought,
they compass us about present on every side.

What thing I truly am I know not clearly:
mysterious, fettered in my mind I wonder.
When the first-born of holy Law approached me,
then of this speech, I first obtain a portion.
(...)

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title.

— Rigveda 1.164.36-37, 46[72][73]

The Shatapatha Brahmana contains ideas which Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism has long mapped to a pantheistic vision of Vishnu as supreme, he as the essence in every being and everything in the empirically perceived universe. In this Brahmana, states Klaus Klostermaier, Purusha Narayana (Vishnu) asserts, "all the worlds have I placed within mine own self, and my own self has I placed within all the worlds."[74] The text equates Vishnu to all knowledge there is (Vedas), calling the essence of everything as imperishable, all Vedas and principles of universe as imperishable, and that this imperishable which is Vishnu is the all.[74]

Vishnu is described to be permeating all object and life forms, states S. Giora Shoham, where he is "ever-present within all things as the intrinsic principle of all", and the eternal, transcendental self in every being.[75] The Vedic literature, including its Brahmanas layer, while praising Vishnu do not subjugate others gods and goddesses. They present an inclusive pluralistic henotheism. According to Max Muller, "Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small, the young and the old (Rig Veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute."[76]

Upanishads

The Vaishnava Upanishads are minor Upanishads of Hinduism, related to Vishnu theology. There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads.[77] It is unclear when these texts were composed, and estimates vary from the 1st-century BCE to 17th-century CE for the texts.[78][79]

These Upanishads highlight Vishnu, Narayana, Rama or one of his avatars as the supreme metaphysical reality called Brahman in Hinduism.[80][81] They discuss a diverse range of topics, from ethics to the methods of worship.[82]

Puranas

 
The Bhagavata Purana is centred around Krishna, a Vishnu avatar.

Vishnu is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism-focused Puranas genre of Hindu texts. Of these, according to Ludo Rocher, the most important texts are the Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana and Vayu Purana.[83] The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides called mahatmyas.[84]

One version of the cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos.[85] In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu Purana, he is the Hiranyagarbha, or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe.[86]

Vishnu Purana

The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others.[87]

The Vishnu Purana also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called Brahman in the context of the Upanishads; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja interprets to be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition.[88]

Bhagavata Purana

Vishnu is equated with Brahman in the Bhagavata Purana, such as in verse 1.2.11, as "learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan."[89]

The Bhagavata Purana has been the most popular and widely read Purana texts relating to Vishnu avatar Krishna, it has been translated and available in almost all Indian languages.[90] Like other Puranas, it discusses a wide range of topics including cosmology, genealogy, geography, mythology, legend, music, dance, yoga and culture.[91][92] As it begins, the forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent devas (deities) and evil asuras (demons) and now rule the universe. Truth re-emerges as the Vishnu avatar first makes peace with the demons, understands them and then creatively defeats them, bringing back hope, justice, freedom and good – a cyclic theme that appears in many legends.[93] The Bhagavata Purana is a revered text in Vaishnavism.[94] The Puranic legends of Vishnu have inspired plays and dramatic arts that are acted out over festivals, particularly through performance arts such as the Sattriya, Manipuri dance, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Kathak, Bharatanatyam, Bhagavata Mela and Mohiniyattam.[95][96][97]

Other Puranas

Some versions of the Purana texts, unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, emphasize Vishnu as supreme and on whom other gods depend. Vishnu, for example, is the source of creator deity Brahma in the Vaishnavism-focussed Purana texts. Vishnu's iconography typically shows Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel, who then is described as creating all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.[98] In contrast, the Shiva-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara, that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa).[99]

In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the world, thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time, everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu. The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a new Kalpa.[100] For this the Bhagavata Purana employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and the universe as his web. Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories, such as one where the universe and time are absorbed into Shiva.[100][101]

Agama

The Agama scripture called the Pancharatra describes a mode of worship of Vishnu.

Sangam and Post-Sangam literature

Main article: Thirumal

The Sangam literature refers to an extensive regional collection in the Tamil language, mostly from the early centuries of the common era. These Tamil texts revere Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna and Rama, as well as other pan-Indian deities such as Shiva, Muruga, Durga, Indra and others.[102] Vishnu is described in these texts as mayon, or "one who is dark or black in color" (in north India, the equivalent word is Krishna).[102] Other terms found for Vishnu in these ancient Tamil genre of literature include mayavan, mamiyon, netiyon, mal and mayan.[103]

Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post-Sangam Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, each of which was probably composed about the 5th century CE.[104][105] These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India, such as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter, and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes.[104][106]

Bhakti Movement

Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the Bhakti movement theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century. The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Tamil Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another.[107] They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.[108][109]

Vaishnava theology

Main articles: Vaishnavism and Pañcaratra

The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology, wherein it frequently discusses the merging of the individual Self with the Absolute Brahman (Ultimate Reality, Supreme Truth), or "the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly Advaitic or non-dualistic philosophy of Shankara.[91][110][111] The concept of moksha is explained as Ekatva ('Oneness') and Sayujya ('Absorption, intimate union'), wherein one is completely lost in Brahman (Self, Supreme Being, one's true nature).[112] This, states Rukmini (1993), is proclamation of "return of the individual Self to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute", which is unmistakably Advaitic in its trend.[112] In the same passages, the Bhagavata includes a mention of Bhagavan as the object of concentration, thereby presenting the Bhakti path from the three major paths of Hindu spirituality discussed in the Bhagavad Gita.[112][113]

The theology in the Bhagavad Gita discusses both the sentient and the non-sentient, the Self and the matter of existence. It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna), state Harold Coward and Daniel Maguire. Vishnu in Gita's theology pervades all Selfs, all matter and time.[114] In Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition, Vishnu and Sri (goddess Lakshmi) are described as inseparable, that they pervade everything together. Both together are the creators, who also pervade and transcend their creation.[114]

The Bhagavata Purana, in many passages, parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non-duality of Adi Shankara. [111] For example:

The aim of life is an inquiry into the Truth, and not the desire for enjoyment in heaven by performing religious rites,
Those who possess the knowledge of the Truth, call the knowledge of non-duality as the Truth,
It is called Brahman, the Highest Self, and Bhagavan.

— Sūta, Bhagavata Purana 1.2.10-11, translated by Daniel Sheridan[115]

Scholars describe the Vaishnava theology as built on the foundation of non-dualism speculations in Upanishads, and term it as "Advaitic Theism."[111][116] The Bhagavata Purana suggests that Vishnu and the Self (Atman) in all beings is one.[110] Bryant states that the monism discussed in Bhagavata Purana is certainly built on the Vedanta foundations, but not exactly the same as the monism of Adi Shankara.[117] The Bhagavata asserts, according to Bryant, that the empirical and the spiritual universe are both metaphysical realities, and manifestations of the same Oneness, just like heat and light are "real but different" manifestations of sunlight.[117]

In the Bhakti tradition of Vaishnavism, Vishnu is attributed with numerous qualities such as omniscience, energy, strength, lordship, vigour, and splendour.[118] The Vaishnava tradition started by Madhvacharya considers Vishnu in the form of Krishna to be the supreme creator, personal God, all-pervading, all devouring, one whose knowledge and grace leads to "moksha".[119] In Madhvacharya Vaishnava theology, the supreme Vishnu and the Selfs of living beings are two different realities and nature (dualism), while in Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism, they are different but share the same essential nature (qualified non-dualism).[120][121][122]

Associated deities

Lakshmi

Main article: Lakshmi
 
Vishnu with Lakshmi (Lakshmi Narayan) on Garuda.

Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife and active energy of Vishnu.[123][124] She is also called Sri.[125][126] When Vishnu incarnated on earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: Sita and Radha or Rukmini.[127][128] Various regional beliefs consider Lakshmi to be manifested as various goddesses, who are considered Vishnu's wives. In South India, Lakshmi is worshipped in two forms — Sridevi and Bhudevi.[129] In Tirupati, Venkateshwara (identified as a form of Vishnu) is depicted with consorts, Lakshmi and Padmavathi.[130]

Garuda

Main article: Garuda

Among Vishnu's primary mounts (vahana) is Garuda, the demigod eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Vishnu travels. Garuda is a sacred bird in Vaishnavism. In the Garuda Purana, Garuda carries Vishnu to save the elephant Gajendra.[131][132]

Shesha

Main article: Shesha
 
Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (Shesha, the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. Sculpture. From India, c. 14th century CE. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh

One of the primordial beings of creation, Shesha, or Adishesha, is the king of the serpents in Hindu mythology.[133] Residing in Vaikuntha, Vishnu sleeps upon Adishesha in a perpetual slumber in his form of Narayana.[134]

Vishvaksena

Main article: Vishvaksena

Vishvaksena, also known as Senadhipathi (both meaning 'army-chief'), is the commander-in-chief of the army of Vishnu.

Harihara

Main article: Harihara
 
Harihara - Combined form of Vishnu and Shiva
 
Hindu gods praying to god Vishnu

Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations. Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as the Vamana Purana (chapter 36),[135] and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century Badami cave temples.[136][137] Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in Mahabharata.[138]

Beyond Hinduism

Sikhism

Vishnu is referred to as Gorakh in the scriptures of Sikhism.[139] For example, in verse 5 of Japji Sahib, the Guru ('teacher') is praised as who gives the word and shows the wisdom, and through whom the awareness of immanence is gained. Guru Nanak, according to Shackle and Mandair (2013), teaches that the Guru are "Shiva (isar), Vishnu (gorakh), Brahma (barma) and mother Parvati (parbati)," yet the one who is all and true cannot be described.[140]

The Chaubis Avtar lists the 24 avatars of Vishnu, including Krishna, Rama, and Buddha. Similarly, the Dasam Granth includes Vishnu mythology that mirrors that found in the Vaishnav tradition.[141] The latter is of particular importance to Sanatan Sikhs, including Udasis, Nirmalas, Nanakpanthis, Sahajdhari, and Keshdhari/Khalsa sects of Sikhism; however, the Khalsa Sikhs disagree with the Sanatan Sikhs.[141][142] According to Sanatan Sikh writers, the Gurus of Sikhism were avatars of Vishnu, because the Gurus brought light in the age of darkness and saved people in a time of evil Mughal-era persecution.[143][144][145]

Buddhism

 
Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka.

While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism.[146]

Vishnu is also known as Upulvan or Upalavarṇā, meaning 'Blue Lotus coloured'. Some postulate that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Utpalavarṇā was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic Hinduism. According to the chronicles of Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and folklore in Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra (Indra), who delegated this task of custodianship to Vishnu.[147] Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka. In addition to specific Vishnu Kovils or Devalayas, all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms (Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu.[148]

John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-century Lankatilaka and Gadaladeniya Buddhist temples.[149] He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary Theravada monks are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples.[150] According to Holt, the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital Polonnaruwa.

Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In Thailand, for example, statues of four-armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th-century, and this mirror those found in ancient India.[151] Similarly, Vishnu statues have been discovered from the 6th to 8th century eastern Prachinburi Province and central Phetchabun Province of Thailand and southern Đồng Tháp Province and An Giang Province of Vietnam.[152] Krishna statues dated to the early 7th century to 9th century have been discovered in Takéo Province and other provinces of Cambodia.[153]

Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have been dated to the 5th century and thereafter.[154] In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu, such as those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia.[155] In some iconography, the symbolism of Surya, Vishnu and Buddha are fused.[156]

In Japanese Buddhist pantheon, Vishnu is known as Bichū-ten (毘紐天), and he appears in Japanese texts such as the 13th century compositions of Nichiren.[157]

In science

4034 Vishnu is an asteroid discovered by Eleanor F. Helin.[158] Vishnu rocks are a type of volcanic sediment found in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations are known as Vishnu's temples.[159]

Outside Indian subcontinent

Indonesia

 
Statue of Vishnu riding Garuda in Garuda Wisnu Kencana, Bali, Indonesia

In Indonesia, Vishnu or Wisnu (Indonesian spelling) is a well-known figure in the world of wayang (Indonesian Puppetry), Wisnu is often referred to as the title Sanghyang Batara Wisnu. Wisnu is the god of justice or welfare, wisnu was the fifth son of Batara Guru and Batari Uma. He is the most powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru.

Wisnu is described as a god who has bluish black or dark blue skin, has four arms, each of which holds a weapon, namely a mace, a lotus, a trumpet and a Cakra. He can also do tiwikrama, become an infinitely large giant.

According to Javanese mythology, Wisnu first came down to the world and became a king with the title Srimaharaja Suman. The country is called Medangpura, located in the present-day Central Java region. Then changed its name to Sri Maharaja Matsyapati. In addition, according to the Javanese wayang puppet version, Batara Wisnu also incarnates Srimaharaja Kanwa, Resi Wisnungkara, Prabu Arjunasasrabahu, Sri Ramawijaya, Sri Batara Kresna, Prabu Airlangga, Prabu Jayabaya, Prabu Anglingdarma.

In Javanese mythology, Wisnu also incarnated as a matswa (fish) to kill the giant Hargragiwa who stole the Veda. Become Narasingha (human with a tiger head) to destroy King Hiranyakashipu. He once intended to become a Wimana (dwarf) to defeat Ditya Bali. Batara Wisnu also incarnated in Ramaparasu to destroy gandarwa. Menitis in Arjunasasra / Arjunawijaya to defeat King Rahwana. The last one was for King Krishna to become the great Pandavas parampara or advisor to get rid of greed and evil committed by the Kauravas.

Sang Hyang Wisnu has a mount in the form of a giant garuda named Bhirawan. Because of his affection for the garuda he rode, Bhirawan was then adopted as son-in-law, married to one of his daughters named Dewi Kastapi.[160]

Temples

 
The Angkor Wat Temple was built as a dedication to Vishnu.[161]

Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been dated to the Gupta Empire period. The Sarvatobhadra temple in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, for example, is dated to the early 6th century and features the ten avatars of Vishnu.[162][163] Its design based on a square layout and Vishnu iconography broadly follows the 1st millennium Hindu texts on architecture and construction such as the Brihat Samhita and Visnudharmottarapurana.[164]

Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in existence by the 1st century BCE.[165] The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in Rajasthan which refer to temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple, another inscription in Naneghat cave in Maharashtra by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana, Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in Mathura relating to Vishnu, all dated to about the start of the common era.[165][166][167]

The Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, is dedicated to Vishnu. The temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.[168][169][170][171]

List of temples

• 108 Divya Desams

•Venkateswara Temple

• Padmanabhaswamy Temple

• Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam

• Jagannath Temple, Puri

• Badrinath Temple

•Swaminarayan temples

• Angkor Wat , Cambodia

• Birla Mandir

• Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

• Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple

• Kallalagar temple , Madurai

 
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu located in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India. The temple occupies an area of 156 acres (630,000 m2) with a perimeter of 4,116 m (13,504 ft) making it the largest temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.[172]

Gallery

  •  

    5th-century Vishnu at Udayagiri Caves.

  •  

    11th-century Vishnu sculpture the goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati. The edges show reliefs of Vishnu avatars Varaha, Narasimha, Balarama, Rama, and others. Also shown is Brahma. (Brooklyn Museum)[173]

  •  

    14th-century Vishnu, Thailand.

  •  

    A statue in Bangkok depicting Vishnu on his vahana Garuda, the eagle. One of the oldest discovered Hindu-style statues of Vishnu in Thailand is from Wat Sala Tung in Surat Thani Province and has been dated to ~400 CE.[151]

  •  

    16th century Vishnu bronze metal sculpture from Dibrugarh, Assam

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Works cited

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External links

  • "BBC Religion & Ethics – Who is Vishnu". BBC News.
  • Machek, Vaclav (1960). "Origin of the God Vishnu". Archiv Orientální: 103–126 – via ProQuest.
  • Peyton, Allysa B. (2012). "Vishnu: Hinduism's Blue-Skinned Savior". Brooklyn Museum, June 24–October 2, 2011. 19 (1): 145–150. doi:10.1086/665691. ISSN 2153-5531. JSTOR 10.1086/665691. S2CID 192592953.

January 13, 2023
vishnu, other, uses, disambiguation, vish, sanskrit, romanized, viṣṇu, pervader, pronounced, ʋɪʂɳʊ, also, known, narayana, hari, principal, deities, hinduism, supreme, being, within, vaishnavism, major, traditions, within, contemporary, hinduism, preservation,. For other uses see Vishnu disambiguation Vishnu ˈ v ɪ ʃ n uː VISH noo Sanskrit व ष ण romanized Viṣṇu lit the pervader pronounced ʋɪʂɳʊ also known as Narayana and Hari is one of the principal deities of Hinduism He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism 9 10 VishnuGod of Preservation God of Time The Protector of Good Bestower of Karma 1 Para Brahman the Supreme Being 2 3 4 Member of TrimurtiVishnu bearing his four attributesOther namesHari Narayana Madhava Keshava Achyuta Janardana various others Vishnu Sahasranama AffiliationParabrahman Trimurti Brahman Bhagavan Ishvara DashavataraAbodeVaikuntha Narayana Causal Ocean Mahavishnu Garbhodaka Ocean Garbhodaksayi Vishnu Kshira Sagara Ksirodakasayi Vishnu MantraOm Namo Narayanaya Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya Hari OmWeaponSudarshana Chakra Discus Panchajanya Conch Kaumodaki Mace Sharanga Bow Nandaka Sword 5 SymbolsPadma Lotus Shaligrama Dvaravati silaDayThursdayMountGaruda 5 Shesha 6 FestivalsHoli Rama Navami Krishna Janmashtami Narasimha Jayanti Deepavali Onam Vishu Vivaha Panchami Vijayadashami Ananta Chaturdashi Shayani Ekadashi Prabodhini Ekadashi and other ekadashis Kartik Purnima Tulasi Vivaha 7 Personal informationSiblingsParvati or Durga ceremonial sister according to Shaivism ConsortLakshmiChildrenKamadeva 18 sons from Lakshmi 8 Devasena and Sundaravalli Tamil tradition Mangala and Narakasura from Bhudevi Ayyappan as Mohini Translations ofव ष ण Viṣṇu Sanskritव ष ण Viṣṇu Assameseব ষ ণ Biṣṇu Bengaliব ষ ণ Biṣṇu Gujaratiવ ષ ણ Viṣṇu Hindiव ष ण Viṣṇu Kannadaವ ಷ ಣ Viṣṇu Malayalamവ ഷ ണ Viṣṇu Marathiव ष ण Viṣṇu Odiaବ ଷ ଣ Biṣṇu Tamilவ ஷ ண Viṣṇu Teluguవ ష ణ Viṣṇu Glossary of Hinduism termsVishnu is known as The Preserver within the Trimurti the triple deity of supreme divinity that includes Brahma and Shiva 11 12 In Vaishnavism Vishnu is the supreme being who creates protects and transforms the universe In the Shaktism tradition the Goddess or Adi Shakti is described as the supreme Para Brahman yet Vishnu is revered along with Shiva and Brahma Tridevi is stated to be the energy and creative power Shakti of each with Lakshmi being the equal complementary partner of Vishnu 13 He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism 12 According to Vaishnavism the highest form of Ishvara is with qualities Saguna and have certain form but is limitless transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman and the primal Atman Self of the universe 14 There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu In benevolent aspects he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent Adishesha who represents time floating in the primeval ocean of milk called Kshira Sagara with his consort Lakshmi 15 Whenever the world is threatened with evil chaos and destructive forces Vishnu descends in the form of an avatar incarnation to restore the cosmic order and protect dharma The Dashavatara are the ten primary avatars incarnations of Vishnu Out of these ten Rama and Krishna are the most important 16 Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 Iconography 3 The Trimurti 4 Avatars 4 1 The Mahabharata 4 2 The Puranas 4 3 Dashavatara 4 4 Perumal 5 Literature 5 1 Vedas 5 1 1 Trivikrama The Three Steps of Vishnu 5 2 Brahmanas 5 3 Upanishads 5 4 Puranas 5 4 1 Vishnu Purana 5 4 2 Bhagavata Purana 5 4 3 Other Puranas 5 5 Agama 5 6 Sangam and Post Sangam literature 5 7 Bhakti Movement 6 Vaishnava theology 7 Associated deities 7 1 Lakshmi 7 2 Garuda 7 3 Shesha 7 4 Vishvaksena 7 5 Harihara 8 Beyond Hinduism 8 1 Sikhism 8 2 Buddhism 8 3 In science 9 Outside Indian subcontinent 9 1 Indonesia 10 Temples 11 Gallery 12 References 12 1 Works cited 13 External linksNomenclatureVishnu or Viṣṇu Sanskrit व ष ण means all pervasive 17 and according to Medhatith c 1000 CE one who is everything and inside everything 18 Vedanga scholar Yaska 4th century BCE in the Nirukta defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater va vyasnoter va one who enters everywhere also adding atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati that which is free from fetters and bondage is Vishnu 19 In the tenth part of the Padma Purana 4 15th century CE Danta Son of Bhima and King of Vidarbha lists 108 names of Vishnu 17 98 102 20 These include the ten primary avatars see Dashavarara below and descriptions of the qualities attributes or aspects of God The Garuda Purana chapter XV 21 and the Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata both list over 1000 names for Vishnu each name describing a quality attribute or aspect of God Known as the Vishnu Sahasranama Vishnu here is defined as the omnipresent Other notable names in this list include Hari Lakshmikanta Jagannatha Janardana Govinda Hrishikesha Padmanabha MukundaIconography A statue of Vishnu Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue blue gray or black coloured skin and as a well dressed jewelled man He is typically shown with four arms but two armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks 22 23 The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell shankha named Panchajanya between the first two fingers of one hand left back a chakra war discus named Sudarshana in another right back The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil 22 One of his arms sometimes carries a gada club mace named Kaumodaki which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge 22 In the fourth arm he holds a lotus flower padma which symbolizes purity and transcendence 22 23 24 The items he holds in various hands varies giving rise to twenty four combinations of iconography each combination representing a special form of Vishnu Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the Agni Purana and Padma Purana These texts however are inconsistent 25 Rarely Vishnu is depicted bearing the bow Sharanga or the sword Nandaka He is depicted with the Kaustubha gem in a necklace and wearing Vaijayanti a garland of forest flowers The shrivatsa mark is depicted on his chest in the form of a curl of hair He generally wears yellow garments Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose seated in a yoga pose or reclining 23 A traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of him reclining on the coils of the serpent Shesha accompanied by his consort Lakshmi as he dreams the universe into reality 26 The TrimurtiMain article Trimurti The Trimurti at Ellora with Vishnu in the middle Particularly in Vaishnavism the Trimurti also known as the Hindu Triad or Great Trinity 27 28 represents the three fundamental forces guṇas through which the universe is created maintained and destroyed in cyclic succession Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity 29 30 Brahma presiding deity of Rajas passion creation Vishnu presiding deity of Sattva goodness preservation Shiva presiding deity of Tamas darkness destruction The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it 31 In Hindu tradition the trio is often referred to as Brahma Vishnu Mahesh All have the same meaning of three in One different forms or manifestations of One person the Supreme Being 32 AvatarsMain articles Avatar and Dashavatara Vishnu and his avatars Vaikuntha Chaturmurti Vishnu himself or Krishna in human form Narasimha as a lion Varaha as a boar Art of Mathura mid 5th century CE Boston Museum 33 The concept of the avatar or incarnation within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trimurti The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil thereby restoring Dharma and relieving the burden of the Earth An oft quoted passage from the Bhagavad Gita describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil and for the establishment of righteousness I come into being age after age Bhagavad Gita 4 7 8 Vedic literature in particular the Puranas ancient similar to encyclopedias and Itihasa chronicle history legend narrate numerous avatars of Vishnu The most well known of these avatars are Krishna most notably in the Vishnu Purana Bhagavata Purana and Mahabharata the latter encompassing the Bhagavad Gita and Rama most notably in the Ramayana Krishna in particular is venerated in Vaishnavism as the ultimate primeval transcendental source of all existence including all the other demigods and gods such as Vishnu The Mahabharata In the Mahabharata Vishnu as Narayana states to Narada that He will appear in the following ten incarnations Appearing in the forms of a swan Hamsa a tortoise Kurma a fish Matsya O foremost of regenerate ones I shall then display myself as a boar Varaha then as a Man lion Nrisingha then as a dwarf Vamana then as Rama of Bhrigu s race then as Rama the son of Dasaratha then as Krishna the scion of the Sattwata race and lastly as Kalki Book 12 Santi Parva Chapter CCCXL 340 translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli 1883 1896 34 The Puranas Specified avatars of Vishnu are listed against some of the Puranas in the table below However this is a complicated process and the lists are unlikely to be exhaustive because Not all Puranas provide lists per se e g the Agni Purana dedicates entire chapters to avatars and some of these chapters mention other avatars within them A list may be given in one place but additional avatars may be mentioned elsewhere e g the Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars in Canto 1 but mentions others elsewhere Manava Purana the only Upa Purana listed 42 avatars of Vishnu A personality in one Purana may be considered an avatar in another e g Narada is not specified as an avatar in the Matsya Purana but is in the Bhagavata Purana Some avatars consist of two or more people considered as different aspects of a single incarnation e g Nara Narayana Rama and his three brothers Purana Avatars Names Descriptions with chapters and verses Dashavatara lists are in boldAgni 35 12 a Matsya 2 Kurma 3 Dhanvantari 3 11 Mohini 3 12 Varaha 4 Narasimha 4 3 4 Vamana 4 5 11 Parasurama 4 12 20 Rama 5 11 one of the four forms of Vishnu including his brothers Bharata Laksmana and Satrughna Krishna 12 Buddha 16 Kalki 16 10 b Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Buddha and Kalki Chapter 49 Bhagavata 22 c 36 Kumaras Varaha Narada Nara Narayana Kapila Dattatreya Yajna Rsabha Prthu Matsya Kurma Dhanvantari Mohini Nrsimha Vamana Parashurama Vyasadeva Rama Balarama and Krishna Buddha and Kalki Canto 1 Chapter 3 20 d 37 Varaha Suyajna Hari Kapila Dattatreya Four Kumaras Nara Narayana Prthu Rsabha Hayagriva Matsya Kurma Nṛsiṁha Vamana Manu Dhanvantari Parashurama Rama Krishna Buddha and Kalki Canto 2 Chapter 7 Brahma 38 15 Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Hayagriva Buddha Rama Kalki Ananta Acyuta Jamadagnya Parashurama Varuna Indra and Yama Volume 4 52 68 73 Garuda 39 20 e Kumara Varaha Narada Nara Narayana Kapila Datta Dattatreya Yajna Urukrama Prthu Matsya Kurma Dhanavantari Mohini Narasimha Vamana Parasurama Vyasadeva Balarama Krishna and Kalki Volume 1 Chapter 1 10 e Matsya Kurma Varaha Nrsimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Krishna Buddha and Kalki Volume 1 Chapter 86 Verses 10 11 10 e 40 Matsya Kurma Varaha Nrsimha Rama Parasurama Krishna Balarama Buddha and Kalki Volume 3 Chapter 30 Verse 37 Linga 41 10 f Matsya Kurma Varaha Nrsimha Vamana Rama Parasurama Krishna Buddha and Kalki Part 2 Chapter 48 Verses 31 32 Matsya 42 10 g 3 celestial incarnations of Dharma Nrishimha and Vamana and 7 human incarnations of Dattatreya Mandhitri Parasurama Rama Vedavyasa Vyasa Buddha and Kalki Volume 1 Chapter XLVII 47 Narada 43 10 Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Trivikrama Vamana Parasurama Sri Rama Krisna Buddha Kalki Part 4 Chapter 119 Verses 14 19 and Kapila 44 Padma 45 46 10 Part 7 Yama 66 44 54 and Brahma 71 23 29 name Matsya Kurma and Varaha Narasimha and Vamana Parasu rama Rama Krsna Buddha and Kalki Part 9 this list is repeated by Shiva 229 40 44 Kapila 44 Shiva 47 10 Matsya Kurma Varaha Nrsimha Vamana Rama trio Rama Parasurama Balarama Krishna Kalki Part 4 Vayaviya Samhita Chapter 30 Verses 56 58 and Chapter 31 verses 134 136 Skanda 14 48 Varaha Matsya Kurma Nrsimha Vamana Kapila Datta Rsabha Bhargava Rama Parashurama Dasarathi Rama Krsna Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa Buddha and Kalki Part 7 Vasudeva Mamatmya Chapter 18 10 49 Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Trivikrama Vamana Parasurama Sri Rama Krisna Buddha and Kalki Part 15 Reva Khanda Chapter 151 Verses 1 7 Manava 42 Adi Purusha Kumaras Narada Kapila Yajna Dattatreya Nara Narayana Vibhu Satyasena Hari Vaikunta Ajita Shaligram Sarvabhauma Vrishbha Visvaksena Sudhama not krishna s friend Sudama Dharmasetu Yogeshwara Brihadbhanu Hamsa Hayagriva Vyasa Prithu Vrishbha deva Matsya Kurma Varaha Vamana Parashurama Rama Balrama Krishna Buddha Venkateswara Dnyaneshwar Chaitanya KalkiVaraha 50 51 10 Matsya Kurma Varaha Nrsimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Krishna Buddha and Kalki Chapter 4 Verses 2 3 Chapter 48 Verses 17 22 and Chapter 211 Verse 69 Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit Volume 3 Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations Samba Pradyumna and Aniruddha have not been counted a list of the Dashavatara is provided in chapter 49 Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit Volume 3 Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations Samba Pradyumna and Aniruddha have not been counted a list of the Dashavatara is provided in chapter 49 Others such as Hamsa Ajita Samba Pradyumna and Aniruddha are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted For a complete list see Bhagavata Purana Others such as Hamsa Ajita Samba Pradyumna and Aniruddha are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted For a complete list see Bhagavata Purana a b c Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras one unit than as the translator believes Karttikeya one of Shiva s sons and the Hindu god of war These avatars are stated to incarnate for the good of the world in every cycle of yugas It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of Bhrgu Narada Samba Pradyumna and Aniruddha etc have not been countedDashavatara Hindu god Vishnu centre surrounded by his avatars namely counter clockwise from left top Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parashurama Rama Krishna Buddha and Kalki Raja Ravi Varma oleograph Main article Dashavatara The Dashavatara is a list of the so called Vibhavas or 10 primary Avatars of Vishnu The Agni Purana Varaha Purana Padma Purana Linga Purana Narada Purana Garuda Purana and Skanda Purana all provide matching lists The same Vibhavas are also found in the Garuda Purana Saroddhara a commentary or extracted essence written by Navanidhirama about the Garuda Purana i e not the Purana itself with which it seems to be confused The Fish the Tortoise the Boar the Man Lion the Dwarf Parasurama Rama Krisna Buddha and also Kalki These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise Those who recite them near the diseased are called relatives Navanidhirama Garuda Purana Saroddhara Chapter VIII Verses 10 11 translated by E Wood and S V Subrahmanyam 52 53 Apparent disagreements concerning the placement of either the Buddha or Balarama in the Dashavarara seems to occur from the Dashavarara list in the Shiva Purana the only other list with ten avatars including Balarama in the Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana not Buddha Regardless both versions of the Dashavarara have a scriptural basis in the canon of authentic Vedic literature but not from the Garuda Purana Saroddhara Perumal Main article Perumal deity Venkatesvara one of the forms of Perumal Vishnu Perumal Tamil ப ர ம ள also known as Thirumal Tamil த ர ம ல or Mayon as described in the Tamil scriptures was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism He is a popular Hindu deity among Tamilians in Tamil Nadu as well among the Tamil diaspora 54 55 Revered by the Sri Vaishnava denomination of Hinduism Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as Venkateshwara at Tirupati 56 and Sri Ranganathaswamy at Srirangam 57 LiteratureVishnu icons across cultures 180 BCE Indo Greek coin of Agathocles Vishnu Nicolo Seal 4th 6th century CE Gandhara 13th century Cambodian Vishnu India Myanmar IndonesiaThe iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history Vedas Vishnu is a Rigvedic deity but not a prominent one when compared to Indra Agni and others 58 Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda are dedicated to Vishnu although he is mentioned in other hymns 18 Vishnu is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in the Vedas thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian scriptures states Jan Gonda Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank one equivalent to the Supreme Being 58 59 Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda such as 1 154 5 1 56 3 and 10 15 3 58 In these hymns the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed Atman Self reside an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu soteriology 58 60 He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth 18 तदस य प र यमभ प थ अश य नर यत र द वयव मदन त उर क रमस य स ह बन ध र त थ व ष ण पद परम मध व उत स ५ ऋग व द १ १५४ ५ 5 Might I reach that dear cattle pen of his where men seeking the gods find elation for exactly that is the bond to the wide striding one the wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu RV 1 154 5 61 translated by Stephanie Jamison 2020 62 आह प त न स व दत र अव त स नप त च व क रमण च व ष ण बर ह षद य स वधय स तस य भजन त प त वस त इह गम ष ठ ३ ऋग व द १० १५ ३ 3 I have found here the forefathers good to find and the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu Those who sitting on the ritual grass share in the pressed soma and the food at the cry of svadha they are the most welcome arrivals here RV 10 15 13 61 translated by Stephanie Jamison 2020 62 In the Vedic hymns Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities especially Indra whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named Vritra 18 63 His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu In section 7 99 of the Rigveda Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth a characteristic he shares with Indra In the Vedic texts the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr Sun god who also bears the name Suryanarayana Again this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni wherein different hymns they too bring men together and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities 64 In hymn 7 99 of Rigveda Indra Vishnu is equivalent and produce the sun with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all 64 In other hymns of the Rigveda Vishnu is a close friend of Indra 65 Elsewhere in Rigveda Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts Vishnu is equivalent to Prajapati both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb and according to Klaus Klostermaier this may be the root behind the post Vedic fusion of all the attributes of the Vedic Prajapati unto the avatars of Vishnu 18 In the Yajurveda Taittiriya Aranyaka 10 13 1 Narayana sukta Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being The first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all Selfs This is also known as Param Dhama Paramapadam or Vaikuntha Rigveda 1 22 20 also mentions the same paramam padam 66 In the Atharvaveda the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names In post Vedic mythology this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu 63 Trivikrama The Three Steps of Vishnu The Three Strides of Vishnu The depiction of the three strides of Vishnu is common in Hindu art wherein his leg is shown raised like a gymnast symbolizing a huge step Left Trivikrama in the Art of Mathura Gupta period Center at a temple in Bhaktapur Nepal Right at 6th century Badami cave temples India Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama which is one of the lasting mythologies in Hinduism since the Vedic times 67 It is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu 68 69 Trivikrama refers to the celebrated three steps or three strides of Vishnu Starting as a small insignificant looking being Vishnu undertakes a herculean task of establishing his reach and form then with his first step covers the earth with second the ether and the third entire heaven 67 70 व ष ण र न क व र य ण प र व च य प र थ व न व मम रज स य अस कभ यद त तर सधस थ व चक रम णस त र ध र ग य १ viṣṇōrnu kaṃ viryaṇi pra vōcaṃ yaḥ parthivani vimame rajaṃsi yō askabhayaduttaraṃ sadhasthaṃ vicakramaṇastredhōrugayaḥ 1 I will now proclaim the heroic deeds of Visnu who has measured out the terrestrial regions who established the upper abode having wide paced strode out triply Rigveda 1 154 1 Translated by Jan Gonda 71 The Vishnu Sukta 1 154 of Rigveda says that the first and second of Vishnu s strides those encompassing the earth and air are visible to the mortals and the third is the realm of the immortals The Trivikrama describing hymns integrate salvific themes stating Vishnu to symbolize that which is freedom and life 67 The Shatapatha Brahmana elaborates this theme of Vishnu as his herculean effort and sacrifice to create and gain powers that help others one who realizes and defeats the evil symbolized by the Asuras after they had usurped the three worlds and thus Vishnu is the saviour of the mortals and the immortals Devas 67 Brahmanas To what is One Seven germs unripened yet are heaven s prolific seed their functions they maintain by Vishnu s ordinance Endued with wisdom through intelligence and thought they compass us about present on every side What thing I truly am I know not clearly mysterious fettered in my mind I wonder When the first born of holy Law approached me then of this speech I first obtain a portion They call him Indra Mitra Varuna Agni and he is heavenly winged Garutman To what is One sages give many a title Rigveda 1 164 36 37 46 72 73 The Shatapatha Brahmana contains ideas which Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism has long mapped to a pantheistic vision of Vishnu as supreme he as the essence in every being and everything in the empirically perceived universe In this Brahmana states Klaus Klostermaier Purusha Narayana Vishnu asserts all the worlds have I placed within mine own self and my own self has I placed within all the worlds 74 The text equates Vishnu to all knowledge there is Vedas calling the essence of everything as imperishable all Vedas and principles of universe as imperishable and that this imperishable which is Vishnu is the all 74 Vishnu is described to be permeating all object and life forms states S Giora Shoham where he is ever present within all things as the intrinsic principle of all and the eternal transcendental self in every being 75 The Vedic literature including its Brahmanas layer while praising Vishnu do not subjugate others gods and goddesses They present an inclusive pluralistic henotheism According to Max Muller Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small the young and the old Rig Veda 1 27 13 this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others It would be easy to find in the numerous hymns of the Veda passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute 76 Upanishads The Vaishnava Upanishads are minor Upanishads of Hinduism related to Vishnu theology There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads 77 It is unclear when these texts were composed and estimates vary from the 1st century BCE to 17th century CE for the texts 78 79 These Upanishads highlight Vishnu Narayana Rama or one of his avatars as the supreme metaphysical reality called Brahman in Hinduism 80 81 They discuss a diverse range of topics from ethics to the methods of worship 82 Puranas The Bhagavata Purana is centred around Krishna a Vishnu avatar Vishnu is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism focused Puranas genre of Hindu texts Of these according to Ludo Rocher the most important texts are the Bhagavata Purana Vishnu Purana Naradeya Purana Garuda Purana and Vayu Purana 83 The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies mythologies encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples related tourist guides called mahatmyas 84 One version of the cosmology for example states that Vishnu s eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos 85 In another version found in section 4 80 of the Vayu Purana he is the Hiranyagarbha or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe 86 Vishnu Purana The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari Janardana Madhava Achyuta Hrishikesha and others 87 The Vishnu Purana also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called Brahman in the context of the Upanishads a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja interprets to be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu a foundational theology in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition 88 Bhagavata Purana Vishnu is equated with Brahman in the Bhagavata Purana such as in verse 1 2 11 as learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non dual substance as Brahman Paramatma and Bhagavan 89 The Bhagavata Purana has been the most popular and widely read Purana texts relating to Vishnu avatar Krishna it has been translated and available in almost all Indian languages 90 Like other Puranas it discusses a wide range of topics including cosmology genealogy geography mythology legend music dance yoga and culture 91 92 As it begins the forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent devas deities and evil asuras demons and now rule the universe Truth re emerges as the Vishnu avatar first makes peace with the demons understands them and then creatively defeats them bringing back hope justice freedom and good a cyclic theme that appears in many legends 93 The Bhagavata Purana is a revered text in Vaishnavism 94 The Puranic legends of Vishnu have inspired plays and dramatic arts that are acted out over festivals particularly through performance arts such as the Sattriya Manipuri dance Odissi Kuchipudi Kathakali Kathak Bharatanatyam Bhagavata Mela and Mohiniyattam 95 96 97 Other Puranas Some versions of the Purana texts unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts emphasize Vishnu as supreme and on whom other gods depend Vishnu for example is the source of creator deity Brahma in the Vaishnavism focussed Purana texts Vishnu s iconography typically shows Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel who then is described as creating all the forms in the universe but not the primordial universe itself 98 In contrast the Shiva focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara that is half Shiva and half Parvati or alternatively Brahma was born from Rudra or Vishnu Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons kalpa 99 In some Vaishnava Puranas Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the world thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again starting a new Kalpa 100 For this the Bhagavata Purana employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and the universe as his web Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories such as one where the universe and time are absorbed into Shiva 100 101 Agama The Agama scripture called the Pancharatra describes a mode of worship of Vishnu Sangam and Post Sangam literature Main article Thirumal The Sangam literature refers to an extensive regional collection in the Tamil language mostly from the early centuries of the common era These Tamil texts revere Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna and Rama as well as other pan Indian deities such as Shiva Muruga Durga Indra and others 102 Vishnu is described in these texts as mayon or one who is dark or black in color in north India the equivalent word is Krishna 102 Other terms found for Vishnu in these ancient Tamil genre of literature include mayavan mamiyon netiyon mal and mayan 103 Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post Sangam Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai each of which was probably composed about the 5th century CE 104 105 These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India such as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes 104 106 Bhakti Movement Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the Bhakti movement theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century The Alvars which literally means those immersed in God were Tamil Vaishnava poet saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another 107 They established temple sites such as Srirangam and spread ideas about Vaishnavism Their poems compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas The Bhagavata Purana s references to the South Indian Alvar saints along with its emphasis on bhakti have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India 108 109 Vaishnava theologyMain articles Vaishnavism and Pancaratra The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology wherein it frequently discusses the merging of the individual Self with the Absolute Brahman Ultimate Reality Supreme Truth or the return of Brahman into His own true nature a distinctly Advaitic or non dualistic philosophy of Shankara 91 110 111 The concept of moksha is explained as Ekatva Oneness and Sayujya Absorption intimate union wherein one is completely lost in Brahman Self Supreme Being one s true nature 112 This states Rukmini 1993 is proclamation of return of the individual Self to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute which is unmistakably Advaitic in its trend 112 In the same passages the Bhagavata includes a mention of Bhagavan as the object of concentration thereby presenting the Bhakti path from the three major paths of Hindu spirituality discussed in the Bhagavad Gita 112 113 The theology in the Bhagavad Gita discusses both the sentient and the non sentient the Self and the matter of existence It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu Krishna state Harold Coward and Daniel Maguire Vishnu in Gita s theology pervades all Selfs all matter and time 114 In Sri Vaishnavism sub tradition Vishnu and Sri goddess Lakshmi are described as inseparable that they pervade everything together Both together are the creators who also pervade and transcend their creation 114 The Bhagavata Purana in many passages parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non duality of Adi Shankara 111 For example The aim of life is an inquiry into the Truth and not the desire for enjoyment in heaven by performing religious rites Those who possess the knowledge of the Truth call the knowledge of non duality as the Truth It is called Brahman the Highest Self and Bhagavan Suta Bhagavata Purana 1 2 10 11 translated by Daniel Sheridan 115 Scholars describe the Vaishnava theology as built on the foundation of non dualism speculations in Upanishads and term it as Advaitic Theism 111 116 The Bhagavata Purana suggests that Vishnu and the Self Atman in all beings is one 110 Bryant states that the monism discussed in Bhagavata Purana is certainly built on the Vedanta foundations but not exactly the same as the monism of Adi Shankara 117 The Bhagavata asserts according to Bryant that the empirical and the spiritual universe are both metaphysical realities and manifestations of the same Oneness just like heat and light are real but different manifestations of sunlight 117 In the Bhakti tradition of Vaishnavism Vishnu is attributed with numerous qualities such as omniscience energy strength lordship vigour and splendour 118 The Vaishnava tradition started by Madhvacharya considers Vishnu in the form of Krishna to be the supreme creator personal God all pervading all devouring one whose knowledge and grace leads to moksha 119 In Madhvacharya Vaishnava theology the supreme Vishnu and the Selfs of living beings are two different realities and nature dualism while in Ramanuja s Sri Vaishnavism they are different but share the same essential nature qualified non dualism 120 121 122 Associated deitiesLakshmi Main article Lakshmi Vishnu with Lakshmi Lakshmi Narayan on Garuda Lakshmi the Hindu goddess of wealth fortune and prosperity both material and spiritual is the wife and active energy of Vishnu 123 124 She is also called Sri 125 126 When Vishnu incarnated on earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts Sita and Radha or Rukmini 127 128 Various regional beliefs consider Lakshmi to be manifested as various goddesses who are considered Vishnu s wives In South India Lakshmi is worshipped in two forms Sridevi and Bhudevi 129 In Tirupati Venkateshwara identified as a form of Vishnu is depicted with consorts Lakshmi and Padmavathi 130 Garuda Main article Garuda Among Vishnu s primary mounts vahana is Garuda the demigod eagle Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Vishnu travels Garuda is a sacred bird in Vaishnavism In the Garuda Purana Garuda carries Vishnu to save the elephant Gajendra 131 132 Shesha Main article Shesha Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta Shesha the World Snake He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things Sculpture From India c 14th century CE National Museum of Scotland Edinburgh One of the primordial beings of creation Shesha or Adishesha is the king of the serpents in Hindu mythology 133 Residing in Vaikuntha Vishnu sleeps upon Adishesha in a perpetual slumber in his form of Narayana 134 Vishvaksena Main article Vishvaksena Vishvaksena also known as Senadhipathi both meaning army chief is the commander in chief of the army of Vishnu Harihara Main article Harihara Harihara Combined form of Vishnu and Shiva Hindu gods praying to god Vishnu Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva mentioned in literature such as the Vamana Purana chapter 36 135 and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th century Badami cave temples 136 137 Another half Vishnu half Shiva form which is also called Harirudra is mentioned in Mahabharata 138 Beyond HinduismSikhism Vishnu is referred to as Gorakh in the scriptures of Sikhism 139 For example in verse 5 of Japji Sahib the Guru teacher is praised as who gives the word and shows the wisdom and through whom the awareness of immanence is gained Guru Nanak according to Shackle and Mandair 2013 teaches that the Guru are Shiva isar Vishnu gorakh Brahma barma and mother Parvati parbati yet the one who is all and true cannot be described 140 The Chaubis Avtar lists the 24 avatars of Vishnu including Krishna Rama and Buddha Similarly the Dasam Granth includes Vishnu mythology that mirrors that found in the Vaishnav tradition 141 The latter is of particular importance to Sanatan Sikhs including Udasis Nirmalas Nanakpanthis Sahajdhari and Keshdhari Khalsa sects of Sikhism however the Khalsa Sikhs disagree with the Sanatan Sikhs 141 142 According to Sanatan Sikh writers the Gurus of Sikhism were avatars of Vishnu because the Gurus brought light in the age of darkness and saved people in a time of evil Mughal era persecution 143 144 145 Buddhism Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara Matara Sri Lanka While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism 146 Vishnu is also known as Upulvan or Upalavarṇa meaning Blue Lotus coloured Some postulate that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Utpalavarṇa was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic Hinduism According to the chronicles of Mahavaṃsa Cuḷavaṃsa and folklore in Sri Lanka Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra Indra who delegated this task of custodianship to Vishnu 147 Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka In addition to specific Vishnu Kovils or Devalayas all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms Devalayas closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu 148 John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture such as the 14th and 15th century Lankatilaka and Gadaladeniya Buddhist temples 149 He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition encouraged Visnu worship puja as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu but contemporary Theravada monks are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples 150 According to Holt the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own Though the Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital Polonnaruwa Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast Asia now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition In Thailand for example statues of four armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th century and this mirror those found in ancient India 151 Similarly Vishnu statues have been discovered from the 6th to 8th century eastern Prachinburi Province and central Phetchabun Province of Thailand and southern Đồng Thap Province and An Giang Province of Vietnam 152 Krishna statues dated to the early 7th century to 9th century have been discovered in Takeo Province and other provinces of Cambodia 153 Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia and these have been dated to the 5th century and thereafter 154 In addition to statues inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu such as those related to the three steps of Vishnu Trivikrama have been found in many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia 155 In some iconography the symbolism of Surya Vishnu and Buddha are fused 156 In Japanese Buddhist pantheon Vishnu is known as Bichu ten 毘紐天 and he appears in Japanese texts such as the 13th century compositions of Nichiren 157 In science 4034 Vishnu is an asteroid discovered by Eleanor F Helin 158 Vishnu rocks are a type of volcanic sediment found in the Grand Canyon Arizona USA Consequently mass formations are known as Vishnu s temples 159 Outside Indian subcontinentIndonesia Statue of Vishnu riding Garuda in Garuda Wisnu Kencana Bali Indonesia In Indonesia Vishnu or Wisnu Indonesian spelling is a well known figure in the world of wayang Indonesian Puppetry Wisnu is often referred to as the title Sanghyang Batara Wisnu Wisnu is the god of justice or welfare wisnu was the fifth son of Batara Guru and Batari Uma He is the most powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru Wisnu is described as a god who has bluish black or dark blue skin has four arms each of which holds a weapon namely a mace a lotus a trumpet and a Cakra He can also do tiwikrama become an infinitely large giant According to Javanese mythology Wisnu first came down to the world and became a king with the title Srimaharaja Suman The country is called Medangpura located in the present day Central Java region Then changed its name to Sri Maharaja Matsyapati In addition according to the Javanese wayang puppet version Batara Wisnu also incarnates Srimaharaja Kanwa Resi Wisnungkara Prabu Arjunasasrabahu Sri Ramawijaya Sri Batara Kresna Prabu Airlangga Prabu Jayabaya Prabu Anglingdarma In Javanese mythology Wisnu also incarnated as a matswa fish to kill the giant Hargragiwa who stole the Veda Become Narasingha human with a tiger head to destroy King Hiranyakashipu He once intended to become a Wimana dwarf to defeat Ditya Bali Batara Wisnu also incarnated in Ramaparasu to destroy gandarwa Menitis in Arjunasasra Arjunawijaya to defeat King Rahwana The last one was for King Krishna to become the great Pandavas parampara or advisor to get rid of greed and evil committed by the Kauravas Sang Hyang Wisnu has a mount in the form of a giant garuda named Bhirawan Because of his affection for the garuda he rode Bhirawan was then adopted as son in law married to one of his daughters named Dewi Kastapi 160 Temples The Angkor Wat Temple was built as a dedication to Vishnu 161 The front view of Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram Kerala Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been dated to the Gupta Empire period The Sarvatobhadra temple in Jhansi Uttar Pradesh for example is dated to the early 6th century and features the ten avatars of Vishnu 162 163 Its design based on a square layout and Vishnu iconography broadly follows the 1st millennium Hindu texts on architecture and construction such as the Brihat Samhita and Visnudharmottarapurana 164 Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in existence by the 1st century BCE 165 The most significant Vishnu related epigraphy and archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in Rajasthan which refer to temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple another inscription in Naneghat cave in Maharashtra by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in Mathura relating to Vishnu all dated to about the start of the common era 165 166 167 The Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram Kerala is dedicated to Vishnu The temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history 168 169 170 171 List of temples 108 Divya Desams Venkateswara Temple Padmanabhaswamy Temple Ranganathaswamy Temple Srirangam Jagannath Temple Puri Badrinath Temple Swaminarayan temples Angkor Wat Cambodia Birla Mandir Dashavatara Temple Deogarh Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple Kallalagar temple Madurai Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu located in Srirangam Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu India The temple occupies an area of 156 acres 630 000 m2 with a perimeter of 4 116 m 13 504 ft making it the largest temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world 172 Gallery 5th century Vishnu at Udayagiri Caves 11th century Vishnu sculpture the goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati The edges show reliefs of Vishnu avatars Varaha Narasimha Balarama Rama and others Also shown is Brahma Brooklyn Museum 173 14th century Vishnu Thailand A statue in Bangkok depicting Vishnu on his vahana Garuda the eagle One of the oldest discovered Hindu style statues of Vishnu in Thailand is from Wat Sala Tung in Surat Thani Province and has been dated to 400 CE 151 16th century Vishnu bronze metal sculpture from Dibrugarh AssamReferences https www google co in books edition Indian Civilization and Culture KItocaxbibUC 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Macdonell 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass 1996 Reprint pp 167 169 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 Arthur Anthony Macdonell 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass 1996 Reprint pp 9 11 167 169 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 a b ऋग व द स क त १ १५४ व क स र त sa wikisource org Retrieved 17 June 2020 a b Jamison Stephanie 2020 The Rigveda Oxford University Press ISBN 0190633395 a b Arthur Anthony Macdonell 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass 1996 Reprint pp 18 19 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 a b Arthur Anthony Macdonell 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass 1996 Reprint pp 29 32 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 Nilakanta Sastri K A 1980 Advanced History of India Allied Publishers New Delhi Renate Sohnen Thieme Renate Sohnen Peter Schreiner 1989 Brahmapuraṇa Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 106 ISBN 9783447029605 a b c d Klaus K Klostermaier 2000 Hinduism A Short History Oneworld pp 84 85 ISBN 978 1 85168 213 3 Alice Boner 1990 Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture Cave Temple Period Motilal Banarsidass pp 96 99 ISBN 978 81 208 0705 1 Bettina Baumer Kapila Vatsyayan 1988 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidas p 251 ISBN 978 81 208 1044 0 J Hackin 1994 Asiatic Mythology A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia Asian Educational Services pp 130 132 ISBN 978 81 206 0920 4 Jan Gonda 1970 Viṣṇuism and Sivaism a comparison Bloomsbury Academic pp 71 72 ISBN 978 1474280808 Klaus K Klostermaier 2010 A Survey of Hinduism Third Edition State University of New York Press pp 103 with footnote 10 on page 529 ISBN 978 0 7914 8011 3 See also Griffith s Rigveda translation Wikisource a b Klaus K Klostermaier 2000 Hinduism A Short History Oneworld pp 85 87 ISBN 978 1 85168 213 3 S Giora Shoham 2010 To Test the Limits of Our Endurance Cambridge Scholars p 116 ISBN 978 1 4438 2068 4 Muller Max History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature London Spottiswoode and Co p 533 Deussen 1997 p 556 Mahony 1998 p 290 Lamb 2002 p 191 William K Mahony 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press p 271 ISBN 978 0 7914 3579 3 Moriz Winternitz V Srinivasa Sarma 1996 A History of Indian Literature Motilal Banarsidass pp 217 224 with footnotes ISBN 978 81 208 0264 3 Sen 1937 p 26 Rocher 1986 pp 59 61 Glucklich 2008 p 146 Quote The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas White David Gordon 15 July 2010 Sinister Yogis p 273 with footnote 47 ISBN 978 0 226 89515 4 J M Masson 2012 The Oceanic Feeling The Origins of Religious Sentiment in Ancient India Springer Science pp 63 with footnote 4 ISBN 978 94 009 8969 6 Rocher 1986 pp 246 247 Sucharita Adluri 2015 Textual Authority in Classical Indian Thought Ramanuja and the Visnu Purana Routledge ISBN 978 0415695756 pages 1 11 18 26 Bhagavata Purana 1 2 11 Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Archived from the original on 23 May 2006 vadanti tat tattva vidas tattvam yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti bhagavan iti sabdyate Bryant 2007 p 112 a b Kumar Das 2006 pp 172 173 Rocher 1986 pp 138 151 Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey 2013 The Bhagavata Purana Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231149990 pages 3 19 Constance Jones and James Ryan 2007 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase ISBN 978 0816054589 page 474 Bryant 2007 p 118 Varadpande 1987 pp 92 97 Graham Schweig 2007 Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions Editor Yudit Kornberg Greenberg Volume 1 ISBN 978 1851099801 pages 247 249 Bryant 2007 p 18 Stella Kramrisch 1994 The Presence of Siva Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691019307 pages 205 206 a b Wendy Doniger 1988 Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism University of Chicago Press pp 71 73 ISBN 978 0 226 61847 0 Stella Kramrisch 1993 The Presence of Siva Princeton University Press pp 274 276 ISBN 978 0 691 01930 7 a b T Padmaja 2002 Temples of Kr ṣṇa in South India History Art and Traditions in Tamilnaḍu Abhinav Publications p 27 ISBN 978 81 7017 398 4 T Padmaja 2002 Temples of Kr ṣṇa in South India History Art and Traditions in Tamilnaḍu Abhinav Publications p 28 ISBN 978 81 7017 398 4 a b T Padmaja 2002 Temples of Kr ṣṇa in South India History Art and Traditions in Tamilnaḍu Abhinav Publications pp 30 31 ISBN 978 81 7017 398 4 John Stratton Hawley Donna Marie Wulff 1982 The Divine Consort Radha and the Goddesses of India Motilal Banarsidass pp 238 244 ISBN 978 0 89581 102 8 Guy L Beck 2012 Alternative Krishnas Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity State University of New York Press pp 68 69 ISBN 978 0 7914 8341 1 Olson Carl 2007 The many colors of Hinduism a thematic historical introduction Rutgers University Press p 231 ISBN 978 0 8135 4068 9 Sheridan 1986 p page needed J A B van Buitenen 1996 The Archaism of the Bhagavata Puraṇa In S S Shashi ed Encyclopedia Indica pp 28 45 ISBN 978 81 7041 859 7 a b Brown 1983 pp 553 557 a b c Sheridan 1986 pp 1 2 17 25 a b c Rukmani 1993 pp 217 218 Murray Milner Jr 1994 Status and Sacredness A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture Oxford University Press pp 191 203 ISBN 978 0 19 535912 1 a b Harold Coward Daniel C Maguire 2000 Visions of a New Earth Religious Perspectives on Population Consumption and Ecology State University of New York Press p 113 ISBN 978 0 7914 4458 0 Sheridan 1986 p 23 with footnote 17 Sanskrit क मस य न न द र यप र त र ल भ ज व त य वत ज वस य तत त वज ज ञ स न र थ यश च ह कर मभ वदन त तत तत त वव दस तत त व यज ज ञ नमद वयम ब रह म त परम त म त भगव न त शब द यत Source Bhagavata Purana Archive Brown 1998 p 17 a b Edwin Bryant 2004 Krishna The Beautiful Legend of God Srimad Bhagavata Purana Book X Penguin ISBN 978 0140447996 pages 43 48 Tapasyananda 1991 Bhakti Schools of Vedanta Madras Sri Ramakrishna Math ISBN 978 81 7120 226 3 Deepak Sarma 2007 Edwin F Bryant ed Krishna A Sourcebook Oxford University Press pp 358 360 ISBN 978 0 19 972431 4 Sharma Chandradhar 1994 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass p 373 ISBN 978 81 208 0365 7 Stoker Valerie 2011 Madhva 1238 1317 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 17 April 2016 Stafford Betty 2010 Dvaita Advaita and Visiṣṭadvaita Contrasting Views of Mokṣa Asian Philosophy An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East Volume 20 Issue 2 pages 215 224 Anand Rao 2004 Soteriologies of India LIT Verlag Munster p 167 ISBN 978 3 8258 7205 2 A Parasarthy 1983 Symbolism in Hinduism Chinmaya Mission Publication ISBN 978 8175971493 pages 91 92 160 162 Monier Williams Monier 1899 lakṣmi A Sanskrit English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo European Languages Oxford Clarendon Press OCLC 685239912 John Muir Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India Their Religions and Institutions at Google Books Volume 5 pp 348 362 with footnotes Monaghan Patricia 31 December 2010 Goddesses in World Culture ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 35465 6 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Elements of Hindu iconography Vol 2 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120808775 pages 334 335 For Harirudra citation to Mahabharata 3 39 76f see Hopkins 1969 p 221 Nikky Guninder Kaur Singh 2011 Sikhism An Introduction I B Tauris p 65 ISBN 978 1 84885 321 8 Christopher Shackle Arvind Mandair 2013 Teachings of the Sikh Gurus Selections from the Sikh Scriptures Routledge pp 5 6 ISBN 978 1 136 45101 0 a b Harjot Oberoi 1994 The Construction of Religious Boundaries Culture Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition University of Chicago Press pp 97 98 ISBN 978 0 226 61593 6 Sanatan Singh Sabha Overview of World Religions Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria Harjot Oberoi 1994 The Construction of Religious Boundaries Culture Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition University of Chicago Press pp 102 105 ISBN 978 0 226 61593 6 Arvind Pal Singh Mandair 2013 Sikhism A Guide for the Perplexed Bloomsburg Academic p 83 ISBN 978 1 4411 0231 7 Louis E Fenech W H McLeod 2014 Historical Dictionary of Sikhism Rowman amp Littlefield pp 48 238 ISBN 978 1 4422 3601 1 Swarna Wickremeratne 2012 Buddha in Sri Lanka Remembered Yesterdays State University of New York Press p 111 ISBN 978 0791468814 Wilhelm Geiger Mahawamsa English Translation 1908 Swarna Wickremeratne 2012 Buddha in Sri Lanka Remembered Yesterdays State University of New York Press p 226 ISBN 978 0791468814 John C Holt 2004 The Buddhist Vishnu Religious transformation politics and culture Columbia University Press p 51 ISBN 978 0231133234 John C Holt 2004 The Buddhist Vishnu Religious transformation politics and culture Columbia University Press pp 5 7 13 27 ISBN 978 0231133234 a b Michel Jacq Hergoualc h Victoria Hobson Translator 2002 The Malay Peninsula Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road 100 BC 1300 AD BRILL Academic p xxiii 116 128 ISBN 978 90 04 11973 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a author2 has generic name help Guy 2014 pp 131 135 145 Guy 2014 pp 146 148 154 155 Guy 2014 pp 7 9 Guy 2014 pp 11 12 118 129 Guy 2014 pp 221 225 Nichiren 1987 The Major Writings of Nichiren Daishonin Nichiren Shoshu International Center p 1107 ISBN 978 4 88872 012 0 Alternate site Archive Vishnu amp 4034 Vishnu Asteroid Pasadena CA Extraterrestrial Locations on Waymarking com www waymarking com Young Matt 27 August 2012 Vishnu Temple at the Grand Canyon The Panda s Thumb Layang kandha kelir Jawa Timuran seri Mahabharata Surwedi 2007 ISBN 9789791596923 Retrieved 20 February 2021 Tia Ghose 31 October 2012 Mystery of Angkor Wat Temple s Huge Stones Solved livescience com Alexander Lubotsky 1996 The Iconography of the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa Ars Orientalis Vol 26 1996 page 65 Bryant 2007 p 7 Alexander Lubotsky 1996 The Iconography of the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa Ars Orientalis Vol 26 1996 pages 66 80 a b Bryant 2007 p 18 with footnote 19 Doris Srinivasan 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes Origin Meaning and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art BRILL Academic pp 211 220 240 259 ISBN 978 90 04 10758 8 a Doris Srinivasan 1989 Mathura The Cultural Heritage Manohar pp 389 392 ISBN 978 81 85054 37 7 b Doris Srinivasan 1981 Early Krishan Icons the case at Mathura In Joanna Gottfried Williams ed Kaladarsana American Studies in the Art of India BRILL Academic pp 127 136 ISBN 978 90 04 06498 0 Keralas Sree Padmanabha Swamy temple may reveal more riches India Today 7 July 2011 Retrieved 8 October 2016 Pomfret James 19 August 2011 Kerala temple treasure brings riches challenges Reuters India Retrieved 8 October 2016 Blitzer Jonathan 23 April 2012 The Secret of the Temple The New Yorker Retrieved 8 October 2016 A One Trillion Dollar Hidden Treasure Chamber is Discovered at India s Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple Forbes com Mittal amp Thursby 2005 p 456 Stele with Vishnu His Consorts His Avatars and Other Dieties Brooklyn Museum Item 1991 244 Gift of David Nalin Works cited Brown C Mackenzie 1983 The Origin and Transmission of the Two Bhagavata Puraṇas A Canonical and Theological Dilemma Journal of the American Academy of Religion Oxford University Press 51 4 551 567 doi 10 1093 jaarel li 4 551 JSTOR 1462581 Brown Cheever Mackenzie 1998 The Devi Gita the song of the Goddess a translation annotation and commentary SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3940 1 Bryant Edwin F ed 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 514891 6 Via Google Books Cutler Norman 1987 Songs of Experience Indiana University Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 253 35334 4 Deussen Paul 1997 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1467 7 Glucklich Ariel 2008 The Strides of Vishnu Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 971825 2 Soifer Deborah A 1991 The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective SUNY Press ISBN 9780791407998 Guy John 2014 Lost Kingdoms Hindu Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 1 58839 524 5 Kumar Das Sisir 2006 A history of Indian literature 500 1399 Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 2171 0 Lamb Ramdas 2002 Rapt in the Name The Ramnamis Ramnam and Untouchable Religion in Central India SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 5386 5 Mahony William K 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3579 3 Translation by Richard W Lariviere 1989 The Naradasmr ti University of Philadelphia Olivelle Patrick 2007 The Date and Provenance of the Viṣṇu Smṛti PDF Indologica Taurinensia 33 49 163 Archived from the original PDF on 22 July 2011 Retrieved 23 October 2015 Rocher Ludo 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 Devdutt Pattanaik 2011 7 Secrets of Vishnu westland ltd ISBN 978 93 80658 68 1 Danielou Alain 1991 1964 The myths and gods of India the classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen series Rochester Vt Inner Traditions International pp 164 187 ISBN 0 89281 354 7 Coleman T 2011 Avatara Oxford Bibliographies Online Hinduism doi 10 1093 obo 9780195399318 0009 Short introduction and bibliography of sources about Avatara Subscription or UK public library membership required a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a External link in code class cs1 code postscript code help CS1 maint postscript link Matchett Freda 2001 Krishna Lord or Avatara the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu Routledge ISBN 978 0700712816 Paul Hacker 1978 Lambert Schmithausen ed Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre in German Otto Harrassowitz ISBN 978 3447048606 Mittal Sushil Thursby G R 2005 The Hindu World New York Routelge ISBN 978 0 203 67414 7 Sen S C 1937 The Mystical Philosophy Of The Upanishads Cosmo Publications ISBN 978 81 307 0660 3 Rukmani T S 1993 Siddhis in the Bhagavata Puraṇa and in the Yogasutras of Patanjali a Comparison In Wayman Alex ed Researches in Indian and Buddhist philosophy essays in honour of Professor Alex Wayman Motilal Banarsidass pp 217 226 ISBN 978 81 208 0994 9 Sheridan Daniel 1986 The Advaitic Theism of the Bhagavata Puraṇa Columbia MO South Asia Books ISBN 978 81 208 0179 0 Sheth Noel 2002 Hindu Avatara and Christian Incarnation A Comparison Philosophy East and West University of Hawai i Press 52 1 January 98 125 doi 10 1353 pew 2002 0005 JSTOR 1400135 S2CID 170278631 Varadpande Manohar Laxman 1987 History of Indian theatre Vol 3 Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 221 5 External linksVishnu at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata BBC Religion amp Ethics Who is Vishnu BBC News Machek Vaclav 1960 Origin of the God Vishnu Archiv Orientalni 103 126 via ProQuest Peyton Allysa B 2012 Vishnu Hinduism s Blue Skinned Savior Brooklyn Museum June 24 October 2 2011 19 1 145 150 doi 10 1086 665691 ISSN 2153 5531 JSTOR 10 1086 665691 S2CID 192592953 Portals Hinduism India Religion 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