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Wikipedia

Spirituality

May 04, 2023

For the belief in being able to contact the dead, see Spiritualism.

The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other.[1][2][3][note 1] Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape of man",[note 2] oriented at "the image of God"[4][5] as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the religions of the world. The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit[6] and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mental aspects of life.[7][8]

In modern times, the term both spread to other religious traditions[9] and broadened to refer to a wider range of experiences, including a range of esoteric and religious traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a sacred dimension[10] and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live",[11][12] often in a context separate from organized religious institutions.[6] This may involve belief in a supernatural realm beyond the ordinarily observable world,[13] personal growth,[14] a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning,[15] religious experience,[16] or an encounter with one's own "inner dimension".[17]

Etymology

The term spirit means "animating or vital principle in man and animals".[web 1] It is derived from the Old French espirit, which comes from the Latin word spiritus (soul, ghost, courage, vigor, breath) and is related to spirare (to breathe). In the Vulgate, the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma and Hebrew ruach.[web 1]

The term "spiritual", meaning "concerning the spirit", is derived from Old French spirituel (12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes by spiritus or "spirit".[web 2]

The term "spirituality" is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin "spiritualitatem" (nominative spiritualitas), which is also derived from Latin spiritualis.[web 3]

Definition

There is no single, widely agreed-upon definition of spirituality.[2][3][note 1] Surveys of the definition of the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad range of definitions with limited overlap.[1] A survey of reviews by McCarroll, each dealing with the topic of spirituality, gave twenty-seven explicit definitions among which "there was little agreement".[1] This causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically; i.e., it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion.

According to Kees Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation that "aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha, and in Islam, Muhammad."[note 2] Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, and Eastern religions. [14]

In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience[10] and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live",[11][12] incorporating personal growth or transformation, usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions.[6] Spirituality can be defined generally as an individual's search for ultimate or sacred meaning, and purpose in life.[15] Additionally it can mean to seek out or search for personal growth, religious experience, belief in a supernatural realm or afterlife, or to make sense of one's own "inner dimension".[13][14][16][17]

Development of the meaning of spirituality

Classical, medieval, and early modern periods

Bergomi detects "an enlightened form of non-religious spirituality" in late antiquity.[18]

Words translatable as "spirituality" first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages.[19][need quotation to verify] In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God.[20] The New Testament offers the concept of being driven by the Holy Spirit, as opposed to living a life in which one rejects this influence.[6]

In the 11th century, this meaning changed. "Spirituality" began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, "the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter".[21][note 3] In the 13th century "spirituality" acquired a social and psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy: "the ecclesiastical against the temporary possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authority, the clerical class against the secular class".[22][note 4] Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life: "the purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dispositions, the psychology of the spiritual life, the analysis of the feelings".[23][note 5]

In the 17th and 18th centuries a distinction was made[by whom?] between higher and lower forms of spirituality:[24] "A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper than others'."[23][note 6] The word was also associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning.[25]

Modern spirituality

See also: History of Western esotericism and New Age

Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, mixing Christian ideas with Western esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, religions. Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organizations and institutions. It is sometimes associated today with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics.[26]

Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.[27] He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism, an early 19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, the skepticism of Hume,[web 4] and Neoplatonism.[28][29] The Transcendentalists emphasized an intuitive, experiential approach to religion.[web 5] Following Schleiermacher,[30] an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth.[web 5] In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking.[web 5] They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians.[web 5][web 6]

Theosophy, anthroposophy, and the perennial philosophy

See also: Western esotericism

A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for 'secret teachings' in Asian religions.[31] It has been influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably Neo-Vedanta, the revival of Theravada Buddhism, and Buddhist modernism, which have taken over modern western notions of personal experience and universalism and integrated them in their religious concepts.[31] A second, related influence was Anthroposophy, whose founder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in developing a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways that such a spirituality could transform practical institutions such as education, agriculture, and medicine.[32][33] More independently, the spiritual science of Martinus was an influence, especially in Scandinavia.[34]

The influence of Asian traditions on western modern spirituality was also furthered by the perennial philosophy, whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influenced by Swami Vivekananda's Neo-Vedanta and universalism,[35] and the spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after World War II.

Neo-Vedanta

Main article: Neo-Vedanta

An important influence on western spirituality was Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism[36] and Hindu Universalism,[citation needed] a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"[37] with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.[38] Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.[31] Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought to India by missionaries, and had a major influence on neo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj and Brahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reform Hinduism, from the idea of Universalism.[39] This universalism was further popularised, and brought back to the west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami Vivekananda.[39]

"Spiritual but not religious"

Main article: Spiritual but not religious

After the Second World War, spirituality and theistic religion became increasingly disconnected,[23] and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of "attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context".[10] A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the true self by self-disclosure, free expression, and meditation.[14]

The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called "seminar spirituality":[40] structured offerings complementing consumer choice with spiritual options.

Among other factors, declining membership of organized religions and the growth of secularism in the western world have given rise to this broader view of spirituality.[41] The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which the term "religious" was formerly employed.[9] Both theists and atheists have criticized this development.[42][43]

Traditional spirituality

Abrahamic faiths

Judaism

Spirituality in Judaism may involve practices of Jewish ethics, Jewish prayer, Jewish meditation, Shabbat and holiday observance, Torah study, dietary laws, teshuvah, and other practices.[44][45][web 7] It may involve practices ordained by halakhah or other practices.[44]

Kabbalah (literally "receiving") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Interpretations of Kabbalistic spirituality are found within Hasidic Judaism, a branch of Orthodox Judaism founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov. Hasidism often emphasizes the Immanent Divine presence and focuses on emotion, fervour, and the figure of the Tzadik. This movement included an elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism.[46][47]

The Musar movement is a Jewish spiritual movement that has focused on developing character traits such as faith, humility, and love. The Musar movement, first founded in the 19th century by Israel Salanter and developed in the 21st century by Alan Morinis and Ira F. Stone, has encouraged spiritual practices of Jewish meditation, Jewish prayer, Jewish ethics, tzedakah, teshuvah, and the study of musar (ethical) literature.[48]

Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have often emphasized the spirituality of Jewish ethics and tikkun olam,[49][50] feminist spirituality,[51][52] Jewish prayer,[53][54] Torah study,[55][56] ritual,[57][58] and musar.[48][59]

Christianity

Main articles: Catholic spirituality and Christian mysticism
 
Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

Catholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out a personal act of faith (fides qua creditur) following the acceptance of faith (fides quae creditur). Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the centuries. Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other lay groupings have their own unique spirituality – its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the Gospel.

Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).

Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post-critical understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful.

Islam

An inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle are two commonly accepted meanings of the Arabic word jihad:[60] The "greater jihad" is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties.[60][web 8] This non-violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim[61] and non-Muslim[62] authors.

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the companion of Muhammad, Jabir ibn Abd-Allah:

The Prophet ... returned from one of his battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad – the striving of a servant (of Allah) against his desires (holy war)."[unreliable source?][web 8][63][note 7]

Sufism
Main article: Sufism

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the Sufi tradition (famous through Rumi and Hafiz) in which a Sheikh or pir transmits spiritual discipline to students.[64]

Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic: تصوّف) is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam.[65][66][67] A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad,

Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you.

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by more rigid and fundamentalist groups such as the Wahhabi and Salafi movement. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.[68]

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".[69] Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".[70]

Indian religions

Jainism

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto and the Ṇamōkāra mantra is its most common and basic prayer.

Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or Tirthankaras, with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago; the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to 9th century BCE; and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahavira around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology.

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism

Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, which literally means "development" or "cultivating"[71] or "producing"[72][73] in the sense of "calling into existence".[74] It is an important concept in Buddhist praxis (Patipatti). The word bhavana normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound phrase such as citta-bhavana (the development or cultivation of the heart/mind) or metta-bhavana (the development/cultivation of loving kindness). When used on its own bhavana signifies 'spiritual cultivation' generally.

Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed throughout the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, but others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.

Hinduism

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, henotheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, or atheistic.[75] Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ksaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ[76]). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.[77][78]

Four paths
Main article: Hinduism
 
Jñāna marga
 
Bhakti marga
 
Rāja marga
Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism

Traditionally, Hinduism identifies three mārga (ways)[79][note 8] of spiritual practice,[80] namely Jñāna(ज्ञान), the way of knowledge; Bhakti, the way of devotion; and Karma yoga, the way of selfless action. In the 19th century Vivekananda, in his neo-Vedanta synthesis of Hinduism, added Rāja yoga, the way of contemplation and meditation, as a fourth way, calling all of them "yoga".[81][note 9]

Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher) in one's spiritual practice.[83] Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music – such as in kirtans – in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.[84] Karma marga is the path of one's work, where diligent practical work or vartta (Sanskrit: वार्त्ता, profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards.[85][note 10] Rāja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called samādhi.[87][88] This state of samādhi has been compared to peak experience.[89]

There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will succeed; Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns of becoming 'false ascetic' who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths.[90] In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda, the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person's proclivities.[78][91] Other scholars[92] suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese Hinduism, where it is called Chatur Marga (literally: four paths).[93]

Schools and spirituality

Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices. In Tantric school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as sādhanā. It involves initiation into the school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.[94] The Hare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual practice.[95] In Advaita Vedanta school, the spiritual practice emphasizes jñāna yoga in stages: samnyasa (cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) and dhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate).[96]

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism
 
An 18th Century Sikh Raja

Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined:[97] "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes of its characteristics."[98] Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than a purely contemplative life.[99]

The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent.[100] According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.[101]

According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life",[102] the polar opposite to a self-centered existence.[102] Nanak talks further about the one God or akal (timelessness) that permeates all life[103]).[104][105] and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.[106]

In Sikhism there is no dogma,[107] priests, monastics or yogis.

African spirituality

Main article: Traditional African religion

In some African contexts,[which?] spirituality is considered a belief system that guides the welfare of society and the people therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occasioned by evil.[108] In traditional society prior to colonization and extensive introduction to Christianity or Islam, religion was the strongest element in society influencing the thinking and actions of the people. Hence spirituality was a sub-domain of religion.[109] Despite the rapid social, economic and political changes of the last century, traditional religion remains the essential background for many African people. And that religion is a communal given, not an individual choice. Religion gives all of life its meaning and provides ground for action. Each person is "a living creed of his religion". There is no concern for spiritual matters apart from ones physical and communal life. Life continues after death but remains focused on pragmatic family and community matters.

Contemporary spirituality

See also: New Age

The term spiritual has frequently become used in contexts in which the term religious was formerly employed.[9] Contemporary spirituality is also called "post-traditional spirituality" and "New Age spirituality".[110] Hanegraaf makes a distinction between two "New Age" movements: New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and "New Age" in a general sense, which emerged in the later 1970s:

when increasing numbers of people ... began to perceive a broad similarity between a wide variety of "alternative ideas" and pursuits, and started to think of them as part of one "movement".[111]

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of different "spiritual paths", emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about 24% of the United States population identifies itself as "spiritual but not religious".[web 9]

Lockwood draws attention to the variety of spiritual experience in the contemporary West:

The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by consumerism and choice abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement, each offering participants a pathway to the Self.[112]

Characteristics

Modern spirituality centers on the "deepest values and meanings by which people live".[113] It often embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality.[114] It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his or her being.

Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for others).[115]: 22  These are aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or any divine being. Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre) who clearly value the non-material, communal, and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term "spirituality" as being overly-broad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying "everything and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual").[116] In 1930 Russell, a self-described agnostic renowned as an atheist, wrote "... one's ego is no very large part of the world. The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist."[117] Similarly, Aristotle – one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces – argued that "men create Gods in their own image" (not the other way around). Moreover, theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the "secular spirituality" label on the basis that it appears to be nothing more than obscurantism in that:[citation needed]

  • the term "spirit" is commonly taken as denoting the existence of unseen / otherworldly / life-giving forces; and
  • words such as "morality", "philanthropy" and "humanism" already efficiently and succinctly describe the prosocial-orientation and civility that the phrase "secular spirituality" is meant to convey but without risking confusion that one is referring to something supernatural.

Although personal well-being, both physical and psychological, is said[by whom?] to be an important aspect of modern spirituality, this does not imply spirituality is essential to achieving happiness (e.g. see). Free-thinkers who reject notions that the numinous/non-material is important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually-oriented individuals ()[118][need quotation to verify]

Contemporary proponents of spirituality may suggest that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for happiness. For example, meditation and similar practices are suggested to help the practitioner cultivate a personal inner life and character.[119][unreliable source?] [120] Ellison and Fan (2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive health outcomes, including "morale, happiness, and life satisfaction".[121] However, Schuurmans-Stekhoven (2013) actively attempted to replicate this research and found more "mixed" results.[122][need quotation to verify] Nevertheless, spirituality has played a central role in some self-help movements such as Alcoholics Anonymous:

if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and self-sacrifice for others, he could not survive the certain trials and low spots ahead[123]

Such spiritually-informed treatment approaches have been challenged as pseudoscience.[124]

Spiritual experience

Main article: Religious experience

Spiritual experiences play a central role in modern spirituality.[30] Both western and Asian authors have popularised this notion.[125][126] Important early-20th century Western writers who studied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, include William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea of the Holy (1917)

James' notions of "spiritual experience" had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western audience.[30]

William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience.[125] He has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which allegedly grants knowledge.[web 10]

Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. Schleiermacher used the idea of "religious experience" to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. Many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential, adopted the concept.[127]

Major Asian influences on contemporary spirituality have included Swami Vivekananda[128] (1863–1902) and D.T. Suzuki.[30] (1870–1966) Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretic Hinduism,[129][126] in which an emphasis on personal experience replaced the authority of scriptures.[126][130] Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality.[web 11][web 12][31] Other influences came through Paul Brunton's A Search in Secret India (1934),[131] which introduced Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950) and Meher Baba (1894–1969) to a western audience.

Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; joining with other individuals or the human community; with nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.[132]

Spiritual practices

Main article: Spiritual practice

Kees Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:[133]

  1. Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. Deprivation aims to purify the body. Diminishment concerns the repulsement of ego-oriented impulses. Examples include fasting and poverty.[133]
  2. Psychological practices, for example meditation.[134]
  3. Social practices. Examples include the practice of obedience and communal ownership, reforming ego-orientedness into other-orientedness.[134]
  4. Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying ego-centeredness, and direct the abilities at the divine reality.[134]

Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness, prayer, the contemplation of sacred texts, ethical development,[115] and spiritual retreats in a convent. Love and/or compassion are often[quantify] described[by whom?] as the mainstay of spiritual development.[115]

Within spirituality is also found "a common emphasis on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences."[135]

Scientific research

Health and well-being

Main article: Religion and health

Various studies (most originating from North America) have reported a positive correlation between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders.[136][137][138][139] Although spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic,[140] report greater social support,[141] and experience higher intrinsic meaning in life,[142] strength, and inner peace,[143] whether the correlation represents a causal link remains contentious. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret, in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and measured.[122] There is also evidence that an agreeable/positive temperament and/or a tendency toward sociability (which all correlate with spirituality) might actually be the key psychological features that predispose people to subsequently adopt a spiritual orientation and that these characteristics, not spiritually per se, add to well-being. There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a member of a close-knit community. Social bonds available via secular sources (i.e., not unique to spirituality or faith-based groups) might just as effectively raise well-being. In sum, spirituality may not be the "active ingredient" (i.e., past association with psychological well-being measures might reflect a reverse causation or effects from other variables that correlate with spirituality),[116][144][145][146][147][148][149] and that the effects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue – personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual – may better account for spirituality's apparent correlation with mental health and social support.[116][150][151][152][153]

Intercessionary prayer

Masters and Spielmans[154] conducted a meta-analysis of all the available and reputable research examining the effects of distant intercessory prayer. They found no discernible health effects from being prayed for by others. In fact, one large and scientifically rigorous study by Herbert Benson and colleagues[155] revealed that intercessory prayer had no effect on recovery from cardiac arrest, but patients told people were praying for them actually had an increased risk of medical complications. Knowing others are praying for you could actually be medically detrimental.

Spiritual care in health care professions

Main article: Spiritual care in health care professions

In the health-care professions there is growing[quantify] interest in "spiritual care", to complement the medical-technical approaches and to improve the outcomes of medical treatments.[156][157] Puchalski et al. argue for "compassionate systems of care" in a spiritual context.

Spiritual experiences

Neuroscientists have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences[158][159] finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brain are involved.[160][161][162][163] Moreover, experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering psychoactive agents known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.[164][165] Conversely, religiosity and spirituality can also be dampened by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain.[166] These results have motivated some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis[144][web 13][167][168][169][170] – benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly incongruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive (personal and meaningful transcendent experiences).[168][169]

Measurement

Considerable debate persists about – among other factors – spirituality's relation to religion, the number and content of its dimensions, its relation to concepts of well-being, and its universality.[171] A number of research groups have developed instruments which attempt to measure spirituality quantitatively, including the Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS), the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS) and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale. MacDonald et al. gave an "Expressions of Spirituality Inventory" (ESI-R) measuring five dimensions of spirituality to over 4000 persons across eight countries. The study results and interpretation highlighted the complexity and challenges of measurement of spirituality cross-culturally.[171]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b See:
    * Koenig et al.: "There is no widely agreed on definition of spirituality today".[2]
    * Cobb et al.: "The spiritual dimension is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative definition of spirituality".[3]
  2. ^ a b Waaijman[4][5] uses the word "omvorming", "to change the form". Different translations are possible: transformation, re-formation, trans-mutation.
  3. ^ In Dutch: "de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere wereld van de materie". [21]
  4. ^ In Dutch: "de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen, het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijke stand tegenover de lekenstand".[22]
  5. ^ In Dutch: "Zuiverheid van motieven, affecties, wilsintenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van het geestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens".[23]
  6. ^ In Dutch: "Een spiritueel mens is iemand die 'overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen' christen is".[23]
  7. ^ This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: "greater" and "lesser". Some Islamic scholars dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important.[web 8]
  8. ^ See also Bhagavad Gita (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56–57, 12, 13:1–28
  9. ^ Georg Feuerstein: "Yoga is not easy to define. In most general terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certain schools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalent of Christian mysticism, Moslem Sufism, or the Jewish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as a yogin (if male) or a yogini (if female)."[82]
  10. ^ Klaus Klostermaier discusses examples from Bhagavata Purana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where a forest worker discovers observing mother nature is a spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowledge. The Purana suggests that "true knowledge of nature" leads to "true knowledge of Self and God." It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides. For example, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom that all things while pursuing their own activities, do nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established; another wisdom from earth is her example of accepting the good and bad from everyone. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that one must make effort to gain knowledge, a willingness and flexibility to examine, pick and collect essence from different scriptures and sources. And so on. Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality.[86]

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Further reading

  • Downey, Michael. Understanding Christian Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1997. ISBN 9780809136803. OCLC 1203470053.
  • Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art: Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the Present, 1986. ISBN 9781137350039. OCLC 951518757.
  • Eck, D. L. (2009). A new religious America: How a "Christian country" has now become the world's most religiously diverse nation. New York: Harper One. ISBN 9780060621599. OCLC 642935048.
  • Metzinger, Thomas (2013). Spirituality and Intellectual Honesty: An Essay (PDF). Self-Published. ISBN 978-3-00-041539-5.
    • "Spirituality and Intellectual Honesty with Thomas Metzinger". Krishnamurti Educational Center. July 19, 2017. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11 – via YouTube.
  • Schmidt, L. E. (2012). Restless souls: The making of American spirituality. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520273672. OCLC 901470818.
  • Carrette, J. R., & King, R. (2011). Selling spirituality: The silent takeover of religion. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415302098. OCLC 774046317.

May 04, 2023
spirituality, belief, being, able, contact, dead, spiritualism, meaning, spirituality, developed, expanded, over, time, various, meanings, found, alongside, each, other, note, traditionally, spirituality, referred, religious, process, formation, which, aims, r. For the belief in being able to contact the dead see Spiritualism The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time and various meanings can be found alongside each other 1 2 3 note 1 Traditionally spirituality referred to a religious process of re formation which aims to recover the original shape of man note 2 oriented at the image of God 4 5 as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the religions of the world The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit 6 and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mental aspects of life 7 8 In modern times the term both spread to other religious traditions 9 and broadened to refer to a wider range of experiences including a range of esoteric and religious traditions Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a sacred dimension 10 and the deepest values and meanings by which people live 11 12 often in a context separate from organized religious institutions 6 This may involve belief in a supernatural realm beyond the ordinarily observable world 13 personal growth 14 a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning 15 religious experience 16 or an encounter with one s own inner dimension 17 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Development of the meaning of spirituality 3 1 Classical medieval and early modern periods 3 2 Modern spirituality 3 2 1 Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism 3 2 2 Theosophy anthroposophy and the perennial philosophy 3 2 3 Neo Vedanta 3 2 4 Spiritual but not religious 4 Traditional spirituality 4 1 Abrahamic faiths 4 1 1 Judaism 4 1 2 Christianity 4 1 3 Islam 4 1 3 1 Sufism 4 2 Indian religions 4 2 1 Jainism 4 2 2 Buddhism 4 2 3 Hinduism 4 2 3 1 Four paths 4 2 3 2 Schools and spirituality 4 2 4 Sikhism 4 3 African spirituality 5 Contemporary spirituality 5 1 Characteristics 5 2 Spiritual experience 5 3 Spiritual practices 6 Scientific research 6 1 Health and well being 6 2 Intercessionary prayer 6 2 1 Spiritual care in health care professions 6 3 Spiritual experiences 6 4 Measurement 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 10 1 Published sources 10 2 Web sources 11 Further readingEtymology EditThe term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals web 1 It is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus soul ghost courage vigor breath and is related to spirare to breathe In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma and Hebrew ruach web 1 The term spiritual meaning concerning the spirit is derived from Old French spirituel 12c which is derived from Latin spiritualis which comes by spiritus or spirit web 2 The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualite from Late Latin spiritualitatem nominative spiritualitas which is also derived from Latin spiritualis web 3 Definition EditThere is no single widely agreed upon definition of spirituality 2 3 note 1 Surveys of the definition of the term as used in scholarly research show a broad range of definitions with limited overlap 1 A survey of reviews by McCarroll each dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty seven explicit definitions among which there was little agreement 1 This causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically i e it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion According to Kees Waaijman the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re formation that aims to recover the original shape of man the image of God To accomplish this the re formation is oriented at a mold which represents the original shape in Judaism the Torah in Christianity there is Christ for Buddhism Buddha and in Islam Muhammad note 2 Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology mystical and esoteric traditions and Eastern religions 14 In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience 10 and the deepest values and meanings by which people live 11 12 incorporating personal growth or transformation usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions 6 Spirituality can be defined generally as an individual s search for ultimate or sacred meaning and purpose in life 15 Additionally it can mean to seek out or search for personal growth religious experience belief in a supernatural realm or afterlife or to make sense of one s own inner dimension 13 14 16 17 Development of the meaning of spirituality EditClassical medieval and early modern periods Edit Bergomi detects an enlightened form of non religious spirituality in late antiquity 18 Words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages 19 need quotation to verify In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God 20 The New Testament offers the concept of being driven by the Holy Spirit as opposed to living a life in which one rejects this influence 6 In the 11th century this meaning changed Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter 21 note 3 In the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy the ecclesiastical against the temporary possessions the ecclesiastical against the secular authority the clerical class against the secular class 22 note 4 Psychologically it denoted the realm of the inner life the purity of motives affections intentions inner dispositions the psychology of the spiritual life the analysis of the feelings 23 note 5 In the 17th and 18th centuries a distinction was made by whom between higher and lower forms of spirituality 24 A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly and deeper than others 23 note 6 The word was also associated with mysticism and quietism and acquired a negative meaning 25 Modern spirituality Edit See also History of Western esotericism and New Age Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th centuries mixing Christian ideas with Western esoteric traditions and elements of Asian especially Indian religions Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organizations and institutions It is sometimes associated today with philosophical social or political movements such as liberalism feminist theology and green politics 26 Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism Edit Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803 1882 was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field 27 He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism an early 19th century liberal Protestant movement which was rooted in English and German Romanticism the Biblical criticism of Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher the skepticism of Hume web 4 and Neoplatonism 28 29 The Transcendentalists emphasized an intuitive experiential approach to religion web 5 Following Schleiermacher 30 an individual s intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth web 5 In the late 18th and early 19th century the first translations of Hindu texts appeared which were also read by the Transcendentalists and influenced their thinking web 5 They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas leading to Unitarian Universalism the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well since a loving God would redeem all living beings not just Christians web 5 web 6 Theosophy anthroposophy and the perennial philosophy Edit See also Western esotericism A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions 31 It has been influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions notably Neo Vedanta the revival of Theravada Buddhism and Buddhist modernism which have taken over modern western notions of personal experience and universalism and integrated them in their religious concepts 31 A second related influence was Anthroposophy whose founder Rudolf Steiner was particularly interested in developing a genuine Western spirituality and in the ways that such a spirituality could transform practical institutions such as education agriculture and medicine 32 33 More independently the spiritual science of Martinus was an influence especially in Scandinavia 34 The influence of Asian traditions on western modern spirituality was also furthered by the perennial philosophy whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influenced by Swami Vivekananda s Neo Vedanta and universalism 35 and the spread of social welfare education and mass travel after World War II Neo Vedanta Edit Main article Neo Vedanta An important influence on western spirituality was Neo Vedanta also called neo Hinduism 36 and Hindu Universalism citation needed a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism It aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism 37 with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine 38 Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia which also influenced western religiosity 31 Unitarianism and the idea of Universalism was brought to India by missionaries and had a major influence on neo Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy s Brahmo Samaj and Brahmoism Roy attempted to modernise and reform Hinduism from the idea of Universalism 39 This universalism was further popularised and brought back to the west as neo Vedanta by Swami Vivekananda 39 Spiritual but not religious Edit Main article Spiritual but not religious After the Second World War spirituality and theistic religion became increasingly disconnected 23 and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience instead of attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context 10 A new discourse developed in which humanistic psychology mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended to reach the true self by self disclosure free expression and meditation 14 The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called seminar spirituality 40 structured offerings complementing consumer choice with spiritual options Among other factors declining membership of organized religions and the growth of secularism in the western world have given rise to this broader view of spirituality 41 The term spiritual is now frequently used in contexts in which the term religious was formerly employed 9 Both theists and atheists have criticized this development 42 43 Traditional spirituality EditAbrahamic faiths Edit Judaism Edit Spirituality in Judaism may involve practices of Jewish ethics Jewish prayer Jewish meditation Shabbat and holiday observance Torah study dietary laws teshuvah and other practices 44 45 web 7 It may involve practices ordained by halakhah or other practices 44 Kabbalah literally receiving is an esoteric method discipline and school of thought of Judaism Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging eternal and mysterious Ein Sof no end and the mortal and finite universe his creation Interpretations of Kabbalistic spirituality are found within Hasidic Judaism a branch of Orthodox Judaism founded in 18th century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov Hasidism often emphasizes the Immanent Divine presence and focuses on emotion fervour and the figure of the Tzadik This movement included an elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism 46 47 The Musar movement is a Jewish spiritual movement that has focused on developing character traits such as faith humility and love The Musar movement first founded in the 19th century by Israel Salanter and developed in the 21st century by Alan Morinis and Ira F Stone has encouraged spiritual practices of Jewish meditation Jewish prayer Jewish ethics tzedakah teshuvah and the study of musar ethical literature 48 Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have often emphasized the spirituality of Jewish ethics and tikkun olam 49 50 feminist spirituality 51 52 Jewish prayer 53 54 Torah study 55 56 ritual 57 58 and musar 48 59 Christianity Edit Main articles Catholic spirituality and Christian mysticism This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism Catholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out a personal act of faith fides qua creditur following the acceptance of faith fides quae creditur Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the centuries Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other lay groupings have their own unique spirituality its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the Gospel Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity It has often been connected to mystical theology especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of the soul s mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture i e Lectio Divina Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post critical understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction and that spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful Islam Edit An inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle are two commonly accepted meanings of the Arabic word jihad 60 The greater jihad is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties 60 web 8 This non violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim 61 and non Muslim 62 authors Al Khatib al Baghdadi an 11th century Islamic scholar referenced a statement by the companion of Muhammad Jabir ibn Abd Allah The Prophet returned from one of his battles and thereupon told us You have arrived with an excellent arrival you have come from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad the striving of a servant of Allah against his desires holy war unreliable source web 8 63 note 7 Sufism Edit Main article Sufism The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the Sufi tradition famous through Rumi and Hafiz in which a Sheikh or pir transmits spiritual discipline to students 64 Sufism or taṣawwuf Arabic تصو ف is defined by its adherents as the inner mystical dimension of Islam 65 66 67 A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣufi ص وف ي Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan perfection of worship as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance peace and against any form of violence The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by more rigid and fundamentalist groups such as the Wahhabi and Salafi movement In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya 68 Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God 69 Alternatively in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine purify one s inner self from filth and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits 70 Indian religions Edit Jainism Edit Jainism traditionally known as Jain Dharma is an ancient Indian religion The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsa non violence anekantavada non absolutism and aparigraha non attachment Jains take five main vows ahiṃsa non violence satya truth asteya not stealing brahmacharya sexual continence and aparigraha non possessiveness These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle Parasparopagraho jivanam the function of souls is to help one another is the faith s motto and the Ṇamōkara mantra is its most common and basic prayer Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty four leaders or Tirthankaras with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago the twenty third tirthankara Parshvanatha whom historians date to 9th century BCE and the twenty fourth tirthankara Mahavira around 600 BCE Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology Buddhism Edit Main article Buddhism Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana which literally means development or cultivating 71 or producing 72 73 in the sense of calling into existence 74 It is an important concept in Buddhist praxis Patipatti The word bhavana normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound phrase such as citta bhavana the development or cultivation of the heart mind or metta bhavana the development cultivation of loving kindness When used on its own bhavana signifies spiritual cultivation generally Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed throughout the ages Best known is the Noble Eightfold Path but others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim Hinduism Edit Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order no centralized religious authorities no governing body no prophet s nor any binding holy book Hindus can choose to be polytheistic henotheistic pantheistic monotheistic or atheistic 75 Within this diffuse and open structure spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience and referred to as ksaitrajna Sanskrit क ष त रज ञ 76 It defines spiritual practice as one s journey towards moksha awareness of self the discovery of higher truths true nature of reality and a consciousness that is liberated and content 77 78 Four paths Edit Main article Hinduism Jnana marga Bhakti marga Raja margaThree of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism Traditionally Hinduism identifies three marga ways 79 note 8 of spiritual practice 80 namely Jnana ज ञ न the way of knowledge Bhakti the way of devotion and Karma yoga the way of selfless action In the 19th century Vivekananda in his neo Vedanta synthesis of Hinduism added Raja yoga the way of contemplation and meditation as a fourth way calling all of them yoga 81 note 9 Jnana marga is a path often assisted by a guru teacher in one s spiritual practice 83 Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities the spiritual practice often includes chanting singing and music such as in kirtans in front of idols or images of one or more deity or a devotional symbol of the holy 84 Karma marga is the path of one s work where diligent practical work or vartta Sanskrit व र त त profession becomes in itself a spiritual practice and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards 85 note 10 Raja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues self discipline tapas meditation contemplation and self reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world to a pinnacle state called samadhi 87 88 This state of samadhi has been compared to peak experience 89 There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices For example Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice while those who engage in tapas will succeed Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth but warns of becoming false ascetic who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths 90 In the practice of Hinduism suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person s proclivities 78 91 Other scholars 92 suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive but overlapping These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India such as in Balinese Hinduism where it is called Chatur Marga literally four paths 93 Schools and spirituality Edit Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices In Tantric school for example the spiritual practice has been referred to as sadhana It involves initiation into the school undergoing rituals and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities 94 The Hare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual practice 95 In Advaita Vedanta school the spiritual practice emphasizes jnana yoga in stages samnyasa cultivate virtues sravana hear study manana reflect and dhyana nididhyasana contemplate 96 Sikhism Edit Main article Sikhism An 18th Century Sikh Raja Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined 97 In the Sikh Weltanschauung the temporal world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes of its characteristics 98 Guru Nanak described living an active creative and practical life of truthfulness fidelity self control and purity as being higher than a purely contemplative life 99 The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re affirmed that the political temporal Miri and spiritual Piri realms are mutually coexistent 100 According to the 9th Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadhur the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti power that resides in the temporal and Bhakti spiritual meditative qualities This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh 101 According to Guru Nanak the goal is to attain the attendant balance of separation fusion self other action inaction attachment detachment in the course of daily life 102 the polar opposite to a self centered existence 102 Nanak talks further about the one God or akal timelessness that permeates all life 103 104 105 and which must be seen with the inward eye or the heart of a human being 106 In Sikhism there is no dogma 107 priests monastics or yogis African spirituality Edit Main article Traditional African religion In some African contexts which spirituality is considered a belief system that guides the welfare of society and the people therein and eradicates sources of unhappiness occasioned by evil 108 In traditional society prior to colonization and extensive introduction to Christianity or Islam religion was the strongest element in society influencing the thinking and actions of the people Hence spirituality was a sub domain of religion 109 Despite the rapid social economic and political changes of the last century traditional religion remains the essential background for many African people And that religion is a communal given not an individual choice Religion gives all of life its meaning and provides ground for action Each person is a living creed of his religion There is no concern for spiritual matters apart from ones physical and communal life Life continues after death but remains focused on pragmatic family and community matters Contemporary spirituality EditSee also New Age The term spiritual has frequently become used in contexts in which the term religious was formerly employed 9 Contemporary spirituality is also called post traditional spirituality and New Age spirituality 110 Hanegraaf makes a distinction between two New Age movements New Age in a restricted sense which originated primarily in mid twentieth century England and had its roots in Theosophy and Anthroposophy and New Age in a general sense which emerged in the later 1970s when increasing numbers of people began to perceive a broad similarity between a wide variety of alternative ideas and pursuits and started to think of them as part of one movement 111 Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of different spiritual paths emphasizing the importance of finding one s own individual path to spirituality According to one 2005 poll about 24 of the United States population identifies itself as spiritual but not religious web 9 Lockwood draws attention to the variety of spiritual experience in the contemporary West The new Western spiritual landscape characterised by consumerism and choice abundance is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement each offering participants a pathway to the Self 112 Characteristics Edit Modern spirituality centers on the deepest values and meanings by which people live 113 It often embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality 114 It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his or her being Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character qualities such as love compassion patience tolerance forgiveness contentment responsibility harmony and a concern for others 115 22 These are aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or any divine being Nevertheless many humanists e g Bertrand Russell Jean Paul Sartre who clearly value the non material communal and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term spirituality as being overly broad i e it effectively amounts to saying everything and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual 116 In 1930 Russell a self described agnostic renowned as an atheist wrote one s ego is no very large part of the world The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist 117 Similarly Aristotle one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces argued that men create Gods in their own image not the other way around Moreover theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the secular spirituality label on the basis that it appears to be nothing more than obscurantism in that citation needed the term spirit is commonly taken as denoting the existence of unseen otherworldly life giving forces and words such as morality philanthropy and humanism already efficiently and succinctly describe the prosocial orientation and civility that the phrase secular spirituality is meant to convey but without risking confusion that one is referring to something supernatural Although personal well being both physical and psychological is said by whom to be an important aspect of modern spirituality this does not imply spirituality is essential to achieving happiness e g see Free thinkers who reject notions that the numinous non material is important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually oriented individuals see 118 need quotation to verify Contemporary proponents of spirituality may suggest that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for happiness For example meditation and similar practices are suggested to help the practitioner cultivate a personal inner life and character 119 unreliable source 120 Ellison and Fan 2008 assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive health outcomes including morale happiness and life satisfaction 121 However Schuurmans Stekhoven 2013 actively attempted to replicate this research and found more mixed results 122 need quotation to verify Nevertheless spirituality has played a central role in some self help movements such as Alcoholics Anonymous if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and self sacrifice for others he could not survive the certain trials and low spots ahead 123 Such spiritually informed treatment approaches have been challenged as pseudoscience 124 Spiritual experience Edit Main article Religious experience Spiritual experiences play a central role in modern spirituality 30 Both western and Asian authors have popularised this notion 125 126 Important early 20th century Western writers who studied the phenomenon of spirituality and their works include William James The Varieties of Religious Experience 1902 and Rudolph Otto especially The Idea of the Holy 1917 James notions of spiritual experience had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions making them even further recognisable for a western audience 30 William James popularized the use of the term religious experience in his The Varieties of Religious Experience 125 He has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which allegedly grants knowledge web 10 Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher 1768 1834 who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite Schleiermacher used the idea of religious experience to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique Many scholars of religion of whom William James was the most influential adopted the concept 127 Major Asian influences on contemporary spirituality have included Swami Vivekananda 128 1863 1902 and D T Suzuki 30 1870 1966 Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretic Hinduism 129 126 in which an emphasis on personal experience replaced the authority of scriptures 126 130 Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless transcendent reality web 11 web 12 31 Other influences came through Paul Brunton s A Search in Secret India 1934 131 which introduced Ramana Maharshi 1879 1950 and Meher Baba 1894 1969 to a western audience Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality yielding a more comprehensive self joining with other individuals or the human community with nature or the cosmos or with the divine realm 132 Spiritual practices Edit Main article Spiritual practice Kees Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices 133 Somatic practices especially deprivation and diminishment Deprivation aims to purify the body Diminishment concerns the repulsement of ego oriented impulses Examples include fasting and poverty 133 Psychological practices for example meditation 134 Social practices Examples include the practice of obedience and communal ownership reforming ego orientedness into other orientedness 134 Spiritual All practices aim at purifying ego centeredness and direct the abilities at the divine reality 134 Spiritual practices may include meditation mindfulness prayer the contemplation of sacred texts ethical development 115 and spiritual retreats in a convent Love and or compassion are often quantify described by whom as the mainstay of spiritual development 115 Within spirituality is also found a common emphasis on the value of thoughtfulness tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences 135 Scientific research EditHealth and well being Edit Main article Religion and health Various studies most originating from North America have reported a positive correlation between spirituality and mental well being in both healthy people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders 136 137 138 139 Although spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic 140 report greater social support 141 and experience higher intrinsic meaning in life 142 strength and inner peace 143 whether the correlation represents a causal link remains contentious Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and measured 122 There is also evidence that an agreeable positive temperament and or a tendency toward sociability which all correlate with spirituality might actually be the key psychological features that predispose people to subsequently adopt a spiritual orientation and that these characteristics not spiritually per se add to well being There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a member of a close knit community Social bonds available via secular sources i e not unique to spirituality or faith based groups might just as effectively raise well being In sum spirituality may not be the active ingredient i e past association with psychological well being measures might reflect a reverse causation or effects from other variables that correlate with spirituality 116 144 145 146 147 148 149 and that the effects of agreeableness conscientiousness or virtue personality traits common in many non spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual may better account for spirituality s apparent correlation with mental health and social support 116 150 151 152 153 Intercessionary prayer Edit Masters and Spielmans 154 conducted a meta analysis of all the available and reputable research examining the effects of distant intercessory prayer They found no discernible health effects from being prayed for by others In fact one large and scientifically rigorous study by Herbert Benson and colleagues 155 revealed that intercessory prayer had no effect on recovery from cardiac arrest but patients told people were praying for them actually had an increased risk of medical complications Knowing others are praying for you could actually be medically detrimental Spiritual care in health care professions Edit Main article Spiritual care in health care professions In the health care professions there is growing quantify interest in spiritual care to complement the medical technical approaches and to improve the outcomes of medical treatments 156 157 Puchalski et al argue for compassionate systems of care in a spiritual context Spiritual experiences Edit Neuroscientists have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences 158 159 finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brain are involved 160 161 162 163 Moreover experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering psychoactive agents known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions 164 165 Conversely religiosity and spirituality can also be dampened by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain 166 These results have motivated some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis 144 web 13 167 168 169 170 benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly incongruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive personal and meaningful transcendent experiences 168 169 Measurement Edit Considerable debate persists about among other factors spirituality s relation to religion the number and content of its dimensions its relation to concepts of well being and its universality 171 A number of research groups have developed instruments which attempt to measure spirituality quantitatively including the Spiritual Transcendence Scale STS the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness Spirituality BMMRS and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale MacDonald et al gave an Expressions of Spirituality Inventory ESI R measuring five dimensions of spirituality to over 4000 persons across eight countries The study results and interpretation highlighted the complexity and challenges of measurement of spirituality cross culturally 171 See also Edit Religion portalAnthroposophy Esotericism Glossary of spirituality terms Ietsism Interspirituality Multiple religious belonging New Age Numinous Outline of spirituality Perennial philosophy Reason Relationship between religion and science Religion Religious syncretism Sacred profane dichotomy Secular spirituality Self actualization Self help Skepticism Spiritual activism Spiritual but not religious Spiritual intelligence Spiritism Sublime philosophy TheosophyNotes Edit a b See Koenig et al There is no widely agreed on definition of spirituality today 2 Cobb et al The spiritual dimension is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative definition of spirituality 3 a b Waaijman 4 5 uses the word omvorming to change the form Different translations are possible transformation re formation trans mutation In Dutch de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere wereld van de materie 21 In Dutch de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag de geestelijke stand tegenover de lekenstand 22 In Dutch Zuiverheid van motieven affecties wilsintenties innerlijke disposities de psychologie van het geestelijk leven de analyse van de gevoelens 23 In Dutch Een spiritueel mens is iemand die overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen christen is 23 This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad greater and lesser Some Islamic scholars dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important web 8 See also Bhagavad Gita The Celestial Song Chapters 2 56 57 12 13 1 28 Georg Feuerstein Yoga is not easy to define In most general terms the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism Jainism and certain schools of Buddhism Yoga is the equivalent of Christian mysticism Moslem Sufism or the Jewish Kabbalah A spiritual practitioner is known as a yogin if male or a yogini if female 82 Klaus Klostermaier discusses examples from Bhagavata Purana another ancient Hindu scripture where a forest worker discovers observing mother nature is a spiritual practice to wisdom and liberating knowledge The Purana suggests that true knowledge of nature leads to true knowledge of Self and God It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides For example earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom that all things while pursuing their own activities do nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established another wisdom from earth is her example of accepting the good and bad from everyone Another guru the honeybee teaches that one must make effort to gain knowledge a willingness and flexibility to examine pick and collect essence from different scriptures and sources And so on Nature is a mirror image of spirit perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality 86 References Edit a b c McCarroll O Connor amp Meakes 2005 p 44 a b c Koenig King amp Carson 2012 p 36 a b c Cobb Puchalski amp Rumbold 2012 p 213 a b Waaijman 2000 p 460 a b Waaijman 2002 p page needed a b c d Wong amp Vinsky 2009 The medieval mind The Psychologist Safaria Triantoro Bashori Khoiruddin 2022 10 27 Relationship between Spirituality and Emotional Maturity with Cultural Intelligence in Preventing Culture Shock Psympathic Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi 9 1 45 54 doi 10 15575 psy v9i1 15628 ISSN 2502 2903 a b c Gorsuch amp Miller 1999 a b c Saucier amp Skrzypinska 2006 p 1259 a b Sheldrake 2007 pp 1 2 a b Griffin 1988 a b Schuurmans Stekhoven 2014 a b c d Houtman amp Aupers 2007 a b Snyder amp Lopez 2007 p 261 a b Sharf 2000 a b Waaijman 2002 p 315 Bergomi Mariapaola 2018 Non religious Spirituality in the Greek Age of Anxiety In Salazar Heather Nicholls Roderick eds The Philosophy of Spirituality Analytic Continental and Multicultural Approaches to a New Field of Philosophy Philosophy and Religion Leiden Brill p 143 ISBN 9789004376311 Retrieved 2019 04 29 My aim is to show that an enlightened form of non religious spirituality did exist Jones L G A thirst for god or consumer spirituality Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged by god in L Gregory Jones and James J Buckley eds Spirituality and Social Embodiment Oxford Blackwell 1997 3 28 4 n 4 Waaijman 2000 pp 359 360 a b Waaijman 2000 p 360 a b Waaijman 2000 pp 360 361 a b c d e Waaijman 2000 p 361 Differences Between 17th Century And Early 18th Century ipl org www ipl org Retrieved 2022 11 05 Pryce Elaine Negative to a marked degree or an intense and glowing faith Rufus Jones and quaker quietism Common Knowledge Retrieved 19 November 2022 Snyder amp Lopez 2007 pp 261 261 Schmidt Leigh Eric Restless Souls The Making of American Spirituality San Francisco Harper 2005 ISBN 0 06 054566 6 Remes 2014 p 202 Versluis 2014 p 35 a b c d Sharf 1995 a b c d McMahan 2008 McDermott Robert 2007 The Essential Steiner Lindisfarne ISBN 978 1 58420 051 2 William James and Rudolf Steiner Robert A McDermott 1991 in ReVision vol 13 no 4 1 Archived 2015 09 23 at the Wayback Machine Ole Therkelsen Martinus Darwin and Intelligent design A new Theory of Evolution p 7 Roy 2003 King 2002 p 93 Yelle 2012 p 338 King 2002 p 135 a b King 2002 Paul Heelas The New Age Movement The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity Oxford Blackwell 1996 p 60 Cited in Anthony Giddens Sociology Cambridge Polity 2001 p 554 Michael Hogan 2010 The Culture of Our Thinking in Relation to Spirituality Nova Science Publishers New York Hollywood Amy Winter Spring 2010 Spiritual but Not Religious The Vital Interplay between Submission and Freedom Harvard Divinity Bulletin Harvard Divinity School 38 1 and 2 Retrieved 17 March 2021 David Rabbi 2013 03 21 Viewpoint The Limitations of Being Spiritual but Not Religious Ideas time com Retrieved 2014 01 04 a b Green Arthur Jewish Spirituality Vol 1 2 Sonsino 2002 p page needed Biale David Assaf David Brown Benjamin Gellman Uriel Heilman Samuel Rosman Moshe Sagiv Gadi Wodzinski Marcin 2020 04 14 Hasidism A New History Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 20244 0 Garb Jonathan 2020 07 23 A History of Kabbalah From the Early Modern Period to the Present Day Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 88297 2 a b Claussen Geoffrey 2012 The Practice of Musar Conservative Judaism 63 2 3 26 doi 10 1353 coj 2012 0002 S2CID 161479970 Dorff 2018 p 49 Kaplan 2018 p page needed Dorff 2018 pp 49 151 Kaplan 2013 p 53 Dorff 2018 p 69 70 Sonsino 2002 pp 72 92 Dorff 2018 p 91 Sonsino 2002 pp 56 59 Kaplan 2013 p 50 Sonsino 2002 pp 112 129 Claussen Geoffrey January 2010 The American Jewish Revival of Musar The Hedgehog Review a b Morgan 2010 p 87 Jihad and the Islamic Law of War Archived August 18 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rudolph Peters Islam and Colonialism The doctrine of Jihad in Modern History Mouton Publishers 1979 p 118 Fayd al Qadir vol 4 p 511 Azeemi K S Muraqaba The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation Houston Plato 2005 ISBN 0 9758875 4 8 p xi Alan Godlas University of Georgia Sufism s Many Paths 2000 University of Georgia Archived 2011 10 16 at the Wayback Machine Nuh Ha Mim Keller How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid a 1995 Fatwa accessible at Masud co uk Zubair Fattani The meaning of Tasawwuf Islamic Academy Islamicacademy org Hawting Gerald R 2000 The first dynasty of Islam The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661 750 Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 24073 4 See Google book search Ahmed Zarruq Zaineb Istrabadi Hamza Yusuf Hanson The Principles of Sufism Amal Press 2008 An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba s biography has been published by Fons Vitae Matthieu Ricard has said this in a talk Rhys Davids amp Stede 1921 25 p 503 entry for Bhavana retrieved 9 December 2008 from University Chicago Dsal uchicago edu Archived from the original on 2012 07 11 Retrieved 2014 01 04 Monier Williams 1899 p 755 see Bhavana and Bhavana retrieved 9 December 2008 from University of Cologne PDF Nyanatiloka 1980 p 67 See Julius J Lipner Hindus Their Religious Beliefs and Practices 2nd Edition Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 45677 7 p 8 Quote one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu One may be polytheistic or monotheistic monistic or pantheistic even an agnostic humanist or atheist and still be considered a Hindu Lester Kurtz Ed Encyclopedia of Violence Peace and Conflict ISBN 978 0 12 369503 1 Academic Press 2008 MK Gandhi The Essence of Hinduism Editor VB Kher Navajivan Publishing see p 3 According to Gandhi a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf 2012 Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary क ष त रज ञ Quote क ष त रज ञ kṣaitrajna kṣaitrajna n fr kṣetra jna g yuvadi spirituality nature of the soul Lit W the knowledge of the soul Lit W See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World Spirituality Bhavasar and Kiem Spirituality and Health in Hindu Spirituality Editor Ewert Cousins 1989 ISBN 0 8245 0755 X Crossroads Publishing New York pp 319 37 John Arapura Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads in Hindu Spirituality Editor Ewert Cousins 1989 ISBN 0 8245 0755 X Crossroads Publishing New York pp 64 85 a b Gavin Flood Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Editor Knut Jacobsen 2010 Volume II Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17893 9 see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge pp 881 84 John Lochtefeld 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Rosen Publishing New York ISBN 0 8239 2287 1 D Bhawuk 2011 Spirituality and Cultural Psychology in Anthony Marsella Series Editor International and Cultural Psychology Springer New York ISBN 978 1 4419 8109 7 pp 93 140 De Michelis Elizabeth 2005 A History of Modern Yoga Patanjali and Western Esotericism Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 8772 8 page needed Feuerstein 2003 p 3 Feuerstein 2003 Chapter 55 Jean Varenne 1976 Yoga and the Hindu Tradition University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 85116 8 pp 97 130 See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles McCormick Donald W 1994 Spirituality and Management Journal of Managerial Psychology 9 6 5 8 doi 10 1108 02683949410070142 Macrae Janet 1995 Nightingale s spiritual philosophy and its significance for modern nursing Journal of Nursing Scholarship 27 1 8 10 doi 10 1111 j 1547 5069 1995 tb00806 x PMID 7721325 Klaus Klostermaier 1989 Spirituality and Nature In Ewert Cousins ed Hindu Spirituality New York Crossroads Publishing pp 319 337 ISBN 0 8245 0755 X Vivekananda S 1980 Raja Yoga Ramakrishna Vivekanada Center ISBN 978 0 911206 23 4 Richard King 1999 Indian philosophy An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought Edinburgh University Press ISBN 0 7486 0954 7 pp 69 71 See Harung Harald 2012 Illustrations of Peak Experiences during Optimal Performance in World class Performers Integrating Eastern and Western Insights Journal of Human Values 18 1 33 52 doi 10 1177 097168581101800104 S2CID 143106405 Levin Jeff 2010 Religion and mental health Theory and research International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies 7 2 102 15 Meyer Dinkgrafe Daniel 2011 Opera and spirituality Performance and Spirituality 2 1 38 59 See CR Prasad Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Editor Knut Jacobsen 2010 Volume II Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17893 9 see Article on Brahman pp 724 29 David Carpenter Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Editor Knut Jacobsen 2010 Volume II Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17893 9 see Article on Tapas pp 865 69 Klaus Klostermaier 2007 A Survey of Hinduism 3rd Edition SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7081 7 pp 119 260 Mikel Burley 2000 Hatha Yoga Its context theory and practice Motilal Banarsidass Publications ISBN 81 208 1706 0 pp 97 98 Quote When for example in the Bhagavad Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana bhakti and karma yoga he is not talking about three entirely separate ways of carrying out one s spiritual practice but rather about three aspects of the ideal life Murdana I Ketut 2008 Balinese Arts and Culture A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior Mudra Jurnal Seni Budaya Indonesia Volume 22 p 5 Gavin Flood 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 43878 0 Rochford E B 1985 Hare Krishna in America Rutgers University Press ISBN 978 0 8135 1114 6 p 12 See Ramakrishna Puligandla 1985 Jnana Yoga The Way of Knowledge An Analytical Interpretation University Press of America New York ISBN 0 8191 4531 9 Fort A O 1998 Jivanmukti in Transformation Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo Vedanta State University of New York Press ISBN 0 7914 3903 8 Richard King 1999 Indian philosophy An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought Edinburgh University Press ISBN 0 7486 0954 7 p 223 Sawai Y 1987 The Nature of Faith in the Saṅkaran Vedanta Tradition Numen 34 1 pp 18 44 Nayar Kamal Elizabeth amp Sandhu Jaswinder Singh 2007 The Socially Involved Renunciate Guru Nanaks Discourse to Nath Yogi s State University of New York Press p 106 ISBN 978 0 7914 7950 6 Kaur Singh Nikky Guninder 2004 Hindu spirituality Postclassical and modern Motilal Banarsidass p 530 ISBN 978 81 208 1937 5 Marwha Sonali Bhatt 2006 Colors of Truth Religion Self and Emotions New Delhi Concept Publishing Company p 205 ISBN 978 81 8069 268 0 Marty E Martin amp R Scott Appleby eds 1993 Fundamentalisms and the State Remaking Polities Economies and Militance The Fundamentalism project Vol 3 University of Chicago Press p 278 ISBN 978 0 226 50884 9 Singh Gandhi Surjit 2008 History of Sikh Gurus Retold 1606 708 Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors pp 676 677 ISBN 978 81 269 0857 8 a b Mandair Arvind Pal Singh October 22 2009 Religion and the Specter of the West Sikhism India Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation University of Columbia pp 372 ISBN 978 0 231 14724 8 Singh Nirbhai 1990 Philosophy of Sikhism Reality and Its Manifestations New Delhi South Asia Books pp 111 112 Singh Kalsi Sewa Singh 2005 Sikhism Chelsea House Publishers p 49 ISBN 978 0 7910 8098 6 Hayer Tara 1988 The Sikh Impact Economic History of Sikhs in Canada Volume 1 Surrey Canada Indo Canadian Publishers p 14 verification needed Lebron Robyn 2012 Searching for Spiritual Unity can There be Common Ground A Basic Internet Guide to Forty World Religions amp Spiritual Practices CrossBooks p 399 ISBN 978 1 4627 1261 8 Singh Nikky Guninder 1993 The Feminine Principle in the Sikh Vision of the Transcendent Cambridge University Press p 172 ISBN 978 0 521 43287 0 The spirituality of Africa Harvard Gazette 2015 10 06 Retrieved 2020 02 04 Mbiti John S 1990 African religions amp philosophy 2nd rev and enl ed Oxford Heinemann ISBN 0435895915 Otterloo Aupers amp Houtman 2012 pp 239 240 Hanegraaff 1996 p 97 Lockwood Renee D June 2012 Pilgrimages to the Self Exploring the Topography of Western Consumer Spirituality through the Journey Literature and Aesthetics 22 1 108 Retrieved 19 September 2019 The new Western spiritual landscape characterised by consumerism and choice abundance is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement each offering participants a pathway to the Self Philip Sheldrake A Brief History of Spirituality Wiley Blackwell 2007 pp 1 2 Ewert Cousins preface to Antoine Faivre and Jacob Needleman Modern Esoteric Spirituality Crossroad Publishing 1992 a b c Dalai Lama Ethics for the New Millennium NY Riverhead Books 1999 a b c Schuurmans Stekhoven 2011 Russell Bertrand 1930 The Conquest of Happiness published 2018 ISBN 9781329522206 Retrieved 19 September 2019 The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist Maisel Eric 2009 The Atheist s Way Living Well Without Gods Novato California New World Library published 2010 ISBN 9781577318422 Retrieved 19 September 2019 Wilkinson Tony 2007 The lost art of being happy spirituality for sceptics Findhorn Press ISBN 978 1 84409 116 4 Browner Matthieu Ricard translated by Jesse 2003 Happiness A guide to developing life s most important skill 1st pbk ed New York Little Brown ISBN 978 0 316 16725 3 Ellison Christopher G Daisy Fan Sep 2008 Daily Spiritual Experiences and Psychological Well Being among US Adults Social Indicators Research 88 2 247 71 doi 10 1007 s11205 007 9187 2 JSTOR 27734699 S2CID 144712754 a b Schuurmans Stekhoven 2013 Anonymous 2009 Alcoholics Anonymous By the Anonymous Press The Anonymous Press pp 14 15 ISBN 978 1 892959 16 4 Retrieved 5 March 2013 Compare Ross Colin A Pam Alvin eds 1995 Pseudoscience in biological psychiatry blaming the body Wiley Series in General and Clinical Psychiatry Vol 10 Wiley amp Sons p 96 ISBN 9780471007760 Retrieved 19 September 2019 This doctrine that alcoholism is a disease has been adopted throughout the chemical dependency field including Alcoholics Anonymous AA despite the fact that it has no scientific foundation and is logically incorrect a b Hori 1999 p 47 a b c Rambachan 1994 Sharf 2000 p 271 Renard 2010 p 191 Sinari 2000 Comans 1993 A Search in Secret India Margaret A Burkhardt and Mary Gail Nagai Jacobson Spirituality living our connectedness Delmar Cengage Learning p xiii a b Waaijman 2000 pp 644 645 a b c Waaijman 2000 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Edit a b Online Etymology Dictionary Spirit Etymonline com Retrieved 2014 01 04 Online Etymology Dictionary Spiritual Etymonline com Retrieved 2014 01 04 Online Etymology Dictionary Spirituality Etymonline com Retrieved 2014 01 04 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Transcendentalism Plato stanford edu Retrieved 2014 01 04 a b c d Jone Johnson Lewis What is Transcendentalism Transcendentalists com Archived from the original on 2014 06 27 Retrieved 2014 01 04 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Barry Andrews The Roots Of Unitarian Universalist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism Archive uua org 1999 03 12 Archived from the original on 2013 09 21 Retrieved 2014 01 04 What Are Jewish Spiritual Practices Institute for Jewish Spirituality Retrieved 2021 11 25 a b c Jihad Religions BBC Retrieved 20 February 2012 NewsweekBeliefnet Poll Results Gellman Jerome Mysticism In Edward N Zalta ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 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Published ISBN 978 3 00 041539 5 Spirituality and Intellectual Honesty with Thomas Metzinger Krishnamurti Educational Center July 19 2017 Archived from the original on 2021 12 11 via YouTube Schmidt L E 2012 Restless souls The making of American spirituality Berkeley Calif University of California Press ISBN 9780520273672 OCLC 901470818 Carrette J R amp King R 2011 Selling spirituality The silent takeover of religion London Routledge ISBN 9780415302098 OCLC 774046317 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Spirituality amp oldid 1151227819, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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