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Hindu philosophy

Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the religion of Hinduism during the iron and classical ages of India. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana (viewpoint or perspective), from the Sanskrit root drish ('to see, to experience').[1]

Hindu philosophy consists of six orthodox schools of thought (shad-darśana): Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[2] These are called the āstika philosophical traditions (i.e. those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative, important source of knowledge).[3][note 1][note 2] Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with āstika traditions, but rejected the Vedas; these have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies,[2][3] they include: Buddhism, Jainism, Chārvāka, Ājīvika, and others, [6] which are thus classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy.

Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within āstika philosophies, and theirs with the nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies.[2] The various sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse and are united by shared history and concepts, same textual resources, similar ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology.[7][8] While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions, some heterodox (nāstika) traditions such as Chārvāka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word Hindu is also an exonym and historically the term has been used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.[9][10][11][12]

Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as realism of Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, dualism of Sāṅkhya, non-dualism of Advaita, and self-discipline of Yoga.[13][14][15] Examples of such schools include: Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava.[13][14] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas, with those found in some Buddhist traditions,[16] which are nevertheless found in the Puranas and the Āgamas.[17][18][19] Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana,[20][21] as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.[22]

Classifications edit

In the history of India, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha.[23] Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.[24]

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into āstika and nāstika schools of thought.[25] The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ('six systems'). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins.[26]: 2–3  It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.[26]: 4–5 

Āstika edit

There are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought.[note 3] Each is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each āstika darśana also accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists.[3][27] The āstika schools of philosophy are:

  1. Samkhya – A strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti). Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.[28]
  2. Yoga – A monotheistic school which emerged from Samkhya and emphasizes practical use of Samkhya theory: meditation, contemplation and liberation[citation needed].
  3. Nyaya or logic – The school of epistemology which explores sources of knowledge[citation needed].
  4. Vaisheshika – An empiricist school of atomism[citation needed].
  5. Mīmāṃsā – An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy[citation needed]. This tradition is also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā because of its focus on the earlier (pūrva) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly also known as Karma-Mīmāṁsā due to its focus on ritual action (karma).[29]
  6. Vedanta – They focus on the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or jñānakāṇḍa ('section of knowledge'). Vedanta is also referred to as Uttara-Mimamsa. Vedānta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period[citation needed]. This school considers the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagvad Gita as authoritative texts.[30]

Nāstika edit

Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[6]

  1. Charvaka, a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.[31][32]
  2. Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.[33][34]
  3. Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (Self)[35] and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
  4. Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (Self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.[36]

Other schools edit

Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya, identified by some as Vidyaranya, in his book 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha', includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century. Along with some of the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools:

The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.[13] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.[16]

Characteristics edit

School Sankhya Yoga Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Mīmāṃsā Advaita Vedanta[N 1] Vishishtadvaita Vedanta[N 1] Dvaita Vedanta[N 1] Shuddhadvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda Akshar-Purushottam Darśana Pashupata Shaiva Siddhanta Kashmir Shaivism Raseśvara Pāṇini Darśana
Classification rationalism,[44][45] dualism dualism, spiritual practice realism,[46] logic, analytic philosophy naturalism,[47] atomism exegesis, philology, ritualism non-dualism, pantheism qualified non-dualism, panentheism dualism, theology pure non-dualism simultaneous non-dualism and dualism qualified non-dualism, panentheism theism, spiritual practice dualism theistic non-dualism, idealism alchemy linguistics, philosophy of language
Philosophers Kapila, Iśvarakṛṣṇa, Vācaspati Miśra, Guṇaratna more.. Patañjali, Yajnavalkya, Vyasa[N 2] Aksapada Gautama, Vātsyāyana, Udayana, Jayanta Bhatta more.. Kanada, Praśastapāda, Śridhara's Nyāyakandalī more.. Jaimini, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Prabhākara more.. Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, Madhusudana Saraswati, Vidyaranya more.. Yamunacharya, Ramanuja more.. Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Raghavendra Swami Vallabhacharya Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Six Goswamis of Vrindavana, Visvanatha Chakravarti, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, Baladeva Vidyabhushana, Rupa Goswami, more.. Bhagwan Swaminarayan, Shastriji Maharaj, Bhadreshdas Swami Haradattacharya, Lakulish Tirumular, Meikandadevar, Appayya Dikshita, Sadyojyoti, Aghorasiva Vasugupta, Abhinavagupta, Jayaratha Govinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña Rāmeśvara Pāṇini, Bhartṛhari, Kātyāyana
Texts Samkhyapravachana Sutra, Samkhyakarika, Sāṁkhya tattvakaumudī more.. Yoga Sutras, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Samkhya pravacana bhasya Nyāya Sūtras, Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika more.. Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Padārtha dharma saṁgraha, Daśapadārtha śāstra more.. Purva Mimamsa Sutras, Mimamsasutra bhāshyam more.. Brahma Sutras, Prasthanatrayi, Avadhuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, Pañcadaśī more.. Siddhitrayam, Sri Bhasya, Vedartha Sangraha AnuVyakhana, Brahma Sutra Bahshya, Sarva Shāstrārtha Sangraha, Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumani Brahmasutra Anubhashya, Tattvartha Dipa Nibandha, Subodhiniji, Shodasha Grantha Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavad Gita, Sat Sandarbhas, Govinda Bhashya, Chaitanya Charitamrita, Swaminarayan Bhashyam, Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā, Rāśikara bhāshya Sivagamas, Tirumurais, Meikanda Sastras Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Tantraloka Rasārṇava, Rasahṛidaya, Raseśvara siddhānta Vākyapadīya, Mahabhashya, Vārttikakāra
Concepts Originated Purusha, Prakṛti, Guṇa, Satkāryavāda Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dhāraṇā, Dhyana, Samadhi Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Upamāna, Anyathakyati vada, Niḥśreyasa more.. Padārtha, Dravya, Sāmānya, Viśeṣa, Samavāya, Paramāṇu Apauruṣeyātva, Arthāpatti, Anuapalabdhi, Satahprāmāṇya vāda Jivanmukta, Mahāvākyas, Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya, three orders of reality, Vivartavada Hita, Antarvyāpi, Bahuvyāpi more.. Prapacha, Mukti-yogyas, Nitya-samsarins, Tamo-yogyas Pushtimarg, Brahmavada, Brahma Sambandha Sambandha, Abhidheya, Prayojana (Relationship, Process, Ultimate Goal) Akshar Purushottam Upasana Pashupati, eight pentads Charya, Mantramārga, Rodha Śakti Citi, Mala, Upaya, Anuttara, Aham, Svatantrya Pārada, three modes of mercury Sphoṭa, Ashtadhyayi
  1. ^ a b c Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have evolved from an older Vedanta school and all of them accept Upanishads and Brahma Sutras as standard texts.
  2. ^ Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.)

Overview edit

Epistemology edit

Epistemology is called pramana.[48] It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge.[48] The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.[20]

Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:

  1. Pratyakṣa – Direct perception
  2. Anumāṇa – Inference or indirect perception
  3. Upamāṇa – Comparison and analogy
  4. Arthāpatti – Postulation, derivation from circumstances
  5. Anupalabdi – Non-perception, absence of proof
  6. Shabda – Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts[49]

Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge.[21] For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge,[50] the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony),[50] while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.[50][51]

Sāmkhya edit

Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism,[52] with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.[28] It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy,[44] and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.[53] Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramāṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[54][50]

Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter).[55] It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form.[56] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[56]

Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).[57] Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.[58] The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[59][60] Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness.[61] Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God.[62][63][64][65]

The Samkhya karika, one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three[66] kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them.[67] The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,

From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it.
That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1

The Guṇas (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12
Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13

There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16
Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. – Verse 17

— Samkhya karika, [67][68]

The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom (kaivalya).[69]

Yoga edit

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools.[70] The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school.[71][72] The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara), unlike Samkhya.[73][74][75] The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge:[50] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[51][50]

The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.[76]

A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[77] Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga, jñāna yoga,[78] karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.[79]

The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.[71] Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism.[80][81][82] Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.[83][84]

Vaiśeṣika edit

The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school.[47] It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.[85] It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.[86] Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school.[86] The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE.[86][87] The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows:

Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma. The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma, of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences.

— Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 1.1.1–1.1.4, [88]

The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology, metaphysics and ontology.[89] The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism, accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference.[51][90] The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.[51][91]

Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types:[85] atomic (paramāṇu) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible.[85] The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).[86][92]

Nyāya edit

The Nyāya school is a realist āstika philosophy.[93][94] The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.[95][96] The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the Nyāya Sūtras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.[97][87]

Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[50][98][49]

In its metaphysics, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others.[93] It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).[99] Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.[100] The Nyāya Sūtras begin:

Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge.
Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic.
Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen.
Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known.
Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person.
It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen.
Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are the objects of right knowledge.

— Nyāya Sūtras 1.1.3–1.1.9, [101]

The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in Navya-Nyāya texts like The Manual of Reason (Tarka-Sangraha).[85]

Mīmāṃsā edit

The Mīmāṃsā school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis.[102][103] It is a form of philosophical realism.[104] Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.[29][105] The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the first part of the Vedas.[29]

The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[98][49] The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[50]

The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma.[29][106][107] To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name.[29] The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.[102][29]

Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language.[108] While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools,[109] their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive.[29] Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasized karmakāṇḍa (the portion of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).[102]

Vedānta edit

The Vedanta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE[87][110] and is the most developed[citation needed] and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:[91] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[51][50][49] All of these have been further categorized by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.[91]

The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.[111][112]

Advaita edit

Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism.[113][114] Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.[115][116] This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE.[115] Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.[117]

According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman.[118] Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".[119] The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be".[120][121][122] The concept of ātman is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence.[123][124] They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.[125][124]

Some believe that Shankara is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others.[30]: 156–160 

Viśiṣṭādvaita edit

Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman.[126] Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception (avidyā) is indescribable as either real or unreal (anirvacanīya). It sees this as a contradiction, and argues that avidyā must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that avidyā cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and avidyā is absence of knowledge.[30]: 173  Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something.[30]: 174 

Dvaita edit

Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy.[127][128] Also called Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda, the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya.[127] The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman) and the individual Selfs (Atman) (jīvātman) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.[129][130]

Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas; it espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities.[127] The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman.[127] Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.[131] The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.[132] Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being.[133][134] However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.[130][129] Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world.[30]: 186–187 

Salvation, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu.[127][135][136]

Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda) edit

Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Śuddhādvaita edit

Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puṣṭimārga, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world.[137] That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.[138] This sub-school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non-different from Brahman, who is believed to be Krishna.[139]

Acintya Bheda Abheda edit

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya.[140][141][142] In accordance with the Vishnu Purana, this sub-school ascribes six virtues to God (Bhagavan): power (aishvarya), potency (virya), fame (yasha), prosperity (shri), knowledge (jnana), and renunciation (vairagya). The potency of Bhagavan, which is transcendental, is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterized as one in which there is "inconceivable difference in non-difference" (acintya-bhedabheda). This potency has divisions that are described within Jiva Gosvami's Bhagavat Sandarbha, which comments on the internal potency, and Paramatma Sandarbha, which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan. Maya, which is central to advaita, is the external potency of Bhagavan, which is controlled by Paramatma, an expansion of Bhagavan. And, brahman is included within Bhagavan, who is the object of meditation and realization for bhakti-yogis.[143]

Akshar-Purushottam Darshan edit

Cārvāka edit

The Cārvāka school is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" philosophies .[144][11][145] It rejects supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge[146][147] Cārvāka is an atheistic school of thought.[148] It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.[31][32]

Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost.[148][149] Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature.[148][150][151] The Tattvôpaplava-siṁha by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.[152]

One of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.[153] In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[154]

Shaivism edit

Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.[155] However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[156] is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.[157] Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).[158]

Pāśupata Shaivism edit

Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, 'of Paśupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.[159] The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler.[160] Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.[161]

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.[162]

Shaiva Siddhanta edit

Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta[163][164] provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.[165] Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).[166] This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.[167]

Kashmir Shaivism edit

Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth[168] or ninth century CE[169] in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.[170] It is categorised by various scholars as monistic[171] idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism,[172] transcendental physicalism or concrete monism[172]). It is a school of Śaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.[173]

Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman),[174] in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.[175] This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit).[176] However, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an appearance (māyā).[177] The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.[178]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as Buddhism or Jainism on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.[4]
  2. ^ Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as an epistemic authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;[5] (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)
  3. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.

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Bibliography edit

  • Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
  • Dyczkowski, Mark S. G. (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-88706-432-9.
  • Guttorm Fløistad (28 February 1993). Philosophie asiatique/Asian philosophy. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-0-7923-1762-3.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  • Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
  • Flood, Gavin (2005). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845110110.
  • Grimes, John A. (1989). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0100-2.
  • King, Richard (2007), Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Georgetown University Press
  • Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.
  • Mādhava Āchārya (1882). The Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. Trübner's Oriental Series. Translated by E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough. London: Trübner & Co.
  • Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
  • Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press
  • Perrett, Roy W. (2000). Philosophy of Religion. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2.
  • Potter, Karl H. (1991). Presuppositions of India's Philosophies. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2.
  • Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.

Further reading edit

  • Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922–1955). A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1–5. London: Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1 | Vol. 2 | Vol. 3 | Vol. 4 | Vol. 5.
  • Potter, Karl H., ed. (1970–2019). . Vol. 1–25-. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Ongoing monographic series project.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923–1927). Indian Philosophy. Vol. 2-volume Set. Oxford University Press.
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
  • Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
  • Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1988. ISBN 90-277-2497-0. Chapter 1. "Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines".

External links edit

  •   Media related to Hindu philosophy at Wikimedia Commons


hindu, philosophy, vedic, philosophy, indian, philosophical, systems, that, developed, tandem, with, religion, hinduism, during, iron, classical, ages, india, indian, tradition, word, used, philosophy, darshana, viewpoint, perspective, from, sanskrit, root, dr. Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the religion of Hinduism during the iron and classical ages of India In Indian tradition the word used for philosophy is Darshana viewpoint or perspective from the Sanskrit root drish to see to experience 1 Hindu philosophy consists of six orthodox schools of thought shad darsana Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mimamsa and Vedanta 2 These are called the astika philosophical traditions i e those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative important source of knowledge 3 note 1 note 2 Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with astika traditions but rejected the Vedas these have been called nastika heterodox or non orthodox philosophies 2 3 they include Buddhism Jainism Charvaka Ajivika and others 6 which are thus classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within astika philosophies and theirs with the nastika philosophies starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies 2 The various sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse and are united by shared history and concepts same textual resources similar ontological and soteriological focus and cosmology 7 8 While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions some heterodox nastika traditions such as Charvaka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word Hindu is also an exonym and historically the term has been used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent 9 10 11 12 Hindu philosophy also includes several sub schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies such as realism of Nyaya naturalism of Vaiseṣika dualism of Saṅkhya non dualism of Advaita and self discipline of Yoga 13 14 15 Examples of such schools include Pasupata Saiva Saiva siddhanta Pratyabhijna Rasesvara and Vaiṣṇava 13 14 Some sub schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions 16 which are nevertheless found in the Puranas and the Agamas 17 18 19 Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana 20 21 as well as theories on metaphysics axiology and other topics 22 Contents 1 Classifications 1 1 Astika 1 2 Nastika 1 3 Other schools 2 Characteristics 3 Overview 3 1 Epistemology 4 Samkhya 5 Yoga 6 Vaiseṣika 7 Nyaya 8 Mimaṃsa 9 Vedanta 9 1 Advaita 9 2 Visiṣṭadvaita 9 3 Dvaita 9 4 Dvaitadvaita Bhedabheda 9 5 Suddhadvaita 9 6 Acintya Bheda Abheda 9 7 Akshar Purushottam Darshan 10 Carvaka 11 Shaivism 11 1 Pasupata Shaivism 11 2 Shaiva Siddhanta 11 3 Kashmir Shaivism 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External linksClassifications editFurther information Astika and nastika In the history of India the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha 23 Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy with some sub schools combining heterodox and orthodox views 24 Since ancient times Indian philosophy has been categorized into astika and nastika schools of thought 25 The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarsana six systems This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins 26 2 3 It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy 26 4 5 Astika edit There are six astika orthodox schools of thought note 3 Each is called a darsana and each darsana accepts the Vedas as authority Each astika darsana also accepts the premise that Atman eternal Self exists 3 27 The astika schools of philosophy are Samkhya A strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness purusha and matter prakriti Agnostic with respect to God or the gods 28 Yoga A monotheistic school which emerged from Samkhya and emphasizes practical use of Samkhya theory meditation contemplation and liberation citation needed Nyaya or logic The school of epistemology which explores sources of knowledge citation needed Vaisheshika An empiricist school of atomism citation needed Mimaṃsa An anti ascetic and anti mysticist school of orthopraxy citation needed This tradition is also known as Purva Mimaṁsa because of its focus on the earlier purva Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions and similarly also known as Karma Mimaṁsa due to its focus on ritual action karma 29 Vedanta They focus on the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas or jnanakaṇḍa section of knowledge Vedanta is also referred to as Uttara Mimamsa Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post medieval period citation needed This school considers the Upanishads the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagvad Gita as authoritative texts 30 Nastika edit See also Buddhist philosophy and Jain philosophy Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nastika philosophies of which four nastika heterodox schools are prominent 6 Charvaka a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will 31 32 Ajivika a materialism school that denied the existence of free will 33 34 Buddhism a philosophy that denies existence of atman Self 35 and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha Jainism a philosophy that accepts the existence of the atman Self and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty four teachers known as tirthankaras with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty fourth 36 Other schools edit Besides the major orthodox and non orthodox schools there have existed syncretic sub schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own The medieval scholar Madhavacharya identified by some as Vidyaranya in his book Sarva Darsana Sangraha includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century Along with some of the major orthodox and non orthodox schools and sub schools it includes the following sub schools Pashupata Shaivism developed by Nakulisa 37 Shaiva Siddhanta the theistic Sankhya school 38 39 Pratyabhijna the recognitive school of Kashmir Shaivism Trika 40 41 Rasesvara a Shaiva school that advocated the use of mercury to reach immortality 42 The Paṇiniya 43 The above sub schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyaya naturalism of Vaiseṣika monism and knowledge of Self Atman as essential to liberation of Advaita self discipline of Yoga asceticism and elements of theistic ideas 13 Some sub schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions 16 Characteristics editSchool Sankhya Yoga Nyaya Vaiseṣika Mimaṃsa Advaita Vedanta N 1 Vishishtadvaita Vedanta N 1 Dvaita Vedanta N 1 Shuddhadvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda Akshar Purushottam Darsana Pashupata Shaiva Siddhanta Kashmir Shaivism Rasesvara Paṇini DarsanaClassification rationalism 44 45 dualism dualism spiritual practice realism 46 logic analytic philosophy naturalism 47 atomism exegesis philology ritualism non dualism pantheism qualified non dualism panentheism dualism theology pure non dualism simultaneous non dualism and dualism qualified non dualism panentheism theism spiritual practice dualism theistic non dualism idealism alchemy linguistics philosophy of languagePhilosophers Kapila Isvarakṛṣṇa Vacaspati Misra Guṇaratna more Patanjali Yajnavalkya Vyasa N 2 Aksapada Gautama Vatsyayana Udayana Jayanta Bhatta more Kanada Prasastapada Sridhara s Nyayakandali more Jaimini Kumarila Bhaṭṭa Prabhakara more Gaudapada Adi Shankara Madhusudana Saraswati Vidyaranya more Yamunacharya Ramanuja more Madhvacharya Jayatirtha Vyasatirtha Raghavendra Swami Vallabhacharya Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Six Goswamis of Vrindavana Visvanatha Chakravarti Krishnadasa Kaviraja Baladeva Vidyabhushana Rupa Goswami more Bhagwan Swaminarayan Shastriji Maharaj Bhadreshdas Swami Haradattacharya Lakulish Tirumular Meikandadevar Appayya Dikshita Sadyojyoti Aghorasiva Vasugupta Abhinavagupta Jayaratha Govinda Bhagavat Sarvajna Ramesvara Paṇini Bhartṛhari KatyayanaTexts Samkhyapravachana Sutra Samkhyakarika Saṁkhya tattvakaumudi more Yoga Sutras Yoga Yajnavalkya Samkhya pravacana bhasya Nyaya Sutras Nyaya Bhaṣya Nyaya Varttika more Vaiseṣika Sutra Padartha dharma saṁgraha Dasapadartha sastra more Purva Mimamsa Sutras Mimamsasutra bhashyam more Brahma Sutras Prasthanatrayi Avadhuta Gita Ashtavakra Gita Pancadasi more Siddhitrayam Sri Bhasya Vedartha Sangraha AnuVyakhana Brahma Sutra Bahshya Sarva Shastrartha Sangraha Tattva prakashika Nyaya Sudha Nyayamruta Tarka Tandava DwaitaDyumani Brahmasutra Anubhashya Tattvartha Dipa Nibandha Subodhiniji Shodasha Grantha Bhagavata Purana Bhagavad Gita Sat Sandarbhas Govinda Bhashya Chaitanya Charitamrita Swaminarayan Bhashyam Swaminarayan Siddhanta Sudha Gaṇakarika Panchartha bhashyadipika Rasikara bhashya Sivagamas Tirumurais Meikanda Sastras Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta Tantraloka Rasarṇava Rasahṛidaya Rasesvara siddhanta Vakyapadiya Mahabhashya VarttikakaraConcepts Originated Purusha Prakṛti Guṇa Satkaryavada Yama Niyama Asana Pranayama Pratyahara Dharaṇa Dhyana Samadhi Pratyakṣa Anumana Upamana Anyathakyati vada Niḥsreyasa more Padartha Dravya Samanya Viseṣa Samavaya Paramaṇu Apauruṣeyatva Arthapatti Anuapalabdhi Satahpramaṇya vada Jivanmukta Mahavakyas Sadhana Chatuṣṭaya three orders of reality Vivartavada Hita Antarvyapi Bahuvyapi more Prapacha Mukti yogyas Nitya samsarins Tamo yogyas Pushtimarg Brahmavada Brahma Sambandha Sambandha Abhidheya Prayojana Relationship Process Ultimate Goal Akshar Purushottam Upasana Pashupati eight pentads Charya Mantramarga Rodha Sakti Citi Mala Upaya Anuttara Aham Svatantrya Parada three modes of mercury Sphoṭa Ashtadhyayi a b c Advaita Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have evolved from an older Vedanta school and all of them accept Upanishads and Brahma Sutras as standard texts Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya Radhankrishnan Indian Philosophy London George Allen amp Unwin Ltd 1971 edition Volume II p 344 Overview editEpistemology edit Main article Pramana Epistemology is called pramana 48 It has been a key much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times Pramaṇa is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge 48 The focus of pramaṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired how one knows how one does not and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired 20 Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramaṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths Pratyakṣa Direct perception Anumaṇa Inference or indirect perception Upamaṇa Comparison and analogy Arthapatti Postulation derivation from circumstances Anupalabdi Non perception absence of proof Shabda Word testimony of past or present reliable experts 49 Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality completeness confidence and possibility of error by the different schools The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge 21 For example the Carvaka nastika philosophy holds that only one perception is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge 50 the Samkhya school holds that three are perception inference and testimony 50 while the Mimaṃsa and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge 50 51 Samkhya editMain article Samkhya Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism 52 with origins in the 1st millennium BCE 28 It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy 44 and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies 53 Samkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramaṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge These were pratyakṣa perception anumaṇa inference and sabda Aptavacana word testimony of reliable sources 54 50 Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness consciousness and nature mind perception matter 55 It regards the universe as consisting of two realities Puruṣa witness consciousness and prakriti nature Jiva a living being is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form 56 This fusion state the Samkhya scholars led to the emergence of buddhi awareness intellect and ahankara individualized ego consciousness I maker The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements senses feelings activity and mind 56 Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas qualities innate tendencies psyche 57 Guna it states are of three types Sattva being good compassionate illuminating positive and constructive Rajas guna is one of activity chaotic passion impulsive potentially good or bad and Tamas being the quality of darkness ignorance destructive lethargic negative Everything all life forms and human beings state Samkhya scholars have these three gunas but in different proportions 58 The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something of nature and determines the progress of life 59 60 Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs Jeevatmas who possess consciousness 61 Samkhya has historically been theistic or non theistic and there has been debate about its specific view on God 62 63 64 65 The Samkhya karika one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy opens by stating its goal to be three 66 kinds of human suffering and means to prevent them 67 The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology metaphysics axiology and soteriology For example it states From the triad of suffering arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it That is useless if you say so I say No because suffering is not absolute and final Verse 1 The Guṇas qualities respectively consist in pleasure pain and dullness are adapted to manifestation activity and restraint mutually domineer rest on each other produce each other consort together and are reciprocally present Verse 12 Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening foulness urgent and persisting darkness heavy and enveloping Like a lamp they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries Verse 13 There is a general cause which is diffuse It operates by means of the three qualities by mixture by modification for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively Verse 16 Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use by man Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist in man Since there must be superintendence within man Since there must be some entity that enjoys within man Since there is a tendency to abstraction in man therefore soul is Verse 17 Samkhya karika 67 68 The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti this knowledge of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom kaivalya 69 Yoga editMain article Yoga philosophy In Indian philosophy Yoga is among other things the name of one of the six astika philosophical schools 70 The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school 71 72 The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god Ishvara unlike Samkhya 73 74 75 The epistemology of the Yoga school like the Samkhya school relies on three of six pramaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge 50 pratyakṣa perception anumaṇa inference and sabda aptavacana word testimony of reliable sources 51 50 The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school puruṣa witness consciousness and prakṛti mind perception matter however the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as seer experiencer and seen experienced than the Samkhya school 76 A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Patanjali may have been as Max Muller explains the author or representative of the Yoga philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras 77 Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga such as raja yoga jnana yoga 78 karma yoga bhakti yoga tantra yoga mantra yoga laya yoga and hatha yoga 79 The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jnana knowledge is a sufficient means to moksha It suggests that systematic techniques practice personal experimentation combined with Samkhya s approach to knowledge is the path to moksha 71 Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism 80 81 82 Like Advaita Vedanta the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation freedom in this life is achievable and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman Self and Brahman 83 84 Vaiseṣika editMain article Vaisheshika The Vaiseṣika philosophy is a naturalist school 47 It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy 85 It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramaṇu atoms and that one s experiences are derived from the interplay of substance a function of atoms their number and their spatial arrangements quality activity commonness particularity and inherence 86 Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience according to Vaiseṣika school 86 The Vaiseṣika darsana is credited to Kaṇada Kasyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE 86 87 The foundational text the Vaiseṣika Sutra opens as follows Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma The Supreme Good results from knowledge produced from a particular dharma of the essence of the Predicables Substance Attribute Action Genus Species and Combination by means of their resemblances and differences Vaiseṣika Sutra 1 1 1 1 1 4 88 The Vaiseṣika school is related to the Nyaya school but features differences in its epistemology metaphysics and ontology 89 The epistemology of the Vaiseṣika school like Buddhism accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable perception and inference 51 90 The Vaiseṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiseṣikas were the Vedas 51 91 Vaiseṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism that reality is composed of four substances earth water air and fire Each of these four are of two types 85 atomic paramaṇu and composite An atom is according to Vaiseṣika scholars that which is indestructible anitya indivisible and has a special kind of dimension called small aṇu A composite in this philosophy is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms Whatever human beings perceive is composite while atoms are invisible 85 The Vaiseṣikas stated that size form truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms their number and their spatial arrangements their guṇa quality karma activity samanya commonness viseṣa particularity and amavaya inherence inseparable connectedness of everything 86 92 Nyaya editMain article Nyaya The Nyaya school is a realist astika philosophy 93 94 The school s most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic methodology and its treatises on epistemology 95 96 The foundational text of the Nyaya school is the Nyaya Sutras of the first millennium BCE The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE 97 87 Nyaya epistemology accepts four out of six pramaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge pratyakṣa perception anumaṇa inference upamaṇa comparison and analogy and sabda word testimony of past or present reliable experts 50 98 49 In its metaphysics the Nyaya school is closer to the Vaiseṣika school than the others 93 It holds that human suffering results from mistakes defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge notions and ignorance 99 Moksha liberation it states is gained through right knowledge This premise led Nyaya to concern itself with epistemology that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas it includes delusion Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one s delusions and understanding the true nature of the soul self and reality 100 The Nyaya Sutras begin Perception Inference Comparison and Word these are the means of right knowledge Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate unnameable and non erratic Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception and is of three kinds a priori a posteriori and commonly seen Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person It knowledge is of two kinds that which is seen and that which is not seen Soul body senses objects of senses intellect mind activity fault transmigration fruit suffering and release are the objects of right knowledge Nyaya Sutras 1 1 3 1 1 9 101 The Nyaya school uses a three fold procedure enumeration definition and examination This procedure of enumeration definition and examination is recurrent in Navya Nyaya texts like The Manual of Reason Tarka Sangraha 85 Mimaṃsa editMain article Mimaṃsa The Mimaṃsa school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis 102 103 It is a form of philosophical realism 104 Key texts of the Mimaṃsa school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini 29 105 The classical Mimaṃsa school is sometimes referred to as purvamimaṃsa or Karmamimaṃsa in reference to the first part of the Vedas 29 The Mimaṃsa school has several sub schools defined by epistemology The Prabhakara subschool of Mimaṃsa accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable pratyakṣa perception anumaṇa inference upamaṇa comparison and analogy arthapatti postulation derivation from circumstances and sabda word testimony of past or present reliable experts 98 49 The Kumarila Bhaṭṭa sub school of Mimaṃsa added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology anupalabdi non perception negative cognitive proof 50 The metaphysics of the Mimaṃsa school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God Rather it held that the Self Atma is an eternal omnipresent inherently active spiritual essence then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma 29 106 107 To them dharma meant rituals and duties not devas gods because devas existed only in name 29 The Mimaṃsakas held that the Vedas are eternal authorless infallible that Vedic vidhi injunctions and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya actions and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with 102 29 Mimaṃsa gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language 108 While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools 109 their views were not shared by others Mimaṃsakas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper correct and right In contrast Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe develop and derive 29 Mimaṃsakas considered orderly law driven procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society and divine theistic sustenance means to that end The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school with the difference that Mimaṃsa developed and emphasized karmakaṇḍa the portion of the sruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites the early parts of the Vedas while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized jnanakaṇḍa the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism the latter parts of the Vedas 102 Vedanta editThe Vedanta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE 87 110 and is the most developed citation needed and best known of the Hindu schools The epistemology of the Vedantins included depending on the sub school five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge 91 pratyakṣa perception anumaṇa inference upamaṇa comparison and analogy arthapatti postulation derivation from circumstances anupalabdi non perception negative cognitive proof and sabda word testimony of past or present reliable experts 51 50 49 All of these have been further categorized by each sub school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality completeness confidence and possibility of error 91 The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge centered understanding began to emerge focusing on jnana knowledge driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads These included metaphysical concepts such as atman and Brahman and an emphasis on meditation self discipline self knowledge and abstract spirituality rather than ritualism The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient and medieval era Vedanta scholars Consequently the Vedanta separated into many sub schools ranging from theistic dualism to non theistic monism each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub commentaries 111 112 Advaita edit Main article Advaita Vedanta Advaita literally means not two sole unity It is a sub school of Vedanta and asserts spiritual and universal non dualism 113 114 Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness 115 116 This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE 115 Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers and that of his teacher s teacher Gaudapada He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived 117 According to this school of Vedanta all reality is Brahman and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman 118 Its metaphysics includes the concept of maya and atman Maya connotes that which exists but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal 119 The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore transitory incomplete misleading and not what it appears to be 120 121 122 The concept of atman is of one Atman with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman Advaita Vedantins assert that atman is same as Brahman and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life all living beings are spiritually interconnected and there is oneness in all of existence 123 124 They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of maya as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance and are the cause of sorrow suffering Jivanmukti liberation during life can be achieved through Self knowledge the understanding that atman within is same as atman in another person and all of Brahman the eternal unchanging entirety of cosmic principles and true reality 125 124 Some believe that Shankara is a closet Buddhist suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment However Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2 2 18 2 2 19 2 2 20 2 2 25 among others 30 156 160 Visiṣṭadvaita edit Main article Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja c 1037 1137 was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Visiṣṭadvaita or qualified non dualism Visiṣṭadvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes Visiṣṭadvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness but also as the source of all creation which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence To them the sense of subject object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance However the individual s sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman 126 Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman The Visiṣṭadvaita sub school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception avidya is indescribable as either real or unreal anirvacaniya It sees this as a contradiction and argues that avidya must either be non different from Brahman or different from Brahman If it is different from Brahman the non dualist position of Shankara is given up but if it is non different it must exist ultimately as Brahman Ramanuja claims that avidya cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge and avidya is absence of knowledge 30 173 Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non intentional consciousness consciousness that does not have an object because all cognitions are necessarily about something 30 174 Dvaita edit Dvaita refers to a theistic sub school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy 127 128 Also called Tattvavada and Bimbapratibimbavada the Dvaita sub school was founded by the 13th century scholar Madhvacharya 127 The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God Vishnu Paramatman and the individual Selfs Atman jivatman exist as independent realities and these are distinct 129 130 Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas it espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities 127 The first and the only independent reality states the Dvaita school is that of Vishnu or Brahman 127 Vishnu is the Paramatman in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions 131 The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe 132 Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub school Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being 133 134 However unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism the dualism of Dvaita was permanent 130 129 Dvaita sub school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world 30 186 187 Salvation in Dvaita is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu 127 135 136 Dvaitadvaita Bhedabheda edit Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka a 13th century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence Brahman Self and matter Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman Brahman exists independently while Self and matter are dependent Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent Further Brahman is a controller the Self is the enjoyer and matter the thing enjoyed Also the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha attended by thousands of gopis of the Vrindavan and devotion consists in self surrender Suddhadvaita edit Suddhadvaita is the purely non dual philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya 1479 1531 The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabha sampradaya tradition of Vallabh or Puṣṭimarga a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Maya which itself is His power and manifests Himself through the world 137 That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as Unmodified transformation or Avikṛta Pariṇamavada Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary the physical material world is Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a part but devoid of bliss like sparks and fire 138 This sub school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non different from Brahman who is believed to be Krishna 139 Acintya Bheda Abheda edit Main article Achintya Bheda Abheda Chaitanya Mahaprabhu 1486 1534 stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non distinct from God whom he identified as Krishna Govinda and that this although unthinkable may be experienced through a process of loving devotion bhakti He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya 140 141 142 In accordance with the Vishnu Purana this sub school ascribes six virtues to God Bhagavan power aishvarya potency virya fame yasha prosperity shri knowledge jnana and renunciation vairagya The potency of Bhagavan which is transcendental is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterized as one in which there is inconceivable difference in non difference acintya bhedabheda This potency has divisions that are described within Jiva Gosvami s Bhagavat Sandarbha which comments on the internal potency and Paramatma Sandarbha which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan Maya which is central to advaita is the external potency of Bhagavan which is controlled by Paramatma an expansion of Bhagavan And brahman is included within Bhagavan who is the object of meditation and realization for bhakti yogis 143 Akshar Purushottam Darshan edit Main article Akshar Purushottam DarshanCarvaka editMain article Charvaka The Carvaka school is one of the nastika or heterodox philosophies 144 11 145 It rejects supernaturalism emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism holding empiricism perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge 146 147 Carvaka is an atheistic school of thought 148 It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon and free will exists 31 32 Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Carvaka also called Lokayata philosophy Much of the primary literature of Carvaka the Barhaspatya sutras ca 600 BCE however are missing or lost 148 149 Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature 148 150 151 The Tattvopaplava siṁha by the skeptic philosopher Jayarasi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Carvaka text 152 One of the widely studied principles of Carvaka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid universal knowledge and metaphysical truths 153 In other words the Carvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths one must acknowledge doubt inferred knowledge is conditional 154 Shaivism editMain article Shaivism Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine 155 However the Svetasvatara Upanishad 400 200 BCE 156 is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism 157 Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools including non dualist abheda dualist bheda and non dualist with dualist bhedabheda perspectives Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought Pashupata Shaivism Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijna Kashmir Shaivism 158 Pasupata Shaivism edit Pasupata Shaivism Pasupata of Pasupati is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools 159 The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE Pasu in Pasupati refers to the effect or created world the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior Whereas Pati means the cause or principium the word designates the Lord who is the cause of the universe the pati or the ruler 160 Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves According to Pasupatas Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the germ of every pain 161 Pasupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious The insentient was further divided into effects and causes The effects were of ten kinds the earth four elements and their qualities colour etc The causes were of thirteen kinds the five organs of cognition the five organs of action the three internal organs intellect the ego principle and the cognising principle These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non Self Salvation in Pasupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect 162 Shaiva Siddhanta edit Considered normative Tantric Shaivism Shaiva Siddhanta 163 164 provides the normative rites cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism 165 Being a dualistic philosophy the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva through Shiva s grace 166 This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars 167 Kashmir Shaivism edit Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth 168 or ninth century CE 169 in Kashmir and made significant strides both philosophical and theological until the end of the twelfth century CE 170 It is categorised by various scholars as monistic 171 idealism absolute idealism theistic monism realistic idealism 172 transcendental physicalism or concrete monism 172 It is a school of Saivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijna 173 Even though both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness Chit or Brahman 174 in Kashmir Shavisim as opposed to Advaita all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness 175 This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim the phenomenal world Sakti is real and it exists and has its being in Consciousness Chit 176 However Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality pure consciousness and it is inactive niṣkriya and the phenomenal world is an appearance maya 177 The objective of human life according to Kashmir Shaivism is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness or to realize one s already existing identity with Shiva by means of wisdom yoga and grace 178 See also edit nbsp Hinduism portal nbsp Philosophy portalAstika and nastika Pramana Vedas Buddhism and Hinduism Indian philosophy Buddhist philosophy Hindu idealism Hindu denominations Metaphilosophy Dharma Asrama Origin of languageNotes edit M Chadha 2015 in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy The sacred texts of the Hindus the Vedas are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools Even within a single school philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection There is no single comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as Buddhism or Jainism on issues of epistemology metaphysics logic ethics or cosmology The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya but by the same token they are not the Word of God either 4 Elisa Freschi 2012 The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed but are recognized as an epistemic authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy 5 Note This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions For an overview of the six orthodox schools with detail on the grouping of schools see Radhakrishnan and Moore Contents and pp 453 487 References edit Meaning of word Darshana Archived from the original on 19 September 2020 Retrieved 19 March 2020 a b c Andrew Nicholson 2013 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231149877 pages 2 5 a b c Klaus Klostermaier 2007 Hinduism A Beginner s Guide ISBN 978 1851685387 Chapter 2 page 26 M Chadha 2015 The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion Editor Graham Oppy Routledge ISBN 978 1844658312 pages 127 128 Elisa Freschi 2012 Duty Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa BRILL ISBN 978 9004222601 page 62 a b P Bilimoria 2000 Indian Philosophy Editor Roy Perrett Routledge ISBN 978 1135703226 page 88 Frazier Jessica 2011 The Continuum companion to Hindu studies London Continuum pp 1 15 ISBN 978 0 8264 9966 0 Carl Olson 2007 The Many Colors of Hinduism A Thematic historical Introduction Rutgers University Press ISBN 978 0813540689 pages 101 119 Pennington Brian K 2005 Was Hinduism Invented Britons Indians and the Colonial Construction of Religion Oxford university press pp 111 118 ISBN 978 0 19 803729 3 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link R Thomas 2014 Hindu Perspectives on Evolution Darwin Dharma and Design Sociology of Religion Vol 75 No 1 pages 164 165 Quote some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism in general other schools a b KN Tiwari 1998 Classical Indian Ethical Thought Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120816077 page 67 Quote Of the three heterodox systems the remaining one the Carvaka system is a Hindu system V V Raman 2012 Hinduism and Science Some Reflections Zygon Journal of Religion and Science 47 3 549 574 Quote page 557 Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition One virulently anti supernatural system is was the so called Carvaka school doi 10 1111 j 1467 9744 2012 01274 xBill Cooke 2005 Dictionary of Atheism Skepticism and Humanism ISBN 978 1591022992 page 84 For a general discussion of Carvaka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy see Jessica Frazier 2014 Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism Editors Stephen Bullivant Michael Ruse Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199644650 pages 367 378 a b c Klaus K Klostermaier 1984 Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India Wilfrid Laurier University Press ISBN 978 0889201583 pages 124 134 164 173 242 265 a b Flood 1996 pp 132 136 162 169 231 232 Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta 1981 Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature A History of Indian Literature Volume 2 Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447020916 pages 7 14 a b Klaus K Klostermaier 1984 Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India Wilfrid Laurier University Press ISBN 978 0889201583 pages 219 223 Klaus K Klostermaier 1984 Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India Wilfrid Laurier University Press ISBN 978 0889201583 pages 28 35 Jayandra Soni 1990 Philosophical Anthropology in Saiva Siddhanta Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 8120806320 pages vii xii Hilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme 2000 Saiva Siddhanta An Indian School of Mystical Thought Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 8120815698 pages 13 19 a b Potter 1991 p 172 a b Guttorm Floistad 1993 p 137 154 Karl H Potter 1961 A Fresh Classification of India s Philosophical Systems Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Journal of Asian Studies Vol 21 No 1 pages 25 32 Students Britannica India 2000 Volume 4 Encyclopaedia Britannica ISBN 978 0852297605 page 316 Potter 1991 p 98 102 Nicholson 2010 a b Nicholson Andrew J 2014 Unifying Hinduism philosophy and identity in Indian intellectual history New York Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231149877 John Plott James Dolin and Russell Hatton 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120801585 pages 60 62 a b Sharma C 1997 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 0365 5 p 138 149 a b c d e f g Chris Bartley 2013 Purva Mimamsa in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy Editor Oliver Leaman Routledge 978 0415862530 page 443 445 a b c d e Bartley C J 2011 An introduction to Indian philosophy London Continuum ISBN 978 1 84706 448 6 a b R Bhattacharya 2011 Studies on the Carvaka Lokayata Anthem ISBN 978 0857284334 pages 53 94 141 142 a b gt Johannes Bronkhorst 2012 Free will and Indian philosophy Antiqvorvm Philosophia An International Journal Roma Italy Volume 6 pages 19 30 James Lochtefeld Ajivika The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 1 A M Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 0823931798 page 22 AL Basham 2009 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas a Vanished Indian Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812048 Chapter 1 Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0791422175 page 64 Quote Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence John C Plott et al 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120801585 page 63 Quote The Buddhist schools reject any Atman concept As we have already observed this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 8120806191 pages 246 249 from note 385 onwards Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Philosophy Now 2013 Subscription Required Paul Dundas 2002 The Jains 2nd Edition Routledge ISBN 978 0415266055 pages 1 19 40 44 Cowell and Gough 1882 Translators The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya Trubner s Oriental Series pages 103 111 Cowell and Gough 1882 Translators The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya Trubner s Oriental Series pages 112 127 King 2007 p 45 Cowell and Gough 1882 Translators The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya Trubner s Oriental Series pages 128 136 Carl Olson The Many Colors of Hinduism Archived 13 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine Rutgers University Press 2007 page 237 Cowell and Gough 1882 Translators The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya Trubner s Oriental Series pages 137 144 Cowell and Gough 1882 Translators The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya Trubner s Oriental Series pages 203 220 a b Mikel Burley 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0415648875 pages 43 46 Tom Flynn and Richard Dawkins 2007 The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief Prometheus ISBN 978 1591023913 pages 420 421 Nyaya Realism Archived 5 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine in Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2015 a b Dale Riepe 1996 Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought ISBN 978 8120812932 pages 227 246 a b Lochtefeld 2002 p 520 521 a b c d Flood 1996 p 225 a b c d e f g h i Grimes 1989 p 238 a b c d e Perrett 2000 pp 245 248 Flood 1996 pp 232 Roy Perrett Indian Ethics Classical traditions and contemporary challenges Volume 1 Editor P Bilimoria et al Ashgate ISBN 978 0754633013 pages 149 158 Eliott Deutsche 2000 in Philosophy of Religion Indian Philosophy Vol 4 Editor Roy Perrett Routledge ISBN 978 0815336112 pages 245 248 Michaels Axel 2004 Hinduism Past and Present Princeton University Press p 264 ISBN 0 691 08953 1 a b Samkhya Hinduism Archived 4 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014 Gerald James Larson 2011 Classical Saṃkhya An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120805033 pages 154 206 James G Lochtefeld Guna in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism A M Vol 1 Rosen Publishing ISBN 9780823931798 page 265 T Bernard 1999 Hindu Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1373 1 pages 74 76 Haney William S Culture and Consciousness Literature Regained Bucknell University Press 1 August 2002 P 42 ISBN 1611481724 Dasgupta Surendranath 1992 A history of Indian philosophy Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass Publ p 258 ISBN 978 81 208 0412 8 Mikel Burley 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0415648875 page 39 Lloyd Pflueger 2008 Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra in Theory and Practice of Yoga Editor Knut Jacobsen Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120832329 pages 38 39 John C Plott et al 1984 Global History of Philosophy The period of scholasticism Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 0895816788 page 367 Andrew J Nicholson 2013 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231149877 Chapter 4 pg 77 adhyatmika adhibhautika and adhidaivika that is suffering caused internally by self cause by other human beings caused by acts of nature a b Samkhya karika Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Iswara Krishna Henry Colebrooke Translator Oxford University Press Original Sanskrit Samkhya karika Archived 23 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa 2015 Sanskrit Documents Archives Second Translation Verse 1 Ferenc Ruzsa 1997 The triple suffering A note on the Samkhya karika Xth World Sanskrit Conference Bangalore University of Hungary Budapest Third Translation all Verses Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis Translator Trubner London University of Toronto Archives Larson Gerald James Classical Saṃkhya An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning Motilal Banarasidass 1998 P 13 ISBN 81 208 0503 8 For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see Chatterjee amp Datta 1984 p 43 a b Edwin Bryant 2011 Rutgers University The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Archived 18 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine IEP Chatterjee amp Datta 1984 p 43 Radhakrishnan S Moore CA 1967 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Princeton p 453 ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Muller 1899 Chapter 7 Yoga Philosophy p 104 Zimmer Heinrich 1951 Philosophies of India New York City Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 01758 1 Bollingen Series XXVI Edited by Joseph Campbell page 280 Mikel Burley 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0415648875 pages x xi 101 107 142 and Introduction chapter Max Mueller The six systems of Indian philosophy Longmans page 410 The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra by Georg Feuerstein The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra Georg Feuerstein Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of New Logic Open Court Publishing pp 12 13 ISBN 9780812692983 Personalism Archived 23 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2013 Northrop Frye 2006 Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory 1933 1962 University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0802092090 page 291 Mike McNamee and William J Morgan 2015 Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415829809 pages 135 136 Quote As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya s metaphysics Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman it involves a cosmogonic dualism purusha an absolute consciousness and prakriti original and primeval matter Mikel Burley 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0415648875 pages 141 142 a b c d Ganeri Jonardon 2023 Zalta Edward N Nodelman Uri eds Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Winter 2023 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University retrieved 23 January 2024 a b c d Oliver Leaman Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415173629 1999 page 269 a b c Michael Brannigan 2009 Striking a Balance A Primer in Traditional Asian Values Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0739138465 page 7 Original Sanskrit and Translation The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada with the Commentary of Sankara Misra BD Basu Translator The Sacred Books of the Hindus Volume 6 University of Toronto Archives For modern translations and a history of the Vaiseṣika Sutra in the 1st millennium BCE see Stephen H Phillips 1998 Classical Indian Metaphysics Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814899 pages 38 54 DPS Bhawuk 2011 Spirituality and Indian Psychology Editor Anthony Marsella Springer ISBN 978 1 4419 8109 7 pages 172 175 Grimes 1989 p 225 a b c P Bilimoria 1993 Pramaṇa epistemology Some recent developments in Asian philosophy Volume 7 Editor G Floistad Springer ISBN 978 94 010 5107 1 pages 137 154 M Hiriyanna 1993 Outlines of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120810860 pages 228 237 a b Nyaya Indian Philosophy Archived 10 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014 Flood 1996 pp 221 227 B Gupta 2012 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Perspectives on Reality Knowledge and Freedom Routledge ISBN 978 0415800037 pages 171 189 PT Raju 1985 Structural Depths of Indian Thought Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887061394 page 223 B K Matilal Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge Oxford University Press 1986 p xiv a b DPS Bhawuk 2011 Spirituality and Indian Psychology Editor Anthony Marsella Springer ISBN 978 1 4419 8109 7 page 172 Vassilis Vitsaxis 2009 Thought and Faith Somerset Hall Press ISBN 978 1935244042 page 131 BK Matilal 1997 Logic Language and Reality Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120807174 pages 353 357 Original Sanskrit and Translation The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana Translator The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama University of Toronto Archives A 1990 print is available from Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 8120807488 Editor N Sinha a b c Oliver Leaman 2006 Shruti in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415862530 page 503 Mimamsa Archived 17 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014 M Hiriyanna 1993 Outlines of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120810860 page 323 325 M Hiriyanna 1993 Outlines of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120810860 page 298 335 Neville Robert 2001 Religious truth SUNY Press Worthington Vivian 1982 A history of yoga Routledge p 66 ISBN 9780710092588 Peter M Scharf The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy 1996 Chapter 3 Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus 2011 Sound and Communication An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism Walter de Gruyter GmbH Berlin ISBN 978 3110181593 pages 23 24 551 663 Oliver Leaman 1999 Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415173636 page xiv Knut Jacobsen 2008 Theory and Practice of Yoga Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120832329 page 77 JN Mohanty 2001 Explorations in Philosophy Vol 1 Editor Bina Gupta Oxford University Press page 107 108 Oliver Leaman 2000 Eastern Philosophy Key Readings Routledge ISBN 978 0415173582 page 251 R Prasad 2009 A Historical developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals Concept Publishing ISBN 978 8180695957 pages 345 347 Advaita Vedanta Archived 26 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine Sangeetha Menon 2012 IEP Nakamura Hajime 1990 A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy Part One Motilal Banarsidass Publishers pp 110 114 a b Flood 1996 pp 239 244 Eliot Deutsch Advaita Vedanta A Philosophical Reconstruction University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0824802714 pages 10 14 Adi Shankara Archived 1 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Sengaku Mayeda Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013 Richard Brooks 1969 The Meaning of Real in Advaita Vedanta Philosophy East and West Vol 19 No 4 pages 385 398 AC Das 1952 Brahman and Maya in Advaita Metaphysics Philosophy East and West Vol 2 No 2 pages 144 154 H M Vroom 1996 No Other Gods Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0802840974 page 57 Wendy Doniger O Flaherty 1986 Dreams Illusion and Other Realities University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226618555 page 119 Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott 2009 Hindu Goddesses Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1902210438 pages 14 16 John Koller 2007 in Chad Meister and Paul Copan Editors The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 18001 1 pages 98 106 a b Arvind Sharma 2007 Advaita Vedanta An Introduction Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120820272 pages 19 40 53 58 79 86 Michael Comans 1993 The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta Philosophy East amp West Vol 43 Issue 1 pages 19 38 Christopher Etter 30 April 2006 A Study of Qualitative Non Pluralism iUniverse pp 62 63 ISBN 978 0 595 39312 1 a b c d e Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press pp 340 344 ISBN 978 1 898723 94 3 Hindu Philosophy Archived 14 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine IEP Quote Dvaita Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of Vedanta On his account Brahman is a personal God and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viṣṇu a b Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press pp 238 243 288 293 340 343 ISBN 978 1 898723 94 3 a b James Lochtefeld 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume 1 amp 2 Rosen Publishing ISBN 0 8239 2287 1 pages 12 13 213 214 758 759 Michael Myers 2000 Brahman A Comparative Theology Routledge ISBN 978 0700712571 pages 124 127 Christopher Etter 2006 A Study of Qualitative Non Pluralism iUniverse pp 59 60 ISBN 0 595 39312 8 Bryant Edwin 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma Oxford University Press p 358 ISBN 978 0195148923 Stoker Valerie 2011 Madhva 1238 1317 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 12 October 2016 Retrieved 29 February 2016 Sharma B N Krishnamurti 1962 Philosophy of Sri Madhvacarya Motilal Banarsidass 2014 Reprint pp 417 424 ISBN 978 8120800687 Sharma Chandradhar 1994 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass p 373 ISBN 81 208 0365 5 Devarshi Ramanath Shastri Shuddhadvaita Darshan Vol 2 Published by Mota Mandir Bhoiwada Mumbai India 1917 Brahmavad Saṅgraha Pub Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa Indore India 2014 Suddhadvaita Oxford Reference Archived from the original on 2 June 2023 Retrieved 2 June 2023 Lord Chaitanya Archived 7 June 2002 at the Wayback Machine krishna com This is called acintya bheda abheda tattva inconceivable simultaneous oneness and difference Who Is Lord Chaitanya Krishna com www krishna com Archived from the original on 7 June 2002 Retrieved 7 April 2021 Who is Lord Chaitanya Krishna com www krishna com Archived from the original on 13 April 2021 Retrieved 7 April 2021 Dasa Satyanarayana 2007 The Six Sandarbhas of Jiva Gosvami In Bryant Edwin ed Krishna a sourcebook Oxford Oxford university press p 378 ISBN 978 0 19 514891 6 R Thomas 2014 Hindu Perspectives on Evolution Darwin Dharma and Design Sociology of Religion Vol 75 No 1 pages 164 165 Quote some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism in general other schools Jessica Frazier 2014 Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism Editors Stephen Bullivant Michael Ruse Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199644650 pages 367 378 Bill Cooke 2005 Dictionary of Atheism Skepticism and Humanism ISBN 978 1591022992 page 84 KN Tiwari 1998 Classical Indian Ethical Thought Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120816077 page 67 Roy W Perrett 1984 The problem of induction in Indian philosophy Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine Philosophy East and West 34 2 161 174 V V Raman 2012 Hinduism and Science Some Reflections Zygon Journal of Religion and Science 47 3 549 574 Quote page 557 Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition One virulently anti supernatural system is was the so called Carvaka school doi 10 1111 j 1467 9744 2012 01274 x a b c Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli and Moore Charles 1957 A Source Book in Indian Philosophy Princeton University Press pp 227 249 ISBN 0 691 01958 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Ramkrishna Bhattacharya 2013 The base text and its commentaries Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka Lokayata Argument Biannual Philosophical Journal Issue 1 Volume 3 pages 133 150 Bhattacharya Ramakrishna 2002 Carvaka Fragments A New Collection Journal of Indian Philosophy 30 6 597 640 doi 10 1023 A 1023569009490 S2CID 169948463 Dale Riepe 1996 Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812932 pages 53 58 Balcerowicz Piotr 2016 Jayarasi in Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2016 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University archived from the original on 8 July 2020 retrieved 8 July 2020 Cowell E B Gough A E 1882 The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy pp 5 7 MM Kamal 1998 The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 46 2 13 16 Tattwananda Swami 1984 Vaisnava Sects Saiva Sects Mother Worship First Revised ed Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd p 45 Flood 1996 p 86 Chakravarti Mahadev 1994 The Concept of Rudra Siva Through The Ages Second Revised ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass p 9 ISBN 81 208 0053 2 Cowell and Gough 1882 p xii Flood 2003 p 206 Cowell and Gough 1882 p 104 105 Cowell and Gough 1882 p 103 Cowell and Gough 1882 p 107 Xavier Irudayaraj Saiva Siddanta in the St Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India Ed George Menachery Vol III 2010 pp 10 ff Xavier Irudayaraj Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures in the St Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India Ed George Menachery Vol III 2010 pp 14 ff Flood 2006 p 120 Flood 2006 p 122 Flood 1996 p 168 Kashmir Shaivism The Secret Supreme By Lakshman Jee Dyczkowski p 4 The Trika Saivism of Kashmir Moti Lal Pandit pp 1 Kashmir Shaivism The Secret Supreme Swami Lakshman Jee pp 103 a b Dyczkowski p 51 Flood 2005 pp 56 68 Singh Jaideva Pratyabhijnahṛdayam Moltilal Banarsidass 2008 PP 24 26 Dyczkowski p 44 Ksemaraja trans by Jaidev Singh Spanda Karikas The Divine Creative Pulsation Delhi Motilal Banarsidass p 119 Shankarananda Swami Consciousness is Everything The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism PP 56 59 Mishra K Kashmir Saivism The Central Philosophy of Tantrism PP 330 334 Bibliography editChatterjee Satischandra Datta Dhirendramohan 1984 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Eighth Reprint ed Calcutta University of Calcutta Dyczkowski Mark S G 1987 The Doctrine of Vibration An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism Albany New York State University of New York Press ISBN 0 88706 432 9 Guttorm Floistad 28 February 1993 Philosophie asiatique Asian philosophy Springer Netherlands ISBN 978 0 7923 1762 3 Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 Flood Gavin ed 2003 The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Malden MA Blackwell Publishing Ltd ISBN 1 4051 3251 5 Flood Gavin 2005 The Tantric Body The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion I B Tauris ISBN 1845110110 Grimes John A 1989 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 0100 2 King Richard 2007 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought Georgetown University Press Lochtefeld James G 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism N Z The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8239 3180 4 Madhava Acharya 1882 The Sarva Darsana Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy Trubner s Oriental Series Translated by E B Cowell and A E Gough London Trubner amp Co Mueller Max 1899 Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Samkhya and Yoga Naya and Vaiseshika Calcutta Susil Gupta India Ltd ISBN 0 7661 4296 5 Reprint edition Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Nicholson Andrew J 2010 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press Perrett Roy W 2000 Philosophy of Religion Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 8153 3611 2 Potter Karl H 1991 Presuppositions of India s Philosophies Motilal Banarsidass p 98 ISBN 978 81 208 0779 2 Radhakrishnan S Moore CA 1967 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Princeton ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Further reading editDasgupta Surendranath 1922 1955 A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 1 5 London Cambridge University Press Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol 3 Vol 4 Vol 5 Potter Karl H ed 1970 2019 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers Vol 1 25 Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 Ongoing monographic series project a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a CS1 maint postscript link Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli 1923 1927 Indian Philosophy Vol 2 volume Set Oxford University Press Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli and Moore Charles A A Source Book in Indian Philosophy Princeton University Press 1957 Princeton paperback 12th edition 1989 ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Rambachan Anantanand The Advaita Worldview God World and Humanity 2006 Zilberman David B The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought D Reidel Publishing Company Dordrecht Holland 1988 ISBN 90 277 2497 0 Chapter 1 Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines External links edit nbsp Media related to Hindu philosophy at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hindu philosophy amp oldid 1199082359, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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