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Indian religions

Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,[web 1][note 1] are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.[web 1]

Indian religions as a percentage of world population

  Hinduism (16%)
  Buddhism (7.1%)
  Sikhism (0.35%)
  Jainism (0.06%)
  Other (76.49%)
Indian religions by number of followers (2020 survey)[1][2][3][4]
Religion Population
Hindus 1.2 billion
Buddhists 520 million
Sikhs 30 million
Jains 6 million
Others 4 million
Total 1.76 billion

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), had an early urbanized culture which predates the Vedic religion.[5][better source needed]

The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Iranians, which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas, as well as the Agamas of Dravidian origin. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[6] The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarized[weasel words] in Upanishads, which are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[7] The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five[note 2] of the eleven principal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before 6th century BCE,[8][9] and contain the earliest mentions of Yoga and Moksha.[10]

The śramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a "turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism".[11] The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). In 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism[12] and Buddhism[13] and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) and nastika (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.). However, both branches shared the related concepts of Yoga, saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[note 3][note 4][note 5]

The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and Early Medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta, and smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta.

The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India.[web 2] The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region. During the period of British rule in India, a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided the Indian independence movement.

History

Periodisation

Scottish historian James Mill, in his seminal work The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism.[16]

Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",[17] neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.[17] The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered.[17] According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[18][note 6]

Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[19]

  • Indian pre-history including Indus Valley civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE)
  • Iron Age including Vedic period (c. 1750–600 BCE)
  • "Second Urbanisation" (c. 600–200 BCE)
  • Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1200 CE)[note 7]
    • Pre-Classical period (c. 200 BCE-320 CE)
    • "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE)
    • Late-Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE)
  • Medieval period (c. 1200–1500 CE)
  • Early Modern (c. 1500–1850)
  • Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850)

Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE)

Prehistory

The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of the Indus Valley and Ganges Valley, was likely local animism that did not have missionaries.[24]

 
"Priest King" of Indus Valley civilisation

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[25] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[web 3]

Indus Valley civilisation

The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.[26] An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites[27] was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.[28][29]

 
The so-called Pashupati seal, showing a seated and possibly ithyphallic figure, surrounded by animals.

One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.[28][30] While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.[31][32] Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.[33][34] Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.[30] Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave[35] or an early Buddha by Buddhists.[27] Historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation.[36][37]

Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".[38] Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.[39]

Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations.[40] One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.[41] Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him.[42] Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.[42]

In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.[43][44] This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.[38][45] The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.[46][47]

Vedic period (1750–800 BCE)

The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas (usually known as the Vedas), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central shruti (revealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[6]

The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.[48]

Some modern Hindu scholars use the "Vedic religion" synonymously with "Hinduism."[49] According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion.[50] Other authors state that the Vedas contain "the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma"[note 8] which is called "the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma"[52] The Arya Samaj is recognize the Vedic religion as true Hinduism.[53] Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel,

... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."[48][note 9]

Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE)

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers.[note 10]

The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna, sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)[55] in the fire, accompanied by the singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of Yajus, the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána).[56] An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divine Agni – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.[citation needed]

Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta. Satya is derived from Sat, the present participle of the verbal root as, "to be, to exist, to live".[57] Sat means "that which really exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good",[57] and Sat-ya means "is-ness".[58] Rta, "that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[59] "Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness."[60] "Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe."[61] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:

Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."[62]

The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. "Asha" is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance[63] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.[64]

Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[65]

Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)

During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed.[66] The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies.[67]

Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.[68][69]

Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE)

The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the Upanishads and later texts like epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition.[citation needed]

Sanskritization

Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called Sanskritization.[70] It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.[70]

Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE)

 
A statue of Gautama Buddha from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, 4th century CE.
 
The idol of Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.

During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".[11] According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[11]

Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE)

The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period.[web 4][note 11][71][note 12] This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads,[73] later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.

Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[74] The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[75]

Scholars believe that Parsva, the 23rd Jain tirthankara lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.[76]

Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE)

 
Buddha statue at Darjeeling

Jainism and Buddhism belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE [12][13][77] in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",[78] and were responsible for the related concepts of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[79][note 13]

The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.[80] The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.[81][82][note 14][83][note 15][84][note 16] Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.

Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.[79][note 17][85][note 18][87][note 19][note 20] The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.[90] Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.[91] In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".[92]

Jainism

Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parshvanatha (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).[93][note 21]

The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.[94][note 22]

Buddhism
 
Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand

Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.[citation needed]

Gautama Buddha, who was called an "awakened one" (Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage,[95] via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.

Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.) [96] and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).[97] There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.[citation needed]

Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE)

Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.[citation needed]

Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[98]

Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE.[citation needed]

Dravidian culture

The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-vedic in origin[99] and have been dated either as post-vedic texts.[100] or as pre-vedic oral compositions.[101] The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[102] The worship of tutelary deity, sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.[103]

 
Saga Agastya, father of Tamil literature

Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians. Seyon was glorified as the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent, as the favored god of the Tamils.[104] Sivan was also seen as the supreme God.[104] Early iconography of Seyyon[105] and Sivan[106][107][108][109][110] and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization.[106][108][111][112][113][107][114] The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such Seyyon in Kurinji-the hills, Thirumaal in Mullai-the forests, and Kotravai in Marutham-the plains, and Wanji-ko in the Neithal-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence[115] on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE),[115] which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.[116] [117] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[118][note 23] or synthesis[120] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.[121][119][122][123]

 
Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from koyil as king's residence.

Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.[124] The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil. Titual worship was also given to kings.[125][126] Modern words for god like "kō" ("king"), "iṟai" ("emperor"), and "āṇḍavar" ("conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who later merged into Indra.[127] Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven".[128] In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.[129]

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated with Shaktism.[130] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.[131] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[132] Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones Natukal or Hero Stone had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.[133] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[134]

Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE)

 
Krishna fighting the horse demon Keshi, 5th century, Gupta period.

Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period,[135][136] in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.[136] Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE,[11] which saw the rise of so-called "Classical Hinduism",[11] with its "golden age"[137] during the Gupta Empire.[137]

 
A basalt statue of Lalita flanked by Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya, Pala era.

According to Alf Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the Guptas (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".[138] It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:

The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].[139]

The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent among these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita, and the medieval Bhakti movement.[citation needed]

Smriti

The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE–100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and "nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas."[140] Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are sometimes called smarta schools in the sense that they develop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like smriti, directly on sruti."[141] According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of bhakti."[142] It is the Bhagavadgita that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be called smarta. It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".[142]

Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE)

In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers shabda pramāṇa (scriptural evidence) as the most authentic means of knowledge, while pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāna (logical inference) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).[143][144]

The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Brahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE.[145] The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.[citation needed]

Indian philosophy

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta.[146] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nāstika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[147] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[148] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.[citation needed]

Hindu literature

 
The Golden Temple of Mahalakshmi at Vellore.

Two of Hinduism's most revered epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example, the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).[citation needed]

In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.[citation needed]

Jainism and Buddhism

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.[citation needed]

There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Chalukyas, Somavanshi, and Satavahana.[149] Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.[150]

Tantra

Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period. According to Michaels this was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"[151] (c. 320–650 CE[151]), which flourished during the Gupta Empire[137] (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha Empire[137] (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[137] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.[152] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[137] and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.[137]

Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE)

Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE)

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[153][note 24] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[153] as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[154]

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[155][note 25] Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[155] was diminished.[155] Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti, and Tantra,[155] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".[155] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.[155] Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.[155]

Vedanta

In the same period Vedanta changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.[157] Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.[158] In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[157] This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"[159] to "maya-vada"[note 26], where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".[160] According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.[158]

Buddhism

Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[161] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.[citation needed]

Bhakti

The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga.[citation needed] The best-known proponents of this movement were the Alvars and the Nayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath.[citation needed] Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.[citation needed]

The Alvars (Tamil: ஆழ்வார்கள், āḻvārkaḷ [aːɻʋaːr], those immersed in god) were the Tamil poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused "emotional devotion" or bhakti to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.[162] The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.[citation needed]

Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,[163] and administration was many times composed mainly of women.[164] Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.[citation needed]

Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.

According to The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training,

Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions.[web 8]

Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE)

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings.[165] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.[citation needed]

Bhakti movement

During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great Bhakti movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or Sants. Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabha Acharya, Sur, Meera, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas, Tyagaraja, and others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

Lingayatism

Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna.[citation needed] The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning "one who wears Ishtalinga on their body" (Ishtalinga is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology, Ishtalinga is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.[166]

Unifying Hinduism
 
An aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple from the top of the southern gopuram, looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,

... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.[167]

The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley.[168] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[169] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[170] which started well before 1800.[171] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.[167]

Sikhism (15th century)
 
Harmandir Sahib (The Golden Temple) is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs.

Sikhism originated in 15th-century Punjab, Delhi Sultanate (present-day India and Pakistan) with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 27 million across the world.[citation needed]

Modern period (1500–present)

Early modern period

According to Gavin Flood, the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500.[135][136] The period of Mughal rule in India[172] saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.[173]

Modern India (after 1800)

 
Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu. Mahamagam Festival, which is held at Kumbakonam. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South.[174][175]
 
The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001 Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world.
Hinduism

In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.[176] These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India's religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.[176]

The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence.[177] For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions.[citation needed] Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, another organisation with a global reach. In late 18th-century India, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.[citation needed]

Jainism

Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.[citation needed]

Buddhism

The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to as Navayana[178] is a 19th- and 20th-century Buddhist revival movement in India. It received its most substantial impetus from B. R. Ambedkar's call for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism in 1956 and the opportunity to escape the caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.[179]

Similarities and differences

 
Map showing the prevalence of Abrahamic (pink) and Indian religions (yellow) in each country

According to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted "differentially" or "integrally",[180] that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities.[180] According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.[180]

Similarities

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.[180] Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but "perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family."[181]

Dharma

 
A devotee facing the Ganga, reading a stack of holy books ("Chalisa" of various god) at the Kumbh Mela

The spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept of Dharma. It has various meanings depending on the context. For example it could mean duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, conduct, etc.

Soteriology

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept of moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth.[182] They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.[182]

Ritual

Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana).[citation needed] Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals.[citation needed] In literature, many classical narratives and purana have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.[web 9] All four traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various forms of Yoga.[citation needed]

Mythology

Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: Vessantarajataka,[183] Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama, etc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.[citation needed]

Differences

Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions.[184][185] All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.[186]

Mythology

Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions. A popular story tells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being.[187][188] The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and the Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra.[189][note 27] According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.[188] It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism.[193]

Āstika and nāstika categorisation

Āstika and nāstika are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. The traditional definition, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as āstika and nāstika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as āstika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nāstika school. Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as nāstika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.[citation needed]

Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy—loosely characterise āstika as "theist" and nāstika as "atheist". By these definitions, Sāṃkhya can be considered a nāstika philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic āstika schools. From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remain nāstika religions.[citation needed]

Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts,[194] or those who deny the existence of the soul was well known to the Jainas.[195]

Use of term "Dharmic religions"

Frawley and Malhotra use the term "Dharmic traditions" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.[196][197][note 28] According to Frawley, "all religions in India have been called the Dharma",[196] and can be

... put under the greater umbrella of "Dharmic traditions" which we can see as Hinduism or the spiritual traditions of India in the broadest sense.[196]

According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term "dharma"

... assumed a fundamentally new meaning and function in modern Indian thought, beginning with Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in the nineteenth century. This process, in which dharma was presented as an equivalent of, but also a response to, the western notion of "religion", reflects a fundamental change in the Hindu sense of identity and in the attitude toward other religious and cultural traditions. The foreign tools of "religion" and "nation" became tools of self-definition, and a new and precarious sense of the "unity of Hinduism" and of national as well as religious identity took root.[199]

The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions.[184][185] According to Richard E. King it is typical of the "inclusivist appropriation of other traditions"[176] of Neo-Vedanta:

The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences.[176]

The "Council of Dharmic Faiths" (UK) regards Zoroastrianism, while not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion.[200]

Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India

The inclusion of Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act "[defines] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian, Muslim, Parsee (Zoroastrian) or Jew".[201] And the Indian Constitution says that "reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion".[201]

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[web 10][note 29] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.[web 10][note 30] Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.[web 10][note 31] In 2005, the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[202][web 10][note 32]

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[203] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.[citation needed]

Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.[web 11] Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains[web 12] as well as Supreme Court's extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".[web 13]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Adams: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Theravāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".
  2. ^ The pre-Buddhist Upanishads are: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Kaushitaki, Aitareya, and Taittiriya Upanishads.[8]
  3. ^ The shared concepts include rebirth, samsara, karma, meditation, renunciation and moksha.[14]
  4. ^ The Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions, which share some common concepts and interests. While Kuru-Panchala, at the central Ganges Plain, formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition, Kosala-Magadha at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other shramanic traditions.[15]
  5. ^ Buddhism and Hinduism Similarities
  6. ^ See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History.
  7. ^ Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
    • Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[subnote 1] Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.[21]
    • For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism",[22] whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[11]
    • Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.[23]
  8. ^ Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma.[51]
  9. ^ Richard E. King notes: "Consequently, it remains an anachronism to project the notion of "Hinduism" as it is commonly understood into pre-colonial history."[54]
  10. ^ In post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śrauta means "what is heard"
  11. ^ "Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE."[web 4]
  12. ^ Deussen: "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c.500 BCE, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time."[72]
  13. ^ Gavin Flood and Patrick Olivelle: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."[79]
  14. ^ Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[82]
  15. ^ Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to [sic] the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."[83]
  16. ^ Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".[84]
  17. ^ Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."[79]
  18. ^ Flood: "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating among sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."[86]
  19. ^ Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them."[88]
  20. ^ Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."[89]
  21. ^ Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."[93] Page 141
  22. ^ Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."[94] Page 115
  23. ^ Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."[118] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[119]
  24. ^ In the east the Pala Empire[153] (770–1125 CE[153]), in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara[153] (7th–10th century[153]), in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty[153] (752–973[153]), in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty[153] (7th–8th century[153]), and in the south the Pallava dynasty[153] (7th–9th century[153]) and the Chola dynasty[153] (9th century[153]).
  25. ^ This resembles the development of Chinese Chán during the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.[156]
  26. ^ The term "maya-vada" is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See [web 5][web 6][web 7]
  27. ^ The story begins with the transformation of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapani by Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha, receiving a vajra and the name "Vajrapani".[190] Vairocana then requests Vajrapani to generate his adamantine family, to establish a mandala. Vajrapani refuses, because Mahesvara (Shiva) "is deluding beings with his deceitfull religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct".[191] Mahesvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Sumeru, and all but Mahesvara submit. Vajrapani and Mahesvara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Vajrapani. Mahesvara's retinue become part of Vairocana's mandala, except for Mahesvara, who is killed, and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a buddha named Bhasmesvara-nirghosa, the "Soundless Lord of Ashes".[192]
  28. ^ Occasionally the term is also being used by other authors. David Westerlund: "... may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of 'dharmic' religions."[198]
  29. ^ In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post-Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains[web 10]
  30. ^ The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."[web 10]
  31. ^ The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.[web 10]
  32. ^ In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."[web 10]
  1. ^ Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.[20]

References

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  3. ^ "Viewpoint: Why Sikhs celebrate kindness – BBC News". BBC News. 15 July 2021.
  4. ^ "Countries With The Largest Jain Populations – WorldAtlas". 11 June 2020.
  5. ^ Vir Sanghvi. "Rude Travel: Down The Sages". Hindustan Times.
  6. ^ a b Michaels 2004, p. 33.
  7. ^ Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
  8. ^ a b Olivelle 2014, pp. 12–14.
  9. ^ King 1995, p. 52.
  10. ^ Olivelle 1998, p. xxiii.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Michaels 2004, p. 38.
  12. ^ a b Jain 2008, p. 210.
  13. ^ a b Svarghese 2008, p. 259-60.
  14. ^ Olivelle 1998, pp. xx–xxiv.
  15. ^ Samuel 2010.
  16. ^ Thapar 1978, p. 19-20.
  17. ^ a b c Thapar 1978, p. 19.
  18. ^ Thapar 1978, p. 20.
  19. ^ Michaels 2004.
  20. ^ Smart 2003, p. 52, 83–86.
  21. ^ Smart 2003, p. 52.
  22. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 36.
  23. ^ Muesse 2003, p. 14.
  24. ^ Harari, Yuval Noah (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Translated by Harari, Yuval Noah; Purcell, John; Watzman, Haim. London: Penguin Random House UK. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0-09-959008-8. OCLC 910498369.
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  27. ^ a b Ratnagar 2004.
  28. ^ a b Marshall 1931, pp. 48–78.
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  30. ^ a b Possehl 2002, pp. 141–144.
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  32. ^ Srinivasan 1997, pp. 180–181.
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  4. ^ a b Indiana University "India Studies Program" 1 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine Passage to India, Module 10.
  5. ^ "Mayavada Philosophy". from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
  6. ^ "The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada". from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
  7. ^ . Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  8. ^ The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, Indian Literature Through the Ages 15 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ c.f. Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h . Archived from the original on 2 May 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
  11. ^ Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003[permanent dead link]
  12. ^ "Religious freedom Bill returned". The Indian Express. 31 July 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  13. ^ The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine In his letter dated 27 July 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".

External links

Statistics
  • . Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
Constitution and law
  • . Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice). Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
Reports
  • "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. Retrieved 28 May 2007.

indian, religions, this, article, about, religions, that, originated, indian, subcontinent, religious, demographics, republic, india, religion, india, book, religion, india, religion, indigenous, peoples, north, america, native, american, religion, sometimes, . This article is about the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent For religious demographics of the Republic of India see Religion in India For the book see The Religion of India For the religion of indigenous peoples of North America see Native American religion Indian religions sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent These religions which include Hinduism Jainism Buddhism and Sikhism web 1 note 1 are also classified as Eastern religions Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India they constitute a wide range of religious communities and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent web 1 Indian religions as a percentage of world population Hinduism 16 Buddhism 7 1 Sikhism 0 35 Jainism 0 06 Other 76 49 Indian religions by number of followers 2020 survey 1 2 3 4 Religion PopulationHindus 1 2 billionBuddhists 520 millionSikhs 30 millionJains 6 millionOthers 4 millionTotal 1 76 billionEvidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings The Harappan people of the Indus Valley civilisation which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE mature period 2600 1900 BCE had an early urbanized culture which predates the Vedic religion 5 better source needed The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion the religious practices of the early Indo Iranians which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas as well as the Agamas of Dravidian origin The period of the composition redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE 6 The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarized weasel words in Upanishads which are commonly referred to as Vedanta variously interpreted to mean either the last chapters parts of the Veda or the object the highest purpose of the Veda 7 The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era five note 2 of the eleven principal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before 6th century BCE 8 9 and contain the earliest mentions of Yoga and Moksha 10 The sramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism 11 The Shramana movement an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul Atman and the ultimate reality Brahman In 6th century BCE the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism 12 and Buddhism 13 and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika which venerates Veda e g six orthodox schools of Hinduism and nastika e g Buddhism Jainism Charvaka etc However both branches shared the related concepts of Yoga saṃsara the cycle of birth and death and moksha liberation from that cycle note 3 note 4 note 5 The Puranic Period 200 BCE 500 CE and Early Medieval period 500 1100 CE gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism especially bhakti and Shaivism Shaktism Vaishnavism Smarta and smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta The early Islamic period 1100 1500 CE also gave rise to new movements Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India web 2 The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region During the period of British rule in India a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose which aided the Indian independence movement Contents 1 History 1 1 Periodisation 1 2 Prevedic religions before c 1750 BCE 1 2 1 Prehistory 1 2 2 Indus Valley civilisation 1 3 Vedic period 1750 800 BCE 1 3 1 Early Vedic period early Vedic compositions c 1750 1200 BCE 1 3 2 Middle Vedic period c 1200 850 BCE 1 3 3 Late Vedic period from 850 BCE 1 4 Sanskritization 1 5 Shramanic period c 800 200 BCE 1 5 1 Late Vedic period Brahmanas and Upanishads Vedanta 850 500 BCE 1 5 2 Rise of Shramanic tradition 7th to 5th centuries BCE 1 5 2 1 Jainism 1 5 2 2 Buddhism 1 5 3 Spread of Jainism and Buddhism 500 200 BCE 1 5 4 Dravidian culture 1 6 Epic and Early Puranic Period 200 BCE 500 CE 1 6 1 Smriti 1 6 2 Vedanta Brahma sutras 200 BCE 1 6 3 Indian philosophy 1 6 4 Hindu literature 1 6 5 Jainism and Buddhism 1 6 6 Tantra 1 7 Medieval and Late Puranic Period 500 1500 CE 1 7 1 Late Classical Period c 650 1100 CE 1 7 1 1 Vedanta 1 7 1 2 Buddhism 1 7 1 3 Bhakti 1 7 2 Early Islamic rule c 1100 1500 CE 1 7 2 1 Bhakti movement 1 7 2 2 Lingayatism 1 7 2 3 Unifying Hinduism 1 7 2 4 Sikhism 15th century 1 8 Modern period 1500 present 1 8 1 Early modern period 1 8 2 Modern India after 1800 1 8 2 1 Hinduism 1 8 2 2 Jainism 1 8 2 3 Buddhism 2 Similarities and differences 2 1 Similarities 2 1 1 Dharma 2 1 2 Soteriology 2 1 3 Ritual 2 1 4 Mythology 2 2 Differences 2 2 1 Mythology 3 Astika and nastika categorisation 4 Use of term Dharmic religions 5 Status of non Hindus in the Republic of India 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 9 1 Printed sources 9 2 Web sources 10 External linksHistorySee also Outline of South Asian history History of India History of Hinduism and History of Buddhism Periodisation Main article Periodisation of Hinduism Scottish historian James Mill in his seminal work The History of British India 1817 distinguished three phases in the history of India namely the Hindu Muslim and British periods This periodisation has been criticised for the misconceptions it has given rise to Another periodisation is the division into ancient classical medieval and modern periods although this periodization has also received criticism 16 Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu Muslim British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to ruling dynasties and foreign invasions 17 neglecting the social economic history which often showed a strong continuity 17 The division in Ancient Medieval Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth century while the south was never completely conquered 17 According to Thapar a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers 18 note 6 Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill s periodisation while Flood and Muesse follow the ancient classical mediaeval and modern periods periodisation An elaborate periodisation may be as follows 19 Indian pre history including Indus Valley civilisation until c 1750 BCE Iron Age including Vedic period c 1750 600 BCE Second Urbanisation c 600 200 BCE Classical period c 200 BCE 1200 CE note 7 Pre Classical period c 200 BCE 320 CE Golden Age Gupta Empire c 320 650 CE Late Classical period c 650 1200 CE Medieval period c 1200 1500 CE Early Modern c 1500 1850 Modern period British Raj and independence from c 1850 Prevedic religions before c 1750 BCE PrehistoryThe earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent including those of the Indus Valley and Ganges Valley was likely local animism that did not have missionaries 24 nbsp Priest King of Indus Valley civilisationEvidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka depicting dances and rituals Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic 25 Other South Asian Stone Age sites such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music web 3 Indus Valley civilisation Further information Prehistoric religion The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have received considerable attention especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area However due to the sparsity of evidence which is open to varying interpretations and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective 26 An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites 27 was that of John Marshall who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess deification or veneration of animals and plants symbolic representation of the phallus linga and vulva yoni and use of baths and water in religious practice Marshall s interpretations have been much debated and sometimes disputed over the following decades 28 29 nbsp The so called Pashupati seal showing a seated and possibly ithyphallic figure surrounded by animals One Indus valley seal shows a seated possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic figure with a horned headdress surrounded by animals Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva or Rudra who is associated with asceticism yoga and linga regarded as a lord of animals and often depicted as having three eyes The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal after Pashupati lord of all animals an epithet of Shiva 28 30 While Marshall s work has earned some support many critics and even supporters have raised several objections Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces or yogic posture and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals 31 32 Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall s conclusions with the former claiming that the figure was female while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas vehicles of deities for the four cardinal directions 33 34 Writing in 2002 Gregory L Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity its association with the water buffalo and its posture as one of ritual discipline regarding it as a proto Shiva would be going too far 30 Despite the criticisms of Marshall s association of the seal with a proto Shiva icon it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave 35 or an early Buddha by Buddhists 27 Historians like Heinrich Zimmer Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation 36 37 Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall s hypothesis to be terribly robust 38 Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated 39 Many Indus Valley seals show animals with some depicting them being carried in processions while others show chimeric creations 40 One seal from Mohen jodaro shows a half human half buffalo monster attacking a tiger which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh 41 Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him 42 Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings 42 In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge 43 44 This may suggest that religious ceremonies if any may have been largely confined to individual homes small temples or the open air Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo daro is widely thought to have been so used as a place for ritual purification 38 45 The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment and even cremation 46 47 Vedic period 1750 800 BCE Main articles Vedic period and Historical Vedic religion See also Proto Indo European mythology and Proto Indo Iranian religion The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion the religious practices of the early Indo Aryans which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas usually known as the Vedas four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit These texts are the central shruti revealed texts of Hinduism The period of the composition redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE 6 The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas Brahmanas and the older Upanishads both presented as discussions on the rituals mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism 48 Some modern Hindu scholars use the Vedic religion synonymously with Hinduism 49 According to Sundararajan Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion 50 Other authors state that the Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma note 8 which is called the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma 52 The Arya Samaj is recognize the Vedic religion as true Hinduism 53 Nevertheless according to Jamison and Witzel to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion However Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism 48 note 9 Early Vedic period early Vedic compositions c 1750 1200 BCE Main articles Vedas and Samhitas The rishis the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda were considered inspired poets and seers note 10 The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana samagri herbal preparations 55 in the fire accompanied by the singing of Samans and mumbling of Yajus the sacrificial mantras The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj which has a three fold meaning of worship of deities devapujana unity saogatikarana and charity dana 56 An essential element was the sacrificial fire the divine Agni into which oblations were poured as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God citation needed Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta Satya is derived from Sat the present participle of the verbal root as to be to exist to live 57 Sat means that which really exists the really existent truth the Good 57 and Sat ya means is ness 58 Rta that which is properly joined order rule truth is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it 59 Satya truth as being and rita truth as law are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma or a life of righteousness 60 Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe 61 Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment Panikkar remarks Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything it is the supreme although this is not to be understood in a static sense It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything 62 The term rta is inherited from the Proto Indo Iranian religion the religion of the Indo Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic Indo Aryan and Zoroastrian Iranian scriptures Asha is the Avestan language term corresponding to Vedic language ṛta for a concept of cardinal importance 63 to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine The term dharma was already used in Brahmanical thought where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta 64 Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana Kanva Rishaba Vamadeva and Angiras 65 Middle Vedic period c 1200 850 BCE See also Painted Grey Ware culture During the Middle Vedic period the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed 66 The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies 67 Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non violent philosophy 68 69 Late Vedic period from 850 BCE The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta a religious path considering itself the essence of the Vedas interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with God Brahman seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman This post Vedic systems of thought along with the Upanishads and later texts like epics namely Gita of Mahabharat is a major component of modern Hinduism The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Srauta tradition citation needed Sanskritization Main article Sanskritization Since Vedic times people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms a process sometimes called Sanskritization 70 It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts 70 Shramanic period c 800 200 BCE nbsp A statue of Gautama Buddha from Sarnath Uttar Pradesh India 4th century CE nbsp The idol of Mahavira the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism During the time of the shramanic reform movements many elements of the Vedic religion were lost 11 According to Michaels it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions 11 Late Vedic period Brahmanas and Upanishads Vedanta 850 500 BCE Main articles Brahmanas Upanishads and Vedanta The late Vedic period 9th to 6th centuries BCE marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period web 4 note 11 71 note 12 This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism with the composition of the Upanishads 73 later the Sanskrit epics still later followed by the Puranas Upanishads form the speculative philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta conclusion of the Vedas 74 The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death 75 Scholars believe that Parsva the 23rd Jain tirthankara lived during this period in the 9th century BCE 76 Rise of Shramanic tradition 7th to 5th centuries BCE nbsp Buddha statue at DarjeelingSee also Shramana and Magadha Jainism and Buddhism belong to the sramaṇa traditions These religions rose into prominence in 700 500 BCE 12 13 77 in the Magadha kingdom reflecting the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre Aryan upper class of northeastern India 78 and were responsible for the related concepts of saṃsara the cycle of birth and death and moksha liberation from that cycle 79 note 13 The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals 80 The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism 81 82 note 14 83 note 15 84 note 16 Mahavira proponent of Jainism and Buddha c 563 483 founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death the concept of samsara and the concept of liberation 79 note 17 85 note 18 87 note 19 note 20 The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars While Radhakrishnan Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads 90 Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas it however discarded their orthodox tendencies 91 In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as pernicious views 92 Jainism Main articles Mahavira Jainism Timeline of Jainism and Jain community Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parshvanatha 9th century BCE and Mahavira 6th century BCE 93 note 21 The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism Mahavira stressed five vows including ahimsa non violence satya truthfulness asteya non stealing and aparigraha non attachment Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara was a historical figure The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement 94 note 22 Buddhism nbsp Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sandMain articles Gautama Buddha Buddhism Pre sectarian Buddhism History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama a Kshatriya prince turned ascetic and was spread beyond India through missionaries It later experienced a decline in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia citation needed Gautama Buddha who was called an awakened one Buddha was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal The Buddha was born at Lumbini as emperor Ashoka s Lumbini pillar records just before the kingdom of Magadha which traditionally is said to have lasted from c 546 324 BCE rose to power The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage 95 via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya Buddhism emphasises enlightenment nibbana nirvana and liberation from the rounds of rebirth This objective is pursued through two schools Theravada the Way of the Elders practiced in Sri Lanka Burma Thailand SE Asia etc 96 and Mahayana the Greater Way practiced in Tibet China Japan etc 97 There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective citation needed Spread of Jainism and Buddhism 500 200 BCE nbsp Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple Bodh Gaya Bihar nbsp Jain Palitana temples Shatrunjaya hill Gujarat Main articles Maurya Empire and Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire citation needed Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE He sent missionaries abroad allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia 98 Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE citation needed Dravidian culture See also South India Dravidian peoples Dravidian folk religion and Dravidian languages The early Dravidian religion constituted of non Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Agamic The Agamas are non vedic in origin 99 and have been dated either as post vedic texts 100 or as pre vedic oral compositions 101 The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti worship means of deities philosophical doctrines meditative practices attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga 102 The worship of tutelary deity sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre Vedic Dravidian religion 103 nbsp Saga Agastya father of Tamil literatureAncient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam the ten anthologies Pattuppaṭṭu the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians Seyon was glorified as the red god seated on the blue peacock who is ever young and resplendent as the favored god of the Tamils 104 Sivan was also seen as the supreme God 104 Early iconography of Seyyon 105 and Sivan 106 107 108 109 110 and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization 106 108 111 112 113 107 114 The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories thinais based on the mood the season and the land Tolkappiyam mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such Seyyon in Kurinji the hills Thirumaal in Mullai the forests and Kotravai in Marutham the plains and Wanji ko in the Neithal the coasts and the seas Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time Dravidian linguistic influence 115 on early Vedic religion is evident many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo Aryan language the language of the Rigveda c 1500 BCE 115 which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian 116 117 This represents an early religious and cultural fusion 118 note 23 or synthesis 120 between ancient Dravidians and Indo Aryans which became more evident over time with sacred iconography traditions philosophy flora and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism Buddhism Charvaka Sramana and Jainism 121 119 122 123 nbsp Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from koyil as king s residence Throughout Tamilakam a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance 124 The king was the representative of God on earth and lived in a koyil which means the residence of a god The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil Titual worship was also given to kings 125 126 Modern words for god like kō king iṟai emperor and aṇḍavar conqueror now primarily refer to gods These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Minatchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji ko a god who later merged into Indra 127 Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the Three Glorified by Heaven 128 In the Dravidian speaking South the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple 129 The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin one who has given birth to all and one typically associated with Shaktism 130 The temples of the Sangam days mainly of Madurai seem to have had priestesses to the deity which also appear predominantly a goddess 131 In the Sangam literature there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai 132 Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones Natukal or Hero Stone had appeared and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age down to about 16th century 133 It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory 134 Epic and Early Puranic Period 200 BCE 500 CE Main articles Pala Empire and Gupta Empire nbsp Krishna fighting the horse demon Keshi 5th century Gupta period Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period 135 136 in which the epics and the first puranas were being written 136 Michaels takes a greater timespan namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE 11 which saw the rise of so called Classical Hinduism 11 with its golden age 137 during the Gupta Empire 137 nbsp A basalt statue of Lalita flanked by Gaṇesa and Karttikeya Pala era According to Alf Hiltebeitel a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad c 500 BCE and the period of the rise of the Guptas c 320 467 CE which he calls the Hindus synthesis Brahmanic synthesis or orthodox synthesis 138 It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples The emerging self definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions Buddhists Jains Ajivikas throughout this whole period and with foreign people Yavanas or Greeks Sakas or Scythians Pahlavas or Parthians and Kusanas or Kushans from the third phase on between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas 139 The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy and which ended up being seminaries in their own right Prominent among these developers were Yoga Dvaita Advaita and the medieval Bhakti movement citation needed Smriti The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas and nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies which rejected the Vedas 140 Of the six Hindu darsanas the Mimamsa and the Vedanta are rooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are sometimes called smarta schools in the sense that they develop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based like smriti directly on sruti 141 According to Hiltebeitel the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of bhakti 142 It is the Bhagavadgita that seals this achievement The result is a universal achievement that may be called smarta It views Shiva and Vishnu as complementary in their functions but ontologically identical 142 Vedanta Brahma sutras 200 BCE Main article Vedanta In earlier writings Sanskrit Vedanta simply referred to the Upanishads the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts However in the medieval period of Hinduism the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads Traditional Vedanta considers shabda pramaṇa scriptural evidence as the most authentic means of knowledge while pratyakṣa perception and anumana logical inference are considered to be subordinate but valid 143 144 The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarayana in the Brahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE 145 The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub commentaries citation needed Indian philosophy Main article Indian philosophy After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy including Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mimaṃsa and Advaita Vedanta 146 Hinduism otherwise a highly polytheistic pantheistic or monotheistic religion also tolerated atheistic schools The thoroughly materialistic and anti religious philosophical Carvaka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy Carvaka is classified as a nastika heterodox system it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism 147 Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools and it is no longer a living tradition 148 Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimaṃsa citation needed Hindu literature nbsp The Golden Temple of Mahalakshmi at Vellore Main articles Mahabharata Ramayana and Puranas Two of Hinduism s most revered epics the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship For example the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati or Ganesh Popular deities of this era were Shiva Vishnu Durga Surya Skanda and Ganesh including the forms incarnations of these deities citation needed In the latter Vedantic period several texts were also composed as summaries attachments to the Upanishads These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human like characteristics were composed citation needed Jainism and Buddhism Main articles Buddhism and Jainism and Decline of Buddhism in India The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule but they also patronized Buddhism which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century citation needed There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu such as the Gupta Empire Pala Empire Chalukyas Somavanshi and Satavahana 149 Buddhism survived followed by Hindus 150 Tantra Main article Tantra Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period According to Michaels this was the Golden Age of Hinduism 151 c 320 650 CE 151 which flourished during the Gupta Empire 137 320 to 550 CE until the fall of the Harsha Empire 137 606 to 647 CE During this period power was centralised along with a growth of far distance trade standardizarion of legal procedures and general spread of literacy 137 Mahayana Buddhism flourished but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty 152 The position of the Brahmans was reinforced 137 and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age 137 Medieval and Late Puranic Period 500 1500 CE Late Classical Period c 650 1100 CE See also Late Classical Age and Hinduism Middle AgesAfter the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire power became decentralised in India Several larger kingdoms emerged with countless vasal states 153 note 24 The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms The great king was remote was exalted and deified 153 as reflected in the Tantric Mandala which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala 154 The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity and religious rivalry 155 note 25 Local cults and languages were enhanced and the influence of Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism 155 was diminished 155 Rural and devotional movements arose along with Shaivism Vaisnavism Bhakti and Tantra 155 though sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development 155 Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords 155 Buddhism lost its position and began to disappear in India 155 Vedanta See also Advaita Vedanta and Ajativada In the same period Vedanta changed incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind 157 Buddhism which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions which were rooted in the countryside 158 In Bengal Buddhism was even prosecuted But at the same time Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads 157 This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a living substance 159 to maya vada note 26 where Atman and Brahman are seen as pure knowledge consciousness 160 According to Scheepers it is this maya vada view which has come to dominate Indian thought 158 Buddhism Main article Decline of Buddhism in India Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued 161 Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka citation needed Bhakti Main articles Bhakti movement Alwars and Nayanars The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God regardless of one s status whether priestly or laypeople men or women higher social status or lower social status The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu Rama and Krishna and Shiva There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga citation needed The best known proponents of this movement were the Alvars and the Nayanars from southern India The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava while of the north it was Gorakhnath citation needed Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi Lalleshvari and Molla citation needed The Alvars Tamil ஆழ வ ர கள aḻvarkaḷ aːɻʋaːr those immersed in god were the Tamil poet saints of south India who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused emotional devotion or bhakti to Vishnu Krishna in their songs of longing ecstasy and service 162 The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja while of the north it was Ramananda citation needed Several important icons were women For example within the Mahanubhava sect the women outnumbered the men 163 and administration was many times composed mainly of women 164 Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India citation needed Sri Vallabha Acharya 1479 1531 is a very important figure from this era He founded the Shuddha Advaita Pure Non dualism school of Vedanta thought According to The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all India phenomenon which started in the 6th 7th century A D in the Tamil speaking region of South India with twelve Alvar one immersed in God saint poets who wrote devotional songs The religion of Alvar poets which included a woman poet Andal was devotion to God through love bhakti and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions web 8 Early Islamic rule c 1100 1500 CE Main articles Muslim conquest of India Islamic Empires in India Bahmani Sultanate Deccan Sultanates Delhi Sultanate Sufism in India and Islam in India In the 12th and 13th centuries Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings 165 The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance The resulting Indo Muslim fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture music literature religion and clothing citation needed Bhakti movement This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Indian religions news newspapers books scholar JSTOR June 2013 Learn how and when to remove this template message During the 14th to 17th centuries a great Bhakti movement swept through central and northern India initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or Sants Ramananda Ravidas Srimanta Sankardeva Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Vallabha Acharya Sur Meera Kabir Tulsidas Namdev Dnyaneshwar Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while Annamacharya Bhadrachala Ramadas Tyagaraja and others propagated Bhakti in the South They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy and simply express their overwhelming love for God This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces Lingayatism Main article Lingayatism Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna citation needed The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada meaning one who wears Ishtalinga on their body Ishtalinga is the representation of the God In Lingayat theology Ishtalinga is an oval shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva the absolute reality Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform based theology propounded which has great influence in South India especially in the state of Karnataka 166 Unifying Hinduism Main article Unifying Hinduism nbsp An aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple from the top of the southern gopuram looking north The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire According to Nicholson already between the 12th and 16th century certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads epics Puranas and the schools known retrospectively as the six systems saddarsana of mainstream Hindu philosophy 167 The tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctions has also been noted by Mikel Burley 168 Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus 169 and a process of mutual self definition with a contrasting Muslim other 170 which started well before 1800 171 Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term Hinduism in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers 167 Sikhism 15th century Main article Sikhism See also History of Sikhism Sikhism and Jainism Sikhism and Hinduism and Sikhism in India nbsp Harmandir Sahib The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs Sikhism originated in 15th century Punjab Delhi Sultanate present day India and Pakistan with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vahiguru represented by the sacred symbol of ek ōaṅkar meaning one god Sikhism s traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history society and culture of the Punjab Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs students or disciples and number over 27 million across the world citation needed Modern period 1500 present Early modern period Main articles Mughal period and Maratha Empire According to Gavin Flood the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500 135 136 The period of Mughal rule in India 172 saw the rise of new forms of religiosity 173 Modern India after 1800 nbsp Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu Mahamagam Festival which is held at Kumbakonam This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South 174 175 nbsp The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth the 2001 Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world Hinduism Main articles Hindu reform movements Neo Vedanta Hindutva and Communalism South Asia In the 19th century under influence of the colonial forces a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy Swami Vivekananda Sri Aurobindo Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi 176 These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India s religious history emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions 176 The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence 177 For example Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions citation needed Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement another organisation with a global reach In late 18th century India Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday Anandamurti founder of the Ananda Marga has also influenced many worldwide Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations many Hindu practices such as yoga meditation mantra divination and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts citation needed Jainism See also Hinduism and Jainism Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time citation needed Buddhism Main article Navayana The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to as Navayana 178 is a 19th and 20th century Buddhist revival movement in India It received its most substantial impetus from B R Ambedkar s call for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism in 1956 and the opportunity to escape the caste based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy 179 Similarities and differences nbsp Map showing the prevalence of Abrahamic pink and Indian religions yellow in each countryAccording to Tilak the religions of India can be interpreted differentially or integrally 180 that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities 180 According to Sherma and Sarma western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities 180 Similarities Hinduism Buddhism Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals 180 Until the 19th century adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other but perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family 181 Dharma This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed May 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp A devotee facing the Ganga reading a stack of holy books Chalisa of various god at the Kumbh MelaThe spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept of Dharma It has various meanings depending on the context For example it could mean duty righteousness spiritual teachings conduct etc Soteriology Hinduism Buddhism Jainism and Sikhism share the concept of moksha liberation from the cycle of rebirth 182 They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation 182 Ritual Common traits can also be observed in ritual The head anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions excluding Sikhism in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana citation needed Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women and various marital rituals citation needed In literature many classical narratives and purana have Hindu Buddhist or Jain versions web 9 All four traditions have notions of karma dharma samsara moksha and various forms of Yoga citation needed Mythology Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions In Hinduism he is the God incarnate in the form of a princely king in Buddhism he is a Bodhisattva incarnate in Jainism he is the perfect human being Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are Vessantarajataka 183 Reamker Ramakien Phra Lak Phra Lam Hikayat Seri Rama etc There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana B Datta 1993 The Tai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom citation needed Differences Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions 184 185 All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects 186 Mythology Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions A popular story tells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being 187 188 The story occurs in several scriptures most notably the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and the Vajrapany abhiseka mahatantra 189 note 27 According to Kalupahana the story echoes the story of the conversion of Ambattha 188 It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism 193 Astika and nastika categorisationMain articles Astika and nastika Hindu philosophy and Buddhism and Hinduism See also Adi Shankara and Charvaka Astika and nastika are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions The traditional definition followed by Adi Shankara classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures or not By this definition Nyaya Vaisheshika Samkhya Yoga Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools while Charvaka is classified as a nastika school Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas citation needed Another set of definitions notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy loosely characterise astika as theist and nastika as atheist By these definitions Saṃkhya can be considered a nastika philosophy though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic astika schools From this point of view Buddhism and Jainism remain nastika religions citation needed Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases astika and nastika in their own view Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts 194 or those who deny the existence of the soul was well known to the Jainas 195 Use of term Dharmic religions See also Saffronization Frawley and Malhotra use the term Dharmic traditions to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions 196 197 note 28 According to Frawley all religions in India have been called the Dharma 196 and can be put under the greater umbrella of Dharmic traditions which we can see as Hinduism or the spiritual traditions of India in the broadest sense 196 According to Paul Hacker as described by Halbfass the term dharma assumed a fundamentally new meaning and function in modern Indian thought beginning with Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in the nineteenth century This process in which dharma was presented as an equivalent of but also a response to the western notion of religion reflects a fundamental change in the Hindu sense of identity and in the attitude toward other religious and cultural traditions The foreign tools of religion and nation became tools of self definition and a new and precarious sense of the unity of Hinduism and of national as well as religious identity took root 199 The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions 184 185 According to Richard E King it is typical of the inclusivist appropriation of other traditions 176 of Neo Vedanta The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions so characteristic of neo Vedanta ideology appears on three basic levels First it is apparent in the suggestion that the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Sankara c eighth century CE constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism Second in an Indian context neo Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition merely attempting to reform it from within Finally at a global level neo Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences 176 The Council of Dharmic Faiths UK regards Zoroastrianism while not originating in the Indian subcontinent also as a Dharmic religion 200 Status of non Hindus in the Republic of IndiaMain article Religion in India See also Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India The inclusion of Buddhists Jains and Sikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act defines as Hindus all Buddhists Jains Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian Muslim Parsee Zoroastrian or Jew 201 And the Indian Constitution says that reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh Jaina or Buddhist religion 201 In a judicial reminder the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold web 10 note 29 and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold web 10 note 30 Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873 after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities web 10 note 31 In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion 202 web 10 note 32 However some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006 in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism but mentioned that The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate 203 However the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion citation needed Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism web 11 Ultimately on 31 July 2007 finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 1 of the Constitution Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Amendment Bill 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains web 12 as well as Supreme Court s extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court web 13 See also nbsp India portal nbsp Religion portal nbsp Hinduism portal nbsp Islam portalAbrahamic religions a similar term used to refer Judaism Christianity and Islam Taoic religions a similar terms used to refer to East Asian religions such as Taoism Shintoism and Muism Ahimsa Buddhism in India Christianity in India Demographics of India Hinduism in India Indology Iranian religions Islam in India Jainism in India Kalasha religion Proto Indo European mythology Proto Indo Iranian religion Sanamahism Sikhism in India Tribal religions in India Vegetarianism Zoroastrianism in IndiaNotes Adams Indian religions including early Buddhism Hinduism Jainism and Sikhism and sometimes also Theravada Buddhism and the Hindu and Buddhist inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia The pre Buddhist Upanishads are Brihadaranyaka Chandogya Kaushitaki Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads 8 The shared concepts include rebirth samsara karma meditation renunciation and moksha 14 The Upanishadic Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions which share some common concepts and interests While Kuru Panchala at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition Kosala Magadha at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other shramanic traditions 15 Buddhism and Hinduism Similarities See also Tanvir Anjum Temporal Divides A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History Different periods are designated as classical Hinduism Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE pre classical It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism subnote 1 Jainism and Buddhism For Smart the classical period lasts from 100 to 1000 CE and coincides with the flowering of classical Hinduism and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana buddhism in India 21 For Michaels the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of Ascetic reformism 22 whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of classical Hinduism since there is a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions 11 Muesse discerns a longer period of change namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE which he calls the Classical Period According to Muesse some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism namely karma reincarnation and personal enlightenment and transformation which did not exist in the Vedic religion developed in this time 23 Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma 51 Richard E King notes Consequently it remains an anachronism to project the notion of Hinduism as it is commonly understood into pre colonial history 54 In post Vedic times understood as hearers of an eternally existing Veda Srauta means what is heard Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B C E and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era The Brahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE web 4 Deussen these treatises are not the work of a single genius but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends from approximately 1000 or 800 BC to c 500 BCE but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time 72 Gavin Flood and Patrick Olivelle The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition These include the two pillars of Indian theologies samsara the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births rebirth moksa nirvana the goal of human existence 79 Cromwell Crwaford Alongside Brahmanism was the non Aryan Shramanic self reliant culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times 82 Masih There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices vedic deities or caste They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to sic the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times 83 Padmanabh S Jaini Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non vedic character of Jaina cosmology soul theory karmic doctrine and atheism 84 Flood The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition These include the two pillars of Indian theologies samsara the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births rebirth moksa nirvana the goal of human existence 79 Flood The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure These concepts were certainly circulating among sramanas and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions 86 Padmanabh S Jaini Yajnavalkya s reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka a reluctance not shown on any other occasion can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was like that of the transmigration of soul of non brahmanical origin In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures it is highly probable that it was derived from them 88 Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism 89 Oldmeadow Over time apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma Essentially the sramana tradition included it its fold the Jain and Buddhist traditions which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins 93 Page 141 Fisher The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non vedic indigenous Indian religion is well documented Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira 94 Page 115 Lockard The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures reconfiguring Indian society Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo Aryan synthesis 118 Lockard Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries 119 In the east the Pala Empire 153 770 1125 CE 153 in the west and north the Gurjara Pratihara 153 7th 10th century 153 in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty 153 752 973 153 in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty 153 7th 8th century 153 and in the south the Pallava dynasty 153 7th 9th century 153 and the Chola dynasty 153 9th century 153 This resembles the development of Chinese Chan during the An Lu shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period 907 960 979 during which power became decentralised end new Chan schools emerged 156 The term maya vada is primarily being used by non Advaitins See web 5 web 6 web 7 The story begins with the transformation of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapani by Vairocana the cosmic Buddha receiving a vajra and the name Vajrapani 190 Vairocana then requests Vajrapani to generate his adamantine family to establish a mandala Vajrapani refuses because Mahesvara Shiva is deluding beings with his deceitfull religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct 191 Mahesvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Sumeru and all but Mahesvara submit Vajrapani and Mahesvara engage in a magical combat which is won by Vajrapani Mahesvara s retinue become part of Vairocana s mandala except for Mahesvara who is killed and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a buddha named Bhasmesvara nirghosa the Soundless Lord of Ashes 192 Occasionally the term is also being used by other authors David Westerlund may provide some possibilities for co operation with Sikhs Jains and Buddhists who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of dharmic religions 198 In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act Hindu Succession Act Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post Constitution period the definition of Hindu included all sects and sub sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains web 10 The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs Union of India Thus Hinduism can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas Jainism is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion Jainism places greater emphasis on non violence Ahimsa and compassion Karuna Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human being whom they called Tirathankar web 10 The so called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution web 10 In an extra judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed Thus Hinduism can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas Jainism is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion Jainism places greater emphasis on non violence Ahimsa and compassion Karuna Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human being whom they called Tirathankar web 10 Smart distinguishes Brahmanism from the Vedic religion connecting Brahmanism with the Upanishads 20 References Kozponti Statisztikai Hivatal Nepszamlalas hu Archived from the original on 7 January 2019 Retrieved 2 October 2013 Christianity 2015 Religious Diversity and Personal Contact PDF gordonconwell edu January 2015 Archived from the original PDF on 25 May 2017 Retrieved 29 May 2015 Viewpoint Why Sikhs celebrate kindness BBC News BBC News 15 July 2021 Countries With The Largest Jain Populations WorldAtlas 11 June 2020 Vir Sanghvi Rude Travel Down The Sages Hindustan Times a b Michaels 2004 p 33 Max Muller The Upanishads Part 1 Oxford University Press page LXXXVI footnote 1 a b Olivelle 2014 pp 12 14 King 1995 p 52 Olivelle 1998 p xxiii a b c d e f Michaels 2004 p 38 a b Jain 2008 p 210 a b Svarghese 2008 p 259 60 Olivelle 1998 pp xx xxiv Samuel 2010 Thapar 1978 p 19 20 a b c Thapar 1978 p 19 Thapar 1978 p 20 Michaels 2004 Smart 2003 p 52 83 86 Smart 2003 p 52 Michaels 2004 p 36 Muesse 2003 p 14 Harari Yuval Noah 2015 Sapiens A Brief History of Humankind Translated by Harari Yuval Noah Purcell John Watzman Haim London Penguin Random House UK pp 235 236 ISBN 978 0 09 959008 8 OCLC 910498369 Heehs 2002 p 39 Wright 2009 pp 281 282 a b Ratnagar 2004 a b Marshall 1931 pp 48 78 Possehl 2002 pp 141 156 a b Possehl 2002 pp 141 144 Srinivasan 1975 Srinivasan 1997 pp 180 181 Sullivan 1964 Hiltebeitel 2011 pp 399 432 Vilas Sangave 2001 Facets of Jainology Selected Research Papers on Jain Society Religion and Culture Mumbai Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 839 2 Zimmer 1969 pp 60 208 209 Thomas McEvilley 2002 The Shape of Ancient Thought Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies Allworth Communications Inc 816 pages ISBN 1 58115 203 5 a b Possehl 2002 pp 141 145 McIntosh 2008 pp 286 287 World Religions Eastern Traditions Edited by Willard Gurdon Oxtoby 2nd ed Don Mills Ontario Oxford University Press 2002 pp 18 19 ISBN 0 19 541521 3 OCLC 46661540 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Marshall 1931 p 67 a b World Religions Eastern Traditions Edited by Willard Gurdon Oxtoby 2nd ed Don Mills Ontario Oxford University Press 2002 p 18 ISBN 0 19 541521 3 OCLC 46661540 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Possehl 2002 p 18 Thapar 2004 p 85 McIntosh 2008 pp 275 277 292 Possehl 2002 pp 152 157 176 McIntosh 2008 pp 293 299 a b Stephanie W Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind Sharma editor The Study of Hinduism University of South Carolina Press 2003 page 65 History Of Ancient India portraits Of A Nation 1 e By 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