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Devanagari

February 05, 2023

Devanāgarī or Devanagari (/ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəri/ DAY-və-NAH-gə-ree; देवनागरी, IAST: Devanāgarī, Sanskrit pronunciation: [deːʋɐˈnaːɡɐriː]), also called Nāgarī (Sanskrit: नागरी, Nāgarī),[8] is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental writing system),[9] based on the ancient Brāhmī script,[10] used in the northern Indian subcontinent. It is one of the official scripts of the Indian Republic. It was developed and in regular use by the 7th century CE.[8][11] The Devanāgarī script, composed of 47 primary characters, including 14 vowels and 33 consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world,[12] being used for over 120 languages.[13]

Devanāgarī
देवनागरी
Devanāgarī script (vowels top, consonants bottom)
Script type
Time period
7th century CE to present[1][2]
Directionleft-to-right 
Region India 120+ languages use Devanāgarī script

 Fiji as script for Fiji Hindi
 South Africa as protected language (script)[3]

   Nepal
LanguagesApabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhili, Bhojpuri, Boro, Braj, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri, Gujarātī, Garhwali, Haryanvi, Hindustani (Hindi), Kashmiri, Konkani, Kumaoni, Magahi, Maithili, Marathi, Marwari, Mundari, Nagpuri, Newari, Nepali, Pāli, Pahari, Prakrit, Rajasthani, Sanskrit, Santali, Saraiki, Sherpa, Sindhi, Surjapuri, and many more.
Related scripts
Parent systems
Sister systems
Nandināgarī
Kaithi
Gujarātī
Moḍī
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Deva (315), ​Devanagari (Nagari)
Unicode
Unicode alias
Devanagari
U+0900–U+097F Devanagari,
U+A8E0–U+A8FF Devanagari Extended,
U+11B00–11B5F Devanagari Extended-A,
U+1CD0–U+1CFF Vedic Extensions
  1. ^ a b c A Semitic origin for the Brāhmī script is not universally accepted.
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

The orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language.[13] Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of letter case.[14] It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as a shirorekhā, that runs along the top of full letters.[9] In a cursory look, the Devanāgarī script appears different from other Indic scripts such as Bengali-Assamese, or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.[9]

Among the languages using it – either as their only script or as one of their scripts – are Marathi, Pāḷi, Sanskrit (the ancient Nāgarī script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters),[15] Hindi,[16] Boro, Nepali, Sherpa, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha,[17] Chhattisgarhi, Haryanvi, Magahi, Nagpuri, Rajasthani, Bhili, Dogri, Kashmiri, Konkani, Sindhi, Nepal Bhasa, Mundari, and Santali.[13] The Devanāgarī script is closely related to the Nandināgarī script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South India,[18][19] and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts.[13]

Etymology

Devanāgarī is a compound of "deva" (देव) and "nāgarī" (नागरी). Deva means "heavenly or divine" and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism.[20] Nagari comes from नगरम् (nagaram) a Sanskrit word which means town. Hence, Devanāgarī denotes from the abode of divinity or deities.[21][22]

The use of the name devanāgarī emerged from the older term nāgarī.[23] According to Fischer, Nāgarī emerged in the northwest Indian subcontinent around 633 CE, was fully developed by the 11th century CE, and was one of the major scripts used for the Sanskrit literature.[23]

History

Devanāgarī is part of the Brāhmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia.[24][23] It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brāhmī script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to Devanāgarī and Nandināgarī. Devanāgarī has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, Central Indo-Aryan languages, Konkani, Boro, and various Nepalese languages.

Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nāgarī script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in Gujarat.[10] Variants of script called Nāgarī, recognisably close to Devanāgarī, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanāgarī was in use by about 1000 CE.[11][25] Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nāgarī-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nāgarī scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script; while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanāgarī scripts.[26]

The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.[8][11] The use of Sanskrit in Nāgarī script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh,[27] and an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at the British Museum.[28] The script's proto- and related versions have been discovered in ancient relics outside of India, such as in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Indonesia; while in East Asia, Siddha Matrika script considered as the closest precursor to Nāgarī was in use by Buddhists.[15][29] Nāgarī has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts.[15] It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such as Moḍī, Kaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.

Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to Vikram Samvat 1049 (i.e. 992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.[1] One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.[30]

Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta, and to Devanagari[31]
k- kh- g- gh- ṅ- c- ch- j- jh- ñ- ṭ- ṭh- ḍ- ḍh- ṇ- t- th- d- dh- n- p- ph- b- bh- m- y- r- l- v- ś- ṣ- s- h-
Brahmi 𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗 𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜 𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡 𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦 𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫 𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀰 𑀱 𑀲 𑀳
Gupta                                                                  
Devanagari क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न प फ ब भ म य र ल व श ष स ह

East Asia

 
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra in Siddhaṃ on palm-leaf in 609 CE. Hōryū-ji, Japan. The last line is a complete Sanskrit syllabary in Siddhaṃ script.

In the 7th century, under the rule of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire, Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language. Thus he invented the Tibetan script, based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[32]

Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī such as Siddhaṃ Matrka were in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan and other parts of East Asia by the 7th to 10th centuries.[33][34]

Most of the southeast Asian scripts have roots in the Dravidian scripts, except for a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia that resemble Devanāgarī or its prototype. The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century, with many more between 11th and 14th centuries.[35][36] Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the Prambanan temple.[37] The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th century, are also in the Nāgarī script of North India. According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th-century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanāgarī script.[38] The term Kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from Kavya (poetry). According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th-century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java, Bali (Indonesia), and Khmer (Cambodia) around 8th or 9th centuries, as evidenced by the many inscriptions of this period.[39]

Letters

The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamālā "garland of letters".[40] The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[41]

Vowels

The vowels and their arrangement are:[42]

Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with प (Barakhadi)
[further explanation needed]		 Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with प (Barakhadi)
kaṇṭhya
(Guttural) 		अ a [ɐ] प आ ā [ɑː] पा
tālavya
(Palatal) 		इ i [i] पि ई ī [iː] पी
oṣṭhya
(Labial) 		उ u [u] पु 6 ऊ ū [uː] पू 6
mūrdhanya
(Retroflex) 		ऋ ṛ r̥ [r̩] पृ ॠ 4 ṝ r̥̄ [r̩ː] पॄ
dantya
(Dental) 		ऌ 4 ḷ l̥ [l̩] पॢ ॡ 4, 5 ḹ l̥̄ [l̩ː] पॣ
kaṇṭhatālavya
(Palatoguttural) 		ए e ē [eː] पे ऐ ai [ɑj] पै
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya
(Labioguttural) 		ओ o ō [oː] पो औ au [ɑw] पौ
अं / ं 1,2 ṃ ṁ [◌̃] पं अः / ः 1 ḥ [h] पः
ॲ / ऍ 7 ê [æ] पॅ ऑ 7 ô [ɒ] पॉ
 
 
 
 
Examples of Devanāgarī manuscripts created between the 13th and 19th centuries
  1. Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra ं ṃ and the final fricative visarga ः ḥ (called अं aṃ and अः aḥ). Masica (1991:146) notes of the anusvāra in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop [...], a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according to context". The visarga represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h], in Sanskrit an allophone of s, or less commonly r, usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath:[43] इः [ihi]. Masica (1991:146) considers the visarga along with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
  2. Another diacritic is the candrabindu/anunāsika ँ अँ. Salomon (2003:76–77) describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the anusvāra, "sometimes [...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalisation[44] while the anusvār indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant:[45] e.g., हँसी [ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा [ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akṣara has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon") stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:[46] हूँ [ɦũ] "am", but हैं [ɦɛ̃] "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.[47]
  3. The avagraha ऽ अऽ (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: एकोऽयम् eko'yam ( ← एकस् ekas + अयम् ayam) "this one". An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्मा sadā'tmā ( ← सदा sadā + आत्मा ātmā) "always, the self".[48] In Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! āīīī!. In Madhyadeshi Languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms [that] end in that inherent vowel",[49] the avagraha is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ baiṭha "sit" versus बइठ baiṭh
  4. The syllabic consonants ṝ (ॠ), ḷ, (ऌ) and ḹ (ॡ) are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of other languages. The sound represented by ṛ has also been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi) to [ɾu] (Marathi).
  5. ḹ is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[41]
  6. There are non-regular formations of रु ru, रू rū, and हृ hṛ.
  7. There are two more vowels in Marathi, ॲ and ऑ, that respectively represent [æ], similar to the RP English pronunciation of ⟨a⟩ in ‘act’, and [ɒ], similar to the RP pronunciation of ⟨o⟩ in ‘cot’. These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as in डॉलर dôlar, "dollar".[50] IAST transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919, the transliteration is ê and ô, respectively.

Consonants

The table below shows the consonant letters (in combination with inherent vowel a) and their arrangement. To the right of the Devanāgarī letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration,[51] and the phonetic value (IPA) in Hindi.[52][53]

Phonetics → sparśa
(Occlusive) 		anunāsika
(Nasal) 		antastha
(Approximant) 		ūṣman/saṃgharṣī
(Fricative)
Voicing → aghoṣa saghoṣa aghoṣa saghoṣa
Aspiration → alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa
kaṇṭhya
(Velars) 		क ka
[k] 		ख kha
[kʰ] 		ग ga
[ɡ] 		घ gha
[ɡʱ] 		ङ ṅa
[ŋ] 		ह ha
[ɦ]
tālavya
(Palatal) 		च ca
[tʃ] 		छ cha
[tʃʰ] 		ज ja
[dʒ] 		झ jha
[dʒʱ] 		ञ ña
[ɲ] 		य ya
[j] 		श śa
[ʃ]
mūrdhanya
(Retroflex) 		ट ṭa
[ʈ] 		ठ ṭha
[ʈʰ] 		ड ḍa
[ɖ] 		ढ ḍha
[ɖʱ] 		ण ṇa
[ɳ] 		र ra
[r] 		ष ṣa
[ʂ]
dantya
(Dental) 		त ta
[t̪] 		थ tha
[t̪ʰ] 		द da
[d̪] 		ध dha
[d̪ʱ] 		न na
[n] 		ल la
[l] 		स sa
[s]
oṣṭhya
(Labial) 		प pa
[p] 		फ pha
[pʰ] 		ब ba
[b] 		भ bha
[bʱ] 		म ma
[m] 		व va
[ʋ]
  • Additionally, there is ळ ḷa (IPA: [ɭ] or [ɭ̆]), the intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi, Konkani, Garhwali, and Rajasthani.[54]
  • Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated. Masica (1991:146) offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation).

For a list of the 297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-(short) vowel syllables see Āryabhaṭa numeration.

Vowel diacritics

 
Vowel diacritics on क

Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics. Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k' on the bottom. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a' is inherent.

a ā æ ɒ i ī u ū e ē ai o ō au r̥ r̥̄ l̥ l̥̄ ṁ ḥ
अ आ ॲ ऑ इ ई उ ऊ ऎ ए ऐ ऒ ओ औ ऋ ॠ ऌ ॡ अं अः
ka kā kæ kɒ ki kī ku kū ke kē kai ko kō kau kr̥ kr̥̄ kl̥ kl̥̄ kaṁ kaḥ k
क का कॅ कॉ कि की कु कू कॆ के कै कॊ को कौ कृ कॄ कॢ कॣ कं कः क्

A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel आ (ā) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form the syllabic letter का (kā), with halant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics. The vowel अ (a) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form क (ka) with halant removed. But the diacritic series of क, ख, ग, घ ... (ka, kha, ga, gha) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel अ (a) is inherent. The transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover.

Barakhadi Table
a ā i ī u ū e ai o au aṁ aḥ
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः
k- क का कि की कु कू के कै को कौ कं कः
kh- ख खा खि खी खु खू खे खै खो खौ खं खः
g- ग गा गि गी गु गू गे गै गो गौ गं गः
gh- घ घा घि घी घु घू घे घै घो घौ घं घः
ṅ- ङ ङा ङि ङी ङु ङू ङे ङै ङो ङौ ङं ङः
c- च चा चि ची चु चू चे चै चो चौ चं चः
ch- छ छा छि छी छु छू छे छै छो छौ छं छः
j- ज जा जि जी जु जू जे जै जो जौ जं जः
jh- झ झा झि झी झु झू झे झै झो झौ झं झः
ñ- ञ ञा ञि ञी ञु ञू ञे ञै ञो ञौ ञं ञः
ṭ- ट टा टि टी टु टू टे टै टो टौ टं टः
ṭh- ठ ठा ठि ठी ठु ठू ठे ठै ठो ठौ ठं ठः
ḍ- ड डा डि डी डु डू डे डै डो डौ डं डः
ḍh- ढ ढा ढि ढी ढु ढू ढे ढै ढो ढौ ढं ढः
ṇ- ण णा णि णी णु णू णे णै णो णौ णं णः
t- त ता ति ती तु तू ते तै तो तौ तं तः
th- थ था थि थी थु थू थे थै थो थौ थं थः
d- द दा दि दी दु दू दे दै दो दौ दं दः
dh- ध धा धि धी धु धू धे धै धो धौ धं धः
n- न ना नि नी नु नू ने नै नो नौ नं नः
p- प पा पि पी पु पू पे पै पो पौ पं पः
ph- फ फा फि फी फु फू फे फै फो फौ फं फः
b- ब बा बि बी बु बू बे बै बो बौ बं बः
bh- भ भा भि भी भु भू भे भै भो भौ भं भः
m- म मा मि मी मु मू मे मै मो मौ मं मः
y- य या यि यी यु यू ये यै यो यौ यं यः
r- र रा रि री रु रू रे रै रो रौ रं रः
l- ल ला लि ली लु लू ले लै लो लौ लं लः
v- व वा वि वी वु वू वे वै वो वौ वं वः
ś- श शा शि शी शु शू शे शै शो शौ शं शः
ṣ- ष षा षि षी षु षू षे षै षो षौ षं षः
s- स सा सि सी सु सू से सै सो सौ सं सः
h- ह हा हि ही हु हू हे है हो हौ हं हः

Conjunct consonants

Main article: Devanāgarī conjuncts
 
The Jnanesvari is a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, dated to 1290 CE. It is in written in Marathi using Devanāgarī script.

As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a conjunct consonant or ligature. When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word karnā is written करना (ka-ra-nā).[56] The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:

  •  
    All forms of श
    24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (ख kha, घ gha, ण ṇa etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke. e.g. त् + व = त्व tva, ण् + ढ = ण्ढ ṇḍha, स् + थ = स्थ stha. In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called half forms.[57] श ś(a) appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding व va, न na, च ca, ल la, and र ra, causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्व śva, श्न śna, श्च śca श्ल śla, श्र śra, and शृ śri.
  • र r(a) as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā-diacritic. e.g. र्व rva, र्वा rvā, र्स्प rspa, र्स्पा rspā. As a final member with ट ṭa, ठ ṭha, ड ḍa, ढ ḍha, ड़ ṛa, छ cha, it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus ट्र ṭra, ठ्र ṭhra, ड्र ḍra, ढ्र ḍhra, ड़्र ṛra, छ्र chra. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र. त ta is shifted up to make the conjunct त्र tra.
  • As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as द d(a) and ह h(a) may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. क k(a), छ ch(a), and फ ph(a) shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
  • The conjuncts for kṣ and jñ are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for kṣ is क्ष (क् + ष) and for jñ it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ).

Accent marks

Main article: Vedic accent

The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, anudātta is written with a bar below the line (◌॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (◌॑) while udātta is unmarked.

Punctuation

The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "।" symbol (called a daṇḍa, meaning "bar", or called a pūrṇa virām, meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-daṇḍa, a "॥" symbol. A comma (called an alpa virām, meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[58][59] Punctuation marks of Western origin, such as the colon, semicolon, exclamation mark, dash, and question mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s,[citation needed] matching their use in European languages.[60]

Old forms

 
A few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit text Shisyalekha composed in the 5th century by Candragomin. Shisyalekha was written in Devanāgarī script by a Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE (above). The manuscript is in the Cambridge University library.[61]
 
A mid-10th-century college land grant in Devanāgarī inscription (Sanskrit) discovered on a buried, damaged stone in north Karnataka. Parts of the inscription are in Canarese script.[62]

The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts.[63]

Letter variants
standard ancient
   
   
   
   

Numerals

See also: Indian numerals, Brāhmī numerals, and Hindu–Arabic numeral system
Devanāgarī digits
० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fonts

A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī. These include Akshar,[64] Annapurna,[65] Arial,[66] CDAC-Gist Surekh,[67] CDAC-Gist Yogesh,[68] Chandas,[69] Gargi,[70] Gurumaa,[71] Jaipur,[72] Jana,[73] Kalimati,[74] Kanjirowa,[75] Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,[76] Kokila,[77] Raghu,[78] Sanskrit2003,[79] Santipur OT,[80] Siddhanta, and Thyaka.[81]

The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:[80]

Uttara [companion to Chandas] is the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[82] is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh[67] font makes for quicker comprehension and reading.

The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanāgarī in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.

Transliteration

Main article: Devanagari transliteration
 
Indic scripts share common features, and along with Devanāgarī, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.

There are several methods of Romanisation or transliteration from Devanāgarī to the Roman script.[83]

Hunterian system

Main article: Hunterian transliteration

The Hunterian system is the "national system of romanisation in India" and the one officially adopted by the Government of India.[84][85][86]

ISO 15919

Main article: ISO 15919

A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST.[87]

IAST

The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanāgarī.[87]

The National Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.

Harvard-Kyoto

Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.[88] This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.

ITRANS

ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the word devanāgarī is written "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.[88]

Velthuis

Main article: Velthuis

The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.

ALA-LC Romanisation

ALA-LC[89] romanisation is a/ transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[90] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[91] etc.

WX

Main article: WX notation

WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural language processing community in India. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.

  • Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view.
  • Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.

Encodings

ISCII

ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.

It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.

ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.

Unicode

Main articles: Devanagari (Unicode block), Devanagari Extended (Unicode block), Devanagari Extended-A (Unicode block), and Vedic Extensions (Unicode block)

The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).

Devanagari[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+090x ऀ ँ ं ः ऄ अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ऌ ऍ ऎ ए
U+091x ऐ ऑ ऒ ओ औ क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट
U+092x ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न ऩ प फ ब भ म य
U+093x र ऱ ल ळ ऴ व श ष स ह ऺ ऻ ़ ऽ ा ि
U+094x ी ु ू ृ ॄ ॅ ॆ े ै ॉ ॊ ो ौ ् ॎ ॏ
U+095x ॐ ॑ ॒ ॓ ॔ ॕ ॖ ॗ क़ ख़ ग़ ज़ ड़ ढ़ फ़ य़
U+096x ॠ ॡ ॢ ॣ । ॥ ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
U+097x ॰ ॱ ॲ ॳ ॴ ॵ ॶ ॷ ॸ ॹ ॺ ॻ ॼ ॽ ॾ ॿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
Devanagari Extended[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+A8Ex ꣠ ꣡ ꣢ ꣣ ꣤ ꣥ ꣦ ꣧ ꣨ ꣩ ꣪ ꣫ ꣬ ꣭ ꣮ ꣯
U+A8Fx ꣰ ꣱ ꣲ ꣳ ꣴ ꣵ ꣶ ꣷ ꣸ ꣹ ꣺ ꣻ ꣼ ꣽ ꣾ ꣿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
Devanagari Extended-A[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+11B0x 𑬀 𑬁 𑬂 𑬃 𑬄 𑬅 𑬆 𑬇 𑬈 𑬉
U+11B1x
U+11B2x
U+11B3x
U+11B4x
U+11B5x
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
Vedic Extensions[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+1CDx ᳐ ᳑ ᳒ ᳓ ᳔ ᳕ ᳖ ᳗ ᳘ ᳙ ᳚ ᳛ ᳜ ᳝ ᳞ ᳟
U+1CEx ᳠ ᳡ ᳢ ᳣ ᳤ ᳥ ᳦ ᳧ ᳨ ᳩ ᳪ ᳫ ᳬ ᳭ ᳮ ᳯ
U+1CFx ᳰ ᳱ ᳲ ᳳ ᳴  ᳵ   ᳶ  ᳷ ᳸ ᳹ ᳺ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Devanāgarī keyboard layouts

For a list of Devanāgarī input tools and fonts, please see Help:Multilingual support (Indic).

InScript layout

InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout (using the Mangal font), which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.

 
Devanāgarī INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout

Typewriter

This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.

Phonetic

 
Devanāgarī Phonetic Keyboard Layout
One can use ULS "अक्षरांतरण" (Transliteration) or "मराठी लिपी" (Inscript) typing options to search or edit Marathi Wikipedia articles as shown in this video clip; One can click on the cc to change the subtitle languages to Marathi, English, Sanskrit, Konkani, Ahirani languages.

Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the IME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME.

The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanāgarī QWERTY".

Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia. While some people use InScript, the majority uses either Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: अक्षरांतरण, Hindi: लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी) and InScript keyboard (Marathi: मराठी लिपी).

The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī.

See also

References

Citations

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  84. ^ United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2007), Technical reference manual for the standardisation of geographical names, United Nations Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-92-1-161500-5, from the original on 24 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... ISO 15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually used national system of romanisation in India ...
  85. ^ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (1955), United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2, United Nations, 1955, from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... In India the Hunterian system is used, whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet ...
  86. ^ National Library (India) (1960), Indian scientific & technical publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India, 1960, from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, ... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has international acceptance, has been used ...
  87. ^ a b Devanagari IAST conventions 14 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine Script Source (2009), SIL International, United States
  88. ^ a b Transliteration of Devanāgarī 6 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine D. Wujastyk (1996)
  89. ^ "LOC.gov". LOC.gov. from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  90. ^ "0001.eps" (PDF). Library of Congress. (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  91. ^ "LOC.gov" (PDF). Library of Congress. (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2011.

General sources

  • Lambert, Hester Marjorie (1953), Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege (Oxford University Press).
  • Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
  • Snell, Rupert (2000), Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 978-0-07-141984-0.
  • Salomon, Richard (1996). "Brahmi and Kharoshthi". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
  • Salomon, Richard (2003), "Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 67–103, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
  • Verma, Sheela (2003), "Magahi", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 498–514, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
  • Wikner, Charles (1996), A Practical Sanskrit Introductory.

Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanāgarī

Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanāgarī have been discovered since the 19th century. Major catalogues and census include:

  • A Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries at Google Books, Medical Hall Press, Princeton University Archive
  • A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts at Google Books, Vol 1: Upanishads, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), University of Michigan Library Archives
  • A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts, Vedas, Sastras, Sutras, Schools of Hindu Philosophies, Arts, Design, Music and other fields, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), (Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character code De.)
  • Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 1: Vedic Manuscripts, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
  • Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 4: Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
  • Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 5: Manuscripts of Medicine, Astronomy and Mathematics, Architecture and Technical Science Literature, Julius Eggeling (Compiler), Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
  • Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts at Google Books, Part 6: Poetic, Epic and Purana Literature, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
  • David Pingree (1970–1981), Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit: Volumes 1 through 5, American Philosophical Society, Manuscripts in various Indic scripts including Devanāgarī

External links

 
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Devanāgarī
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Devanāgarī stroke order and Devanāgarī pronunciation.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Learning Devanāgarī.
  • Devnagari Unicode Legacy Font Converters 27 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  • Digital Nāgarī fonts, University of Chicago
  • , Wazu, Japan (Alternate collection: Luc Devroye's comprehensive Indic Fonts 25 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, McGill University)
  • Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, p. 30, at Google Books, Rudradaman's inscription in Sanskrit Nāgarī script from 1st through 4th century CE (coins and epigraphy), found in Gujarat, India, pages 30–45
  • Numerals and Text in Devanāgarī 22 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, 9th century temple in Gwalior Madhya Pradesh, India, Current Science
  • Maurer, Walter H. (1976). "On the Name Devanāgarī". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 96 (1): 101–104. doi:10.2307/599893. JSTOR 599893.

February 05, 2023
devanagari, devanāgarī, ɑː, वन, गर, iast, devanāgarī, sanskrit, pronunciation, deːʋɐˈnaːɡɐriː, also, called, nāgarī, sanskrit, गर, nāgarī, left, right, abugida, type, segmental, writing, system, based, ancient, brāhmī, script, used, northern, indian, subcontin. Devanagari or Devanagari ˌ d eɪ v e ˈ n ɑː ɡ e r i DAY ve NAH ge ree द वन गर IAST Devanagari Sanskrit pronunciation deːʋɐˈnaːɡɐriː also called Nagari Sanskrit न गर Nagari 8 is a left to right abugida a type of segmental writing system 9 based on the ancient Brahmi script 10 used in the northern Indian subcontinent It is one of the official scripts of the Indian Republic It was developed and in regular use by the 7th century CE 8 11 The Devanagari script composed of 47 primary characters including 14 vowels and 33 consonants is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world 12 being used for over 120 languages 13 Devanagariद वन गर Devanagari script vowels top consonants bottom Script typeAbugidaTime period7th century CE to present 1 2 Directionleft to right Region India 120 languages use Devanagari script Fiji as script for Fiji Hindi South Africa as protected language script 3 NepalLanguagesApabhramsha Awadhi Bhili Bhojpuri Boro Braj Chhattisgarhi Dogri Gujarati Garhwali Haryanvi Hindustani Hindi Kashmiri Konkani Kumaoni Magahi Maithili Marathi Marwari Mundari Nagpuri Newari Nepali Pali Pahari Prakrit Rajasthani Sanskrit Santali Saraiki Sherpa Sindhi Surjapuri and many more Related scriptsParent systemsProto Sinaitic a Phoenician a Aramaic 4 5 a BrahmiGuptaSiddhaṃ 6 7 NagariDevanagariSister systemsNandinagariKaithiGujaratiMoḍiISO 15924ISO 15924Deva 315 Devanagari Nagari UnicodeUnicode aliasDevanagariUnicode rangeU 0900 U 097F Devanagari U A8E0 U A8FF Devanagari Extended U 11B00 11B5F Devanagari Extended A U 1CD0 U 1CFF Vedic Extensions a b c A Semitic origin for the Brahmi script is not universally accepted This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet IPA For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA For the distinction between and see IPA Brackets and transcription delimiters Part of a series onOfficially used writing systems in IndiaCategoryIndic scriptsBengali Assamese script Devanagari script Gujarati script Gurmukhi script Kannada script Malayalam script Meitei script Odia script Tamil script Telugu scriptArabic derived scriptsPerso Arabic script Urdu scriptAlphabetical scriptsOl Chiki Latin scriptRelatedOfficial scripts of the Indian Republic Writing systems of India Languages of India Asia portal India portal Language portal Writing portalThe orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language 13 Unlike the Latin alphabet the script has no concept of letter case 14 It is written from left to right has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines and is recognisable by a horizontal line known as a shirorekha that runs along the top of full letters 9 In a cursory look the Devanagari script appears different from other Indic scripts such as Bengali Assamese or Gurmukhi but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis 9 Among the languages using it either as their only script or as one of their scripts are Marathi Paḷi Sanskrit the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters 15 Hindi 16 Boro Nepali Sherpa Prakrit Apabhramsha Awadhi Bhojpuri Braj Bhasha 17 Chhattisgarhi Haryanvi Magahi Nagpuri Rajasthani Bhili Dogri Kashmiri Konkani Sindhi Nepal Bhasa Mundari and Santali 13 The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South India 18 19 and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts 13 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 East Asia 3 Letters 3 1 Vowels 3 2 Consonants 3 3 Vowel diacritics 3 4 Conjunct consonants 3 5 Accent marks 3 6 Punctuation 3 7 Old forms 3 8 Numerals 3 9 Fonts 4 Transliteration 4 1 Hunterian system 4 2 ISO 15919 4 3 IAST 4 4 Harvard Kyoto 4 5 ITRANS 4 5 1 Velthuis 4 6 ALA LC Romanisation 4 7 WX 5 Encodings 5 1 ISCII 5 2 Unicode 6 Devanagari keyboard layouts 6 1 InScript layout 6 2 Typewriter 6 3 Phonetic 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Citations 8 2 General sources 8 3 Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanagari 9 External linksEtymology EditDevanagari is a compound of deva द व and nagari न गर Deva means heavenly or divine and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism 20 Nagari comes from नगरम nagaram a Sanskrit word which means town Hence Devanagari denotes from the abode of divinity or deities 21 22 The use of the name devanagari emerged from the older term nagari 23 According to Fischer Nagari emerged in the northwest Indian subcontinent around 633 CE was fully developed by the 11th century CE and was one of the major scripts used for the Sanskrit literature 23 History EditDevanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India Nepal Tibet and Southeast Asia 24 23 It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brahmi script which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to Devanagari and Nandinagari Devanagari has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write Sanskrit Marathi Hindi Central Indo Aryan languages Konkani Boro and various Nepalese languages Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nagari script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in Gujarat 10 Variants of script called Nagari recognisably close to Devanagari are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit while the modern standardised form of Devanagari was in use by about 1000 CE 11 25 Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari related scripts with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts For example the mid 8th century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script and an early Telugu Kannada script while the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanagari scripts 26 The Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium 8 11 The use of Sanskrit in Nagari script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave temple inscriptions including the 11th century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh 27 and an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh dated to be from 1217 CE which is now held at the British Museum 28 The script s proto and related versions have been discovered in ancient relics outside of India such as in Sri Lanka Myanmar and Indonesia while in East Asia Siddha Matrika script considered as the closest precursor to Nagari was in use by Buddhists 15 29 Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts 15 It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit information existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts such as Moḍi Kaithi and Mahajani used for administration commerce and other daily uses Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir An early version of Devanagari is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to Vikram Samvat 1049 i e 992 CE which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word 1 One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post Maurya period consists of 1 413 Nagari pages of a commentary by Patanjali with a composition date of about 150 BCE the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE 30 Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta and to Devanagari 31 k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh n ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l v s ṣ s h Brahmi 𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗 𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜 𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡 𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦 𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫 𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀰 𑀱 𑀲 𑀳Gupta Devanagari क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न प फ ब भ म य र ल व श ष स हEast Asia Edit Uṣṇiṣa Vijaya Dharaṇi Sutra in Siddhaṃ on palm leaf in 609 CE Hōryu ji Japan The last line is a complete Sanskrit syllabary in Siddhaṃ script In the 7th century under the rule of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language Thus he invented the Tibetan script based on the Nagari used in Kashmir He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit 32 Other scripts closely related to Nagari such as Siddhaṃ Matrka were in use in Indonesia Vietnam Japan and other parts of East Asia by the 7th to 10th centuries 33 34 Most of the southeast Asian scripts have roots in the Dravidian scripts except for a few found in south central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia that resemble Devanagari or its prototype The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanagari in many respects though the morphology of the script has local changes The earliest inscriptions in the Devanagari like scripts are from around the 10th century with many more between 11th and 14th centuries 35 36 Some of the old Devanagari inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java such as the Prambanan temple 37 The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java dated to the 8th century are also in the Nagari script of North India According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs these may be related to the 9th century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva Bengal which is also in early Devanagari script 38 The term Kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from Kavya poetry According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian the 8th century version of early Nagari or Devanagari script was adopted in Java Bali Indonesia and Khmer Cambodia around 8th or 9th centuries as evidenced by the many inscriptions of this period 39 Letters EditThe letter order of Devanagari like nearly all Brahmic scripts is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamala garland of letters 40 The format of Devanagari for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application with minor variations or additions to other languages 41 Vowels Edit The vowels and their arrangement are 42 Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with प Barakhadi further explanation needed Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with प Barakhadi kaṇṭhya Guttural अ a ɐ प आ a ɑː प talavya Palatal इ i i प ई i iː प oṣṭhya Labial उ u u प 6 ऊ u uː प 6murdhanya Retroflex ऋ ṛ r r प ॠ 4 ṝ r r ː प dantya Dental ऌ 4 ḷ l l प ॡ 4 5 ḹ l l ː प kaṇṭhatalavya Palatoguttural ए e e eː प ऐ ai ɑj प kaṇṭhoṣṭhya Labioguttural ओ o ō oː प औ au ɑw प अ 1 2 ṃ ṁ प अ 1 ḥ h प ॲ ऍ 7 e ae प ऑ 7 o ɒ प Examples of Devanagari manuscripts created between the 13th and 19th centuries Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics the final nasal anusvara ṃ and the final fricative visarga ḥ called अ aṃ and अ aḥ Masica 1991 146 notes of the anusvara in Sanskrit that there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop a nasalised vowel a nasalised semivowel or all these according to context The visarga represents post vocalic voiceless glottal fricative h in Sanskrit an allophone of s or less commonly r usually in word final position Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath 43 इ ihi Masica 1991 146 considers the visarga along with letters ङ ṅa and ञ na for the largely predictable velar and palatal nasals to be examples of phonetic overkill in the system Another diacritic is the candrabindu anunasika अ Salomon 2003 76 77 describes it as a more emphatic form of the anusvara sometimes used to mark a true vowel nasalization In a New Indo Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalisation 44 while the anusvar indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant 45 e g ह स ɦe si laughter ग ग ɡeŋɡɑ the Ganges When an akṣara has a vowel diacritic above the top line that leaves no room for the candra moon stroke candrabindu which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot 46 ह ɦũ am but ह ɦɛ are Some writers and typesetters dispense with the moon stroke altogether using only the dot in all situations 47 The avagraha ऽ अऽ usually transliterated with an apostrophe is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi एक ऽयम eko yam एकस ekas अयम ayam this one An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha सद ऽऽत म sada tma सद sada आत म atma always the self 48 In Hindi Snell 2000 77 states that its main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout आईऽऽऽ aiii In Madhyadeshi Languages like Bhojpuri Awadhi Maithili etc which have quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel 49 the avagraha is used to mark the non elision of word final inherent a which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention बइठऽ baiṭha sit versus बइठ baiṭh The syllabic consonants ṝ ॠ ḷ ऌ and ḹ ॡ are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamala of other languages The sound represented by ṛ has also been lost in the modern languages and its pronunciation now ranges from ɾɪ Hindi to ɾu Marathi ḹ is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short long pairs of letters 41 There are non regular formations of र ru र ru and ह hṛ There are two more vowels in Marathi ॲ and ऑ that respectively represent ae similar to the RP English pronunciation of a in act and ɒ similar to the RP pronunciation of o in cot These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too as in ड लर dolar dollar 50 IAST transliteration is not defined In ISO 15919 the transliteration is e and o respectively Consonants Edit The table below shows the consonant letters in combination with inherent vowel a and their arrangement To the right of the Devanagari letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration 51 and the phonetic value IPA in Hindi 52 53 Phonetics sparsa Occlusive anunasika Nasal antastha Approximant uṣman saṃgharṣi Fricative Voicing aghoṣa saghoṣa aghoṣa saghoṣaAspiration alpapraṇa mahapraṇa alpapraṇa mahapraṇa alpapraṇa mahapraṇakaṇṭhya Velars क ka k ख kha kʰ ग ga ɡ घ gha ɡʱ ङ ṅa ŋ ह ha ɦ talavya Palatal च ca tʃ छ cha tʃʰ ज ja dʒ झ jha dʒʱ ञ na ɲ य ya j श sa ʃ murdhanya Retroflex ट ṭa ʈ ठ ṭha ʈʰ ड ḍa ɖ ढ ḍha ɖʱ ण ṇa ɳ र ra r ष ṣa ʂ dantya Dental त ta t थ tha t ʰ द da d ध dha d ʱ न na n ल la l स sa s oṣṭhya Labial प pa p फ pha pʰ ब ba b भ bha bʱ म ma m व va ʋ Additionally there is ळ ḷa IPA ɭ or ɭ the intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi Konkani Garhwali and Rajasthani 54 Beyond the Sanskritic set new shapes have rarely been formulated Masica 1991 146 offers the following In any case according to some all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo Aryan languages they have been ignored in writing or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures ignored in recitation The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot nuqta Hindi uses it for the Persian Arabic and English sounds क qa q ख xa x ग ġa ɣ ज za z झ zha ʒ and फ fa f and for the allophonic developments ड ṛa ɽ and ढ ṛha ɽʱ 55 Although ऴ ḻa ɻ could also exist it is not used in Hindi Sindhi s and Saraiki s implosives are accommodated with a line attached below ॻ ɠe ॼ ʄe ॾ ɗe ॿ ɓe Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts ligatures with ह ha म ह mha न ह nha ण ह ṇha व ह vha ल ह lha ळ ह ḷha र ह rha Masica 1991 147 notes Marwari as using ॸ for ḍa ɗe while ड represents ɽe For a list of the 297 33 9 possible Sanskrit consonant short vowel syllables see Aryabhaṭa numeration Vowel diacritics Edit Vowel diacritics on क Table Consonants with vowel diacritics Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form vowel sign combined with the consonant k on the bottom ka is without any added vowel sign where the vowel a is inherent a a ae ɒ i i u u e e ai o ō au r r l l ṁ ḥअ आ ॲ ऑ इ ई उ ऊ ऎ ए ऐ ऒ ओ औ ऋ ॠ ऌ ॡ अ अ ka ka kae kɒ ki ki ku ku ke ke kai ko kō kau kr kr kl kl kaṁ kaḥ kक क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form For example the vowel आ a combines with the consonant क k to form the syllabic letter क ka with halant cancel sign removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics The vowel अ a combines with the consonant क k to form क ka with halant removed But the diacritic series of क ख ग घ ka kha ga gha is without any added vowel sign as the vowel अ a is inherent The transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover Barakhadi Table a a i i u u e ai o au aṁ aḥअ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ऐ ओ औ अ अ k क क क क क क क क क क क क kh ख ख ख ख ख ख ख ख ख ख ख ख g ग ग ग ग ग ग ग ग ग ग ग ग gh घ घ घ घ घ घ घ घ घ घ घ घ ṅ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ ङ c च च च च च च च च च च च च ch छ छ छ छ छ छ छ छ छ छ छ छ j ज ज ज ज ज ज ज ज ज ज ज ज jh झ झ झ झ झ झ झ झ झ झ झ झ n ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ञ ṭ ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट ṭh ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ठ ḍ ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ड ḍh ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ढ ṇ ण ण ण ण ण ण ण ण ण ण ण ण t त त त त त त त त त त त त th थ थ थ थ थ थ थ थ थ थ थ थ d द द द द द द द द द द द द dh ध ध ध ध ध ध ध ध ध ध ध ध n न न न न न न न न न न न न p प प प प प प प प प प प प ph फ फ फ फ फ फ फ फ फ फ फ फ b ब ब ब ब ब ब ब ब ब ब ब ब bh भ भ भ भ भ भ भ भ भ भ भ भ m म म म म म म म म म म म म y य य य य य य य य य य य य r र र र र र र र र र र र र l ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल v व व व व व व व व व व व व s श श श श श श श श श श श श ṣ ष ष ष ष ष ष ष ष ष ष ष ष s स स स स स स स स स स स स h ह ह ह ह ह ह ह ह ह ह ह ह Conjunct consonants Edit Main article Devanagari conjuncts The Jnanesvari is a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita dated to 1290 CE It is in written in Marathi using Devanagari script As mentioned successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a conjunct consonant or ligature When Devanagari is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so For example the native Hindi word karna is written करन ka ra na 56 The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules with special exceptions within While standardised for the most part there are certain variations in clustering of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme The following are a number of rules All forms of श24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke ख kha घ gha ण ṇa etc As first or middle fragments members of a cluster when letters are to be written as half pronounced they lose that stroke e g त व त व tva ण ढ ण ढ ṇḍha स थ स थ stha In Unicode as in Hindi these consonants without their vertical stems are called half forms 57 श s a appears as a different simple ribbon shaped fragment preceding व va न na च ca ल la and र ra causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size Thus श व sva श न sna श च sca श ल sla श र sra and श sri र r a as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its a diacritic e g र व rva र व rva र स प rspa र स प rspa As a final member with ट ṭa ठ ṭha ड ḍa ढ ḍha ड ṛa छ cha it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards Thus ट र ṭra ठ र ṭhra ड र ḍra ढ र ḍhra ड र ṛra छ र chra Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down e g क र ग र भ र ब र त ta is shifted up to make the conjunct त र tra As first members remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as द d a and ह h a may have their second member reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke placed underneath क k a छ ch a and फ ph a shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member The conjuncts for kṣ and jn are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components The conjunct for kṣ is क ष क ष and for jn it is ज ञ ज ञ Accent marks Edit Main article Vedic accent The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha In the Rigveda anudatta is written with a bar below the line svarita with a stroke above the line while udatta is unmarked Punctuation Edit The end of a sentence or half verse may be marked with the symbol called a daṇḍa meaning bar or called a purṇa viram meaning full stop pause The end of a full verse may be marked with a double daṇḍa a symbol A comma called an alpa viram meaning short stop pause is used to denote a natural pause in speech 58 59 Punctuation marks of Western origin such as the colon semicolon exclamation mark dash and question mark have been in use in Devanagari script since at least the 1900s citation needed matching their use in European languages 60 Old forms Edit A few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit text Shisyalekha composed in the 5th century by Candragomin Shisyalekha was written in Devanagari script by a Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE above The manuscript is in the Cambridge University library 61 A mid 10th century college land grant in Devanagari inscription Sanskrit discovered on a buried damaged stone in north Karnataka Parts of the inscription are in Canarese script 62 The following letter variants are also in use particularly in older texts 63 Letter variants standard ancient Numerals Edit See also Indian numerals Brahmi numerals and Hindu Arabic numeral system Devanagari digits ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Fonts Edit A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanagari These include Akshar 64 Annapurna 65 Arial 66 CDAC Gist Surekh 67 CDAC Gist Yogesh 68 Chandas 69 Gargi 70 Gurumaa 71 Jaipur 72 Jana 73 Kalimati 74 Kanjirowa 75 Lohit Devanagari Mangal 76 Kokila 77 Raghu 78 Sanskrit2003 79 Santipur OT 80 Siddhanta and Thyaka 81 The form of Devanagari fonts vary with function According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies 80 Uttara companion to Chandas is the best in terms of ligatures but because it is designed for Vedic as well requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the user interface font though an excellent choice for the original field font Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early medieval era typesetting style for Devanagari Sanskrit 2003 82 is a good all around font and has more ligatures than most fonts though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC Gist Surekh 67 font makes for quicker comprehension and reading The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanagari in a variety of typefaces in serif sans serif display and handwriting categories Transliteration EditMain article Devanagari transliteration Indic scripts share common features and along with Devanagari all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post Vedic Sanskrit texts There are several methods of Romanisation or transliteration from Devanagari to the Roman script 83 Hunterian system Edit Main article Hunterian transliteration The Hunterian system is the national system of romanisation in India and the one officially adopted by the Government of India 84 85 86 ISO 15919 Edit Main article ISO 15919 A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001 It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script The Devanagari specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit IAST 87 IAST Edit The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration IAST is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications like books magazines and electronic texts with Unicode fonts It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912 The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanagari 87 The National Library at Kolkata romanisation intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts is an extension of IAST Harvard Kyoto Edit Compared to IAST Harvard Kyoto looks much simpler It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard 88 This makes typing in Harvard Kyoto much easier than IAST Harvard Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words ITRANS Edit ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet It is an extension of the Harvard Kyoto scheme In ITRANS the word devanagari is written devanaagarii or devanAgarI ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre processor translates the Roman letters into Devanagari or other Indic languages The latest version of ITRANS is version 5 30 released in July 2001 It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers 88 Velthuis Edit Main article Velthuis The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case sensitivity implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX loosely based on IAST in which case is irrelevant ALA LC Romanisation Edit ALA LC 89 romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association and widely used in North American libraries Transliteration tables are based on languages so there is a table for Hindi 90 one for Sanskrit and Prakrit 91 etc WX Edit Main article WX notation WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages widely used among the natural language processing community in India It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman Hence it is a prefix code advantageous from computation point of view Lower case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels While the retroflex stops are mapped to t T d D N the dentals are mapped to w W x X n Hence the name WX a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping Encodings EditISCII Edit ISCII is an 8 bit encoding The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII specific It has been designed for representing not only Devanagari but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode which has however attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks Unicode Edit Main articles Devanagari Unicode block Devanagari Extended Unicode block Devanagari Extended A Unicode block and Vedic Extensions Unicode block The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanagari Devanagari U 0900 U 097F Devanagari Extended U A8E0 U A8FF Devanagari Extended A U 11B00 11B5F and Vedic Extensions U 1CD0 U 1CFF Devanagari 1 Official Unicode Consortium code chart PDF 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E FU 090x ऄ अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ऌ ऍ ऎ एU 091x ऐ ऑ ऒ ओ औ क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ टU 092x ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न ऩ प फ ब भ म यU 093x र ऱ ल ळ ऴ व श ष स ह ऽ U 094x U 095x ॐ क़ ख़ ग़ ज़ ड़ ढ़ फ़ य़U 096x ॠ ॡ ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९U 097x ॱ ॲ ॳ ॴ ॵ ॶ ॷ ॸ ॹ ॺ ॻ ॼ ॽ ॾ ॿNotes 1 As of Unicode version 15 0Devanagari Extended 1 Official Unicode Consortium code chart PDF 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E FU A8Ex U A8Fx ꣲ ꣳ ꣴ ꣵ ꣶ ꣷ ꣻ ꣽ ꣾ Notes 1 As of Unicode version 15 0Devanagari Extended A 1 2 Official Unicode Consortium code chart PDF 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E FU 11B0x U 11B1xU 11B2xU 11B3xU 11B4xU 11B5xNotes 1 As of Unicode version 15 0 2 Grey areas indicate non assigned code pointsVedic Extensions 1 2 Official Unicode Consortium code chart PDF 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E FU 1CDx U 1CEx ᳩ ᳪ ᳫ ᳬ ᳮ ᳯU 1CFx ᳰ ᳱ ᳲ ᳳ ᳵ ᳶ ᳺNotes 1 As of Unicode version 15 0 2 Grey areas indicate non assigned code pointsDevanagari keyboard layouts EditFor a list of Devanagari input tools and fonts please see Help Multilingual support Indic source source source source source source source source source source InScript layout Edit InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanagari as standardized by the Government of India It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout using the Mangal font which can be used to input unicode Devanagari characters InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout Typewriter Edit This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout Phonetic Edit Devanagari Phonetic Keyboard Layout source source source source source source source source source source track track One can use ULS अक षर तरण Transliteration or मर ठ ल प Inscript typing options to search or edit Marathi Wikipedia articles as shown in this video clip One can click on the cc to change the subtitle languages to Marathi English Sanskrit Konkani Ahirani languages Such tools work on phonetic transliteration The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the IME automatically converts it into Devanagari Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti Baraha IME and Google IME The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for Devanagari one resembles the INSCRIPT KDE Linux while the other is a phonetic layout called Devanagari QWERTY Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects including Hindi Bhojpuri Marathi and Nepali Wikipedia While some people use InScript the majority uses either Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia On Indic language wikiprojects the phonetic facility provided initially was java based and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector ULS that offers both phonetic keyboard Aksharantaran Marathi अक षर तरण Hindi ल प य तरण ब लन गर and InScript keyboard Marathi मर ठ ल प The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for Devanagari including Harvard Kyoto WX notation Bolanagari and phonetic The remington typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method popular in Rajasthan The itrans method is useful for those who know English and the English keyboard well but are not familiar with typing in Devanagari See also Edit Linguistics portal Writing portalLanguages of India Clip font Devanagari transliteration Devanagari Braille ISCII Nagari Pracharini Sabha Nepali Schwa deletion in Indo Aryan languages Shiksha the Vedic study of sound focusing on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabetReferences EditCitations Edit a b Isaac Taylor 1883 History of the Alphabet Aryan Alphabets Part 2 Kegan Paul Trench amp Co p 333 ISBN 978 0 7661 5847 4 In the Kutila this develops into a short horizontal bar which in the Devanagari becomes a continuous horizontal line three cardinal inscriptions of this epoch namely the Kutila or Bareli inscription of 992 the Chalukya or Kistna inscription of 945 and a Kawi inscription of 919 the Kutila inscription is of great importance in Indian epigraphy not only from its precise date but from its offering a definite early form of the standard Indian alphabet the Devanagari Salomon Richard 1998 Indian epigraphy a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit Prakrit and the other Indo Aryan languages South Asia research Oxford Oxford University Press pp 39 41 ISBN 978 0 19 509984 3 https www gov za documents constitution chapter 1 founding provisions 7CReference permanent dead link Salomon 1996 p 378 Salomon Richard On The Origin Of The Early Indian Scripts A Review Article Journal of the American Oriental Society115 2 1995 271 279 archived from the original on 22 May 2019 retrieved 27 March 2021 Daniels P T January 2008 Writing systems of major and minor languages In B Kachru Y Kachru S Sridhar eds Language in South Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 285 308 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511619069 017 Masica Colin 1993 The Indo Aryan languages p 143 a b c Kathleen Kuiper 2010 The Culture of India New York The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 1615301492 page 83 a b c Danesh Jain George Cardona 26 July 2007 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge p 115 ISBN 978 1 135 79710 2 Archived from the original on 2 March 2020 Retrieved 21 January 2019 Nagari has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes especially squared outlines and right angles 7 lines above the character grid a b Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency at Google Books Rudradaman s inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat India Stanford University Archives pages 30 45 particularly Devanagari inscription on Jayadaman s coins pages 33 34 a b c Richard Salomon 2014 Indian Epigraphy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195356663 pages 40 42 David Templin Devanagari script omniglot com Archived from the original on 1 April 2015 Retrieved 5 April 2015 a b c d Devanagari Nagari Archived 2 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Script Features and Description SIL International 2013 United States Akira Nakanishi Writing systems of the World ISBN 978 0804816540 page 48 a b c George Cardona and Danesh Jain 2003 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 0415772945 pages 75 77 Hindi Archived 28 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Omniglot Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages Snell Rupert 1991 The Hindi classical tradition a Braj Bhaṣa reader London School of Oriental and African studies ISBN 0 7286 0175 3 OCLC 24794163 George Cardona and Danesh Jain 2003 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 0415772945 page 75 Reinhold Grunendahl 2001 South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447045049 pages xxii 201 210 Monier Monier Williams A Sanskrit English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo European Languages Motilal Banarsidass page 492 Monier Williams Online Dictionary nagara Archived 20 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon Germany Maurer Walter H 1976 On the Name Devanagari Journal of the American Oriental Society 96 1 101 104 doi 10 2307 599893 ISSN 0003 0279 JSTOR 599893 Archived from the original on 22 May 2021 Retrieved 22 May 2021 a b c Steven Roger Fischer 2004 A history of writing Reaktion Books ISBN 978 1 86189 167 9 archived from the original on 7 March 2020 retrieved 15 November 2015 p 110 an early branch of this as of the fourth century CE was the Gupta script Brahmi s first main daughter The Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts usually through later Devanagari Beginning around AD 600 Gupta inspired the important Nagari Sarada Tibetan and Paḷi scripts Nagari of India s northwest first appeared around AD 633 Once fully developed in the eleventh century Nagari had become Devanagari or heavenly Nagari since it was now the main vehicle out of several for Sanskrit literature George Cardona and Danesh Jain 2003 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 0415772945 pages 68 69 Krishna Chandra Sagar 1993 Foreign Influence on Ancient India South Asia Books ISBN 978 8172110284 page 137 Richard Salomon 2014 Indian Epigraphy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195356663 page 71 Michael Willis 2001 Inscriptions from Udayagiri locating domains of devotion patronage and power in the eleventh century South Asian Studies 17 1 pages 41 53 Brick with Sanskrit inscription in Nagari script Archived 19 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine 1217 CE found in Uttar Pradesh India British Museum Wayan Ardika 2009 Form Macht Differenz Motive und Felder ethnologischen Forschens Editors Elfriede Hermann et al Universitatsverlag Gottingen ISBN 978 3940344809 pages 251 252 Quote Nagari script and Sanskrit language in the inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was already influencing Bali Indonesia by the 10th century CE Michael Witzel 2006 in Between the Empires Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE Editor Patrick Olivelle Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195305326 pages 477 480 with footnote 60 Original manuscript dates in Saka Samvat and uncertainties associated with it Mahabhasya of Patanjali F Kielhorn Evolutionary chart Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7 1838 1 William Woodville Rockhill Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution p 671 at Google Books United States National Museum page 671 David Quinter 2015 From Outcasts to Emperors Shingon Ritsu and the Manjusri Cult in Medieval Japan Brill ISBN 978 9004293397 pages 63 65 with discussion on Uṣṇiṣa Vijaya Dharaṇi Sutra Richard Salomon 2014 Indian Epigraphy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195356663 pages 157 160 Avenir S Teselkin 1972 Old Javanese Kawi Cornell University Press pp 9 14 Archived from the original on 26 January 2020 Retrieved 28 October 2018 J G de Casparis 1975 Indonesian Palaeography A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c AD 1500 BRILL Academic pp 35 43 ISBN 90 04 04172 9 Archived from the original on 13 March 2020 Retrieved 28 October 2018 Mary S Zurbuchen 1976 Introduction to Old Javanese Language and Literature A Kawi Prose Anthology Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies University of Michigan pp xi xii ISBN 978 0 89148 053 2 Archived from the original on 27 February 2020 Retrieved 28 October 2018 Briggs Lawrence Palmer 1950 The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty Present Status of the Question Journal of the American Oriental Society JSTOR 70 2 79 81 doi 10 2307 595536 ISSN 0003 0279 JSTOR 595536 John Norman Miksic Goh Geok Yian 2016 Ancient Southeast Asia Taylor amp Francis pp 177 179 314 322 ISBN 978 1 317 27904 4 Archived from the original on 6 March 2020 Retrieved 28 October 2018 Salomon 2003 71 a b Salomon 2003 75 Wikner 1996 13 14 Wikner 1996 6 Snell 2000 44 45 Snell 2000 64 Snell 2000 45 Snell 2000 46 Salomon 2003 77 Verma 2003 501 Hindi Translation of dollar Collins English Hindi Dictionary www collinsdictionary com Archived from the original on 12 May 2019 Retrieved 12 May 2019 Wikner 1996 73 Stella Sandahl 2000 A Hindi reference grammar Peeters pp 1 4 ISBN 978 9042908802 Archived from the original on 27 April 2017 Retrieved 26 April 2017 Tej K Bhatia 1987 A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition BRILL Academic pp 51 63 77 94 ISBN 90 04 07924 6 Archived from the original on 10 June 2016 Retrieved 15 November 2015 Masica 1991 97 Pandey Dipti Mondal Tapabrata Agrawal S S Bangalore Srinivas 2013 Development and suitability of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR system 2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA Held Jointly with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation O COCOSDA CASLRE 3 doi 10 1109 ICSDA 2013 6709861 ISBN 978 1 4799 2378 6 S2CID 26461938 Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व v क q ञ ɲ य j ष ʂ ख x ग ɣ ज z झ ʒ फ f Saloman Richard 2007 Typological Observations on the Indic Scripts Archived 4 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine in The Indic Scripts Paleographic and Linguistic Perspecticves D K Printworld Ltd New Delhi ISBN 812460406 1 p 33 The Unicode Standard chapter 9 South Asian Scripts I PDF The Unicode Standard v 6 0 Unicode Inc Archived PDF from the original on 3 August 2019 Retrieved 12 February 2012 Unicode Consortium The Unicode Standard Version 3 0 Volume 1 ISBN 978 0201616330 Addison Wesley pages 221 223 Transliteration from Hindi Script to Meetei Mayek Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Watham and Vimal 2013 IJETR page 550 Michael Shapiro 2014 The Devanagari Writing System in A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120805088 page 26 Siṣyalekha MS Add 1161 Archived 31 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine University of Cambridge Digital Libraries Salotgi Inscription The Indian Antiquary A Journal of Oriental Research S P Pandit 1872 pp 205 211 Quote The inscription of which a translation is given below is engraved on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height 1 foot 2 inches thick and 1 foot 9 inches broad It is cut in Devanagari characters on three of its four sides and Bahri Harder 2004 Hindi Angrezi Shabdkosh p xiii Akshar Unicode Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Annapurna SIL Unicode Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine SIL International 2013 Arial Unicode Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 a b CDAC GIST Surekh Unicode Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 CDAC GIST Yogesh Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts permanent dead link Harvard University 2010 see Chanda and Uttara ttf Archived 10 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine 2010 archive Accessed July 8 2015 Gargi Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Gurumaa Unicode a sans font Archived 11 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine KDE 2012 Jaipur Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Jana Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Kalimati Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Kanjirowa Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Mangal Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 alib ms Kokila font family Typography docs microsoft com Archived from the original on 3 October 2020 Retrieved 19 September 2020 Raghu Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Sanskrit Ashram Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 a b Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts permanent dead link Harvard University 2010 see Chanda and Uttara ttf Archived 10 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine 2010 archive Accessed July 8 2015 Thyaka Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource University of Chicago 2009 Devanagari font Archived 13 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine Unicode Standard 8 0 2015 Daya Nand Sharma 1972 Transliteration into Roman and Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group Survey of India 1972 archived from the original on 3 June 2016 retrieved 15 November 2015 With the passage of time there has emerged a practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied alphabets Nevertheless no single system of Romanisation has yet developed United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2007 Technical reference manual for the standardisation of geographical names United Nations Publications 2007 ISBN 978 92 1 161500 5 archived from the original on 24 April 2016 retrieved 15 November 2015 ISO 15919 There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products The Hunterian system is the actually used national system of romanisation in India United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 1955 United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East Volume 2 United Nations 1955 archived from the original on 27 April 2016 retrieved 15 November 2015 In India the Hunterian system is used whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet National Library India 1960 Indian scientific amp technical publications exhibition 1960 a bibliography Council of Scientific amp Industrial Research Government of India 1960 archived from the original on 27 April 2016 retrieved 15 November 2015 The Hunterian system of transliteration which has international acceptance has been used a b Devanagari IAST conventions Archived 14 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine Script Source 2009 SIL International United States a b Transliteration of Devanagari Archived 6 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine D Wujastyk 1996 LOC gov LOC gov Archived from the original on 6 November 2020 Retrieved 13 June 2011 0001 eps PDF Library of Congress Archived PDF from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 13 June 2011 LOC gov PDF Library of Congress Archived PDF from the original on 13 April 2018 Retrieved 13 June 2011 General sources Edit Lambert Hester Marjorie 1953 Introduction to the Devanagari Script For Students of Sanskrit Hindi Marathi Gujarati and Bengali London Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxford University Press Masica Colin 1991 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Snell Rupert 2000 Teach Yourself Beginner s Hindi Script Hodder amp Stoughton ISBN 978 0 07 141984 0 Salomon Richard 1996 Brahmi and Kharoshthi In Daniels Peter T Bright William eds The World s Writing Systems Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 507993 0 Salomon Richard 2003 Writing Systems of the Indo Aryan Languages in Cardona George Jain Dhanesh eds The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge pp 67 103 ISBN 978 0 415 77294 5 Verma Sheela 2003 Magahi in Cardona George Jain Dhanesh eds The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge pp 498 514 ISBN 978 0 415 77294 5 Wikner Charles 1996 A Practical Sanskrit Introductory Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanagari Edit Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanagari have been discovered since the 19th century Major catalogues and census include A Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries at Google Books Medical Hall Press Princeton University Archive A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts at Google Books Vol 1 Upanishads Friedrich Otto Schrader Compiler University of Michigan Library Archives A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts Vedas Sastras Sutras Schools of Hindu Philosophies Arts Design Music and other fields Friedrich Otto Schrader Compiler Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character code De Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts Part 1 Vedic Manuscripts Harvard University Archives mostly Devanagari Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts Part 4 Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra Harvard University Archives mostly Devanagari Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts Part 5 Manuscripts of Medicine Astronomy and Mathematics Architecture and Technical Science Literature Julius Eggeling Compiler Harvard University Archives mostly Devanagari Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts at Google Books Part 6 Poetic Epic and Purana Literature Harvard University Archives mostly Devanagari David Pingree 1970 1981 Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit Volumes 1 through 5 American Philosophical Society Manuscripts in various Indic scripts including DevanagariExternal links Edit Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Devanagari Wikimedia Commons has media related to wbr Devanagari stroke order and wbr Devanagari pronunciation Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Learning Devanagari Devnagari Unicode Legacy Font Converters Archived 27 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine Digital Nagari fonts University of Chicago Devanagari in different fonts Wazu Japan Alternate collection Luc Devroye s comprehensive Indic Fonts Archived 25 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine McGill University Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency p 30 at Google Books Rudradaman s inscription in Sanskrit Nagari script from 1st through 4th century CE coins and epigraphy found in Gujarat India pages 30 45 Numerals and Text in Devanagari Archived 22 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine 9th century temple in Gwalior Madhya Pradesh India Current Science Maurer Walter H 1976 On the Name Devanagari Journal of the American Oriental Society 96 1 101 104 doi 10 2307 599893 JSTOR 599893 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Devanagari amp oldid 1136963414, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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