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Jain philosophy

January 22, 2023

Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in Jainism. One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categories of existence, the living, conscious or sentient being (jiva) and the non-living or material (ajiva).[1]

Jain texts discuss numerous philosophical topics such as epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, cosmology and soteriology. Jain thought is primarily concerned with understanding the nature of living beings, how these beings are bound by karma (which are seen as fine material particles) and how living beings may be liberated (moksha) from the cycle of reincarnation. Also notable is the Jain belief in a beginning-less and cyclical universe and a rejection of a Creator deity.

From the Jain point of view, Jain philosophy is eternal and has been taught numerous times in the remote past by the great enlightened tirthankaras ("ford-makers").[2][3] Historians trace the developments of Jain thought to a few key figures in ancient India, mainly Mahavira (c. 5th century BCE, a contemporary of the Buddha) and possibly Parshvanatha (c. 8th or 7th century BCE, though this is disputed).[4]

According to Paul Dundas, Jain philosophy has remained relatively stable throughout its long history and no major radical doctrinal shift has taken place. This is mainly because of the influence of Umaswati's Tattvārthasūtra, which has remained the central authoritative philosophical text among all Jains.[5]

Knowledge

According to Ācārya Pujyapada's Sarvārthasiddhi, the ultimate good for a living being (jīva) is liberation from the cyclical world of reincarnation (saṃsāra).[6] The attainment of liberation is also associated with omniscience, and it is believed that past Jain sages like Mahavira have achieved omniscience.[7]

According to the Tattvārthasūtra, the means to achieve liberation is threefold (this is known as the three jewels):

Right vision, right knowledge, and right conduct (together) constitute the path to liberation.

— Tattvārthasūtra (1–1)[8]

According to the Sarvārthasiddhi,[9]

  • Right Vision (Samyak Darśana) is defined as "seeing based on true knowledge of the tattvas (substances, realities)." Right Vision is attained by right knowledge.
  • Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnāna) is defined as "knowing the tattvas such as the jīvas (living beings) as they truly are (artha)."

Jains believe that sentient beings can achieve perfect and complete knowledge of all things (omniscience). Those who have such knowledge are the enlightened kevalins. These are souls who have detached from all things, and are therefore able to perceive all things directly since their soul's knowledge is no longer blocked by anything.[10] For most beings, the omniscience of their soul is blocked by the karmic particles stuck to their soul, like a thick cloud blocks out the light of the sun.[11] Therefore, the only source of omniscient knowledge for lesser beings is the teachings of the kevalins. Since there are no longer any living kevalins, the Jain scriptures are the only source of such knowledge and are thus seen as the highest authority in Jain philosophy.[10] Because of this, Jain philosophy considers the doctrines found in the scriptures as absolute truths and philosophy's role is mainly to summarize, explain and supplement these doctrines.[12]

Ontology

Main article: Tattva (Jainism)

According to Harry Oldmeadow, Jain ontology is both realist and dualist.[13] Jeffery D. Long also affirms the realistic nature of Jain metaphysics, which is a kind of pluralism that asserts the existence of various realities.[14]

The major metaphysical distinction, writes von Glasenapp, is between the animate or sentient substances (jīva) and the inanimate substances (ajīva).[15]

Jain philosophy postulates at least seven "tattvas" (truths, realities or fundamental principles):[16][17][18][19]

  1. Jīva – The living being, sentient or soul which is said to have a separate existence from the body that houses it. The immaterial Jīvas are characterized by unlimited consciousness, knowledge, bliss and energy. Though they experience both birth and death, they are neither destroyed nor created.[20] It is thus both eternal in one way and yet impermanent in another. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely modifications of the jīva.
  2. Ajīva – refers to any insentient substance. There are five ontological categories of insentients: non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa) and time (kāla).[21][22] Along with jīvas, these form a set of six ontological substances (dravya). Substances are simple and indestructible elements which come together into impermanent bodies or objects.[23]
  3. Āsrava (influx) – the process by which good and bad karmic substances flow into the living being
  4. Bandha (bondage) – mutual intermingling of the living being and the karmas, thereby causing its change, which cumulatively determines future rebirths[24][25]
  5. Samvara – the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul
  6. Nirjara (gradual dissociation) – separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul.
  7. Mokṣha (liberation) – complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).

Śvētāmbara Jains also often add two more realities to the above list: good karma (punya, merits) and bad karma (papa, negatives).[17][18][19]

Each entity can be analyzed in numerous different ways according to Jain thinkers. Umasvati outlines numerous "gateways" of investigation called nikshepas. These are: nāma (name), sthāpanā (symbol), dravya (potentiality), bhāvatā (actuality), nirdeśa (definition), svāmitva (possession), sādhana (cause), adhikarana (location), sthiti (duration), vidhānatā (variety), sat (existence), samkhyā (numerical determination), ksetra (field occupied), sparśana (field touched), kāla (continuity ), antara (time-lapse), bhāva (states), andalpabahutva (relative size).[26]

Helmuth von Glasenapp pointed out that a central principle of Jain thought is its attempt to provide an ontology that includes both permanence and change. As such, every being contains something that is lasting and something which is inconstant. For example, in a pot, its material atoms are imperishable, but the form, color and other qualities are subject to change.[27]

Epistemology

Main article: Jain epistemology

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures).[28][29] These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini.[30][29] Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions.[31]

In Jainism, jñāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – Kevala jñāna (Omniscience), Śrutu jñāna (Scriptural Knowledge), mati jñāna (Sensory Knowledge), avadhi jñāna (Clairvoyance), and manah prayāya jñāna (Telepathy).[32] The first two are described as being indirect means of knowledge (parokṣa), with the others furnishing direct knowledge (pratyakṣa), by which it is meant that the object is known directly by the soul.[33]

Relativity and Pluralism

Jain epistemology includes three related doctrines which deal with the complex and manifold nature of knowledge: anekāntavāda (the theory of many-sidedness), syādvāda (the theory of conditioned predication) and nayavāda (the theory of partial standpoints). Long calls these three the "Jain doctrines of relativity".[34]

Anekāntavāda

Main article: Anekantavada
 
A Jain illustration of the blind men and an elephant parable. At the top, the Kevalins are shown having the ability to view all perspectives.

One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is anēkāntavāda (literally the 'non-one-sided' view).[35] It refers to a kind of ontological pluralism and to the idea that reality is complex and multi-faceted and therefore can only be understood from a multiplicity of perspectives.[36][37] As Long notes, this is ultimately an ontological doctrine that holds that "all existent entities have infinite attributes."[36] Jain thought generally affirms the reality of all of our perceptions, even those which contradict each other such as continuity and change, arising and perishing.[36]

This doctrine is often illustrated through the parable of the "blind men and an elephant".[38] In this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant and then claimed to understand the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed.[citation needed] This principle is based on the idea that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence. Because of this, they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. According to the Jains, only the Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations.[39]

Indeed, the Jain texts depict Mahavira as answering certain metaphysical questions that were considered 'unanswerable' by the Buddha. Mahavira is depicted as answering these with both a qualified "yes" and a "no", depending on the perspective of the questioner. Thus, the soul is both eternal in its intrinsic nature and yet also changing (due to the karmas affecting it and the various states that arise and pass away within in) and the universe is both eternal (beginningless) and yet also non-eternal (since it goes through cycles).[40] Thus, the Jains saw their metaphysics as a middle path, embracing both permanence and impermanence as metaphysically fundamental, against that of the Buddhists (who defended impermanence) and the Brahmins (who generally held a doctrine of permanence).[41]

Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of anekāntavāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy, reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy—even Jainism—which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets, is committing an error based on its limited point of view.[42] The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahiṃsā and satyagraha.[43]

Nayavāda

A closely related theory is Nayavāda, which means "the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints."[44] Nayas are partially valid, philosophical perspectives from which anything can be seen.[26] An object has infinite aspects to it, but when we describe an object in practice, we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones.[44] Jain philosophers use the theory of partial viewpoints in order to explain the complexity of reality, part by part.[45]

This is how Jains can describe objects with seemingly contradictory statements (the soul is both permanent and impermanent etc.). Since it is only from certain perspectives that each statement is made, there is no contradiction.[46] Nayavāda holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are, although we may not realise it, "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue".[47]

According to Long, Umāsvāti lists seven partial viewpoints:

naigamanaya (common view), samgrahanaya (generic view), vyavahāranaya (pragmatic view), rjusūtranaya (linear view), śabdanaya (verbal view), samabhirūdha naya (etymological view), andevambhūtanaya (actuality view). The common view is how an entity is generally perceived– what one might call a 'common sense' or unrefined perspective. A generic view seeks to classify the entity. A pragmatic view assesses the entity in terms of its possible uses. A linear view looks at the entity as it is in the present moment. A verbal view seeks to name the entity. An etymological view uses this name and its relations with other words to discern its nature. And an actuality view is concerned with the concrete particulars of the entity.[26]

Jain thinkers also use the doctrine of standpoints in order to provide a doxography of non-Jain philosophical systems. According to Jain philosophers, other philosophical systems rely on only one of the seven standpoints, while excluding the others. This is explains why they have reached false conclusions. For example, Nyaya-Vaisesika is often associated with the first naya (the common view), Vedanta with the second naya (generic view), Materialism with the third naya (pragmatic view) and Buddhism with the fourth (the linear view). Meanwhile, Jainism is seen as the only philosophy able to combine all seven nayas.[48]

One influential theory of Nayavāda is the dual-perspective model of Kundakunda.[26] Kundakunda held that the perspective of the soul is the only 'certain' (niscaya), 'supreme' (paramārtha) or 'pure' (suddha) perspective. Because of the adherence of karmic particles, the soul loses knowledge of itself as being pure, however, it is never truly modified. All other things in the universe are worldly and are to be viewed as having merely transactional and provisional value.[49]

As such, the worldly perspective is ultimately false, while the supreme perspective is the ultimate truth and according to Long, corresponds to the kevalajñāna of a Jina.[50] Kundakunda's philosophy is especially influential in Digambara thought, though it has also influenced some Śvetāmbara scholars. However, other Śvetāmbara thinkers like Yashovijaya famously criticized Kundakunda for his reliance on one single standpoint, i.e. for ekāntavāda (absolutism).[51][52]

Another influential theory of nayas was that of Siddhasena Divākara, who in his Sanmatitarka ('The Logic of the True Doctrine), divided the traditional nayas into two main categories: those which affirm the substantiality of existence (dravyāstikanayas) and those which affirm impermanence (paryāyāstikanayas).[53] Siddhasena also identified the various nayas with the different Indian philosophies, all of which are seen as one-sided and extreme views, while the Jain view is seen as being in the middle and as embracing all the various points of views, which, while seemingly contradictory, are just partial perspectives of the whole truth.[54]

Syādvāda

Main article: Syādvāda

Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication, which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that the indeclinable "syād" or "syāt" ("in a certain sense") be prefixed to every phrase or expression.[55][56] In the context of Jain thought, syād (often paired with eva, "surely" or "certainly") means "in some specific sense, or from some specific perspective, it is certainly the case that...".[57] As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term "syād" should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement as well as indicating that the sentence is true only from a specific point of view.[58]

Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, syādvāda is known as saptibhaṅgīnāya or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as saptibhaṅgī, are:[59][60]

  1. syād-asti—from a certain perspective, it is,
  2. syād-nāsti—from a certain perspective, it is not,
  3. syād-asti-nāsti—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is not,
  4. syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is indescribable,
  5. syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—from a certain perspective, it is not, and it is indescribable,
  6. syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—from a certain perspective, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable,
  7. syād-avaktavyaḥ—from a certain perspective, it is indescribable.

Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode.[59] To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism.[58] According to Long, this sevenfold analysis is seen by Jain philosophers as being universally applicable and "to be exhaustive of the possible truth-values that a given proposition can convey."[61]

However, as Long notes, there is a limitation to the theories of relativity applied by Jain philosophers. This limitation is the idea that the conclusions of the doctrines of relativity must be consistent with the Jain worldview. This is summarized by Siddhasena as follows: "A well presented view of the form of naya only lends support to the Āgamic doctrines while the same, if ill presented, destroys both (i.e. itself as well as its rival)."[61] Thus, the relativity doctrines are seen by Jains as being limited by the normative claims of the Jain tradition, since these are seen as being founded on the omniscient perspective of the enlightened ones.[62]

Jīvas, the Living

 
Classification of Saṃsāri Jīvas (transmigrating souls) in Jainism
 
An explanation of the five types of material bodies associated with a Jiva.

As outlined above, the universe is composed of two main kinds of substances, the jīva (living) and the ajīva (non-living). These are un-created existents which are always interacting with each other. These substances behave according to natural laws and the intrinsic nature (sahāvō) of a substance. Understanding this intrinsic nature is the true nature of the Jain dharma.[63]

Jīvas are categorised into two types—liberated and non-liberated. A jīva has various essential qualities: knowledge, consciousness (caitanya), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya).[64][65] These qualities are fully enjoyed unhindered by liberated souls, but obscured by karma in the case of non-liberated souls resulting in karmic bondage.[66] This bondage further results in a continuous co-habitation of the soul with the body. Thus, an embodied non-liberated soul is found in four realms of existence—heavens, hells, humans and animal world – in a continuous cycle of births and deaths also known as samsāra. According to Jain thinkers, all living beings (even gods) experience extensive suffering and unquenchable desire (while worldly happiness is fleeting and small in comparison, like a mustard seed next to a mountain). With the exception of the enlightened ones, all living beings are all subject to death and rebirth.[67]

A soul is clothed in various material bodies, of which there are five, each one finer than the other (see image on the right). Every being has at least two bodies, the fiery body and the karmic body. These two bodies don't feel pain or pleasure and can pass through solid matter. A being can have two more other bodies apart from these basic ones, and only the earthly body can be perceived by the eyes.[68] Jains believe that a soul with higher powers can partially leave the body, act outside of it and then return later. This is called samudghata.[69]

According to the Jain philosophy, there are an infinite number of independent jīvas (sentients, living beings, souls) which fill the entire universe.[70] The jīvas are divided into various categories, these include the stationary beings like trees and the beings that move. Jains developed a hierarchy of living beings, depending on the various senses (indriyas) and vital aspects (pranas) that they have. Animals are classed as five sensed being, while plants and various microorganism have one sense.[66] The vitalities or life-principles are ten, namely the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Humans, gods and so on are five sensed beings that also have an inner sense or thinking mind (manas).[71][72] Regarding sex, the Jains believed that there were three main sexes: male, female and the third sex (napumsaka-veda, all beings without sex organs are part of this third sex).[73] The Jains also affirmed the existence of tiny one-sensed beings called nigodas which exists everywhere and fill the universe.[74]

A unique Jain view is that plants have a form of consciousness like other animals. This is supposed to be seen in their desire for nourishment, reproduction, and self-preservation. They are even seen as capable of expressing moral feelings and thus eventually climbing the ladder of beings towards liberation.[75]

Cosmology

Main article: Jain cosmology
Further information: Jainism and non-creationism
 
Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures.

Our world according to Jain cosmology is a massive structure, wide at the bottom, narrow in the middle and broad in its upper regions. It contains various realms or sub-worlds, including the siddhaloka (world of the enlightened ones), the heavens, various hells, and the human realm (at the center of the universe), which is a system of island continents (including Jambudvipa at the center) divided by mountains and surrounded by oceans with a giant mountain at the very center (Mt. Meru).[76][77]

Jain cosmology denies the existence of a supreme being responsible for creation and operation of the universe. In Jainism, this universe is an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, immutable in nature, beginningless and endless.[22] It has no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.[78][79]

Jain philosophers constantly attacked the doctrine of creationism. In his Mahāpurāṇa, Ācārya Jinasena critiqued the concept of a creator god:[80]

Some foolish men declare that the creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If god created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could god have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression.

Jainism does uphold the existence of heavenly and hell beings who die and are reborn according to their karma.[81][82] Gods are believed to possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.[83] However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, gods die and are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.[83][84]

Souls are also believed to be able to achieve total perfection, a state commonly called paramātman, the "supreme self" (also commonly referred to as "God" in English as well).[52] In Jainism, perfect souls with a body are called arihant (victors) and perfect souls without a body are also called siddhas (liberated souls).[85][86][87]

Time Cycles

 
Division of time as envisaged by Jains.

According to Jainism, time is without beginning and eternal. The kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly.[88] The wheel of time is divided into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, a time of progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, a time of increasing sorrow and immorality).[89][90][91]

Each half cycle is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs. As the universe moves through these epochs, worlds go through changes in happiness, life span, and general moral conduct. No divine or supernatural beings are responsible for these changes, rather they happen due to the force of karma.[92] Jains believe that the time cycle is currently in the descending phase.[93]

During the each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious persons, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear.[94]

The Non-Living Reality

Main article: Ajiva

The five unconscious (ajīva) substances (dravya) are:[95]

Pudgala

Pudgala is a term for any non-living particulate matter. The Jains developed an elaborate theory of atomism. Paramāņus or atoms were the basic and building blocks of matter. They cannot be perceived by the senses and cannot be further divided.[96] An atom also always possesses four qualities, a color (varna), a taste (rasa), a smell (gandha), and a certain kind of palpability (sparsha, touch) such as lightness, heaviness, softness, roughness, etc.[97]

An atom occupies one space point. It is uncreated and indestructible. Atoms combine (bandha) change their modes, and disintegrate (bheda) but their basic qualities remain.[citation needed] An atom can also be bound together with other atoms to create an aggregate (skandha). Material aggregates are categorized according to how fine (suksma) or coarse (sthula) they are. The finest kind of material aggregate is on the atomic scale (extra fine matter), then comes "fine" matter (includes karmic particles), then anything that can be sensed in some way (like smell) but not seen, then comes matter which can be seen but not touched (like light), then there is the category of coarse things (which includes any fluids) and finally there is extra coarse matter (solids).[98] Material things can give off light or darkness. Darkness is seen as a kind of matter in Jainism and so is sound.[98]

Motion/Rest

Dharma (Medium of Motion) and Adharma (Medium of Rest) are substances which account for the principles of motion and rest. As such, they are a kind of aether.[20] Also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya, they are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma and Adharma are not motion or rest themselves, but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without the medium of motion, motion itself is not possible and vice versa. It is a precondition for movement/rest, like the water which allows for fish to swim. This doctrine is unique to Jainism.[20]

Space

Ākāśa (Space) is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is an all-pervading receptable made up of infinite space-points (pradesha).[20] According to Jains, Space is a substance, in the nature of a vacuum but not a pure vacuum.

 
Scale of time in Jain texts shown logarithmically.

It is an extended continuous vacuum. As pure vacuum it will be non-existent, and non-extended; which will devoid it of even one positive quality. Therefore, Jains propound that Space, which is endowed with infinite extension is a substance in itself.

Time

In Jainism, time (Kāla) is that which mediates change, it causes what is new to become old, and so on. For Jains, time is that which supports the changes to which substances are subject.[99] From one point of view, it is an infinite and endless continuity, from another standpoint, it is made up an infinite number of atomic moments (samaya). Some Jain philosophers hold that time is a substance, while others do not.[99]

According to Champat Rai Jain, "Nothing in nature can exist destitute or devoid of function. Function is discharged by the displacement of energy in the case of simple units and things. If there were no Time-substance to help in the performance of the movement of the displacement of energy, things would be doomed to remain in the same condition always."[100]

Karma and Rebirth

Main article: Karma in Jainism
 
Karma as action and reaction: if we sow goodness, we will reap goodness.
 
The various realms of existence in Jainism
 
Classification of karmas as mentioned in Jain texts

In Jainism, as in other Indian religions, it is karma which is responsible for the different forms of life that souls will take.[101] Karma is envisioned as a material substance (or subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas.[102]

Jain texts compare karma to dust which gets stuck to a damp cloth (i.e. the soul and its passions).[101] As such, karma is a kind of pollution that taints the soul with various colours (leśyā).[103] Based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals.[89] Jainism does not believe in an intermediate state like some schools of Buddhism, instead the souls is seen as "leaping like a monkey" in a sheath of subtle karmas from the dead body to a new body.[104]

Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.[105] The vibrational energy of a soul is said to be what draws karmic particles to it and creates bondage. While the earliest texts focus on the role of the passions (kasāya, especially hatred) in attracting karmas, Umasvāti states that it is physical, verbal and mental activity which are responsible for the flowing in of karmic particles.[106]

According to von Glasenapp, the main causes for the binding of karma are wrong view, defective self discipline, the passions and activity.[107] Harming any life form will definitely have negative karmic effects.[108][109]

According to Paul Dundas, the main difference between the Buddhist view of karma and the Jain view is that even involuntary actions would still lead to negative karmic effects for the person who did them. Furthermore, mental actions that are not carried out, causing someone else to carry out a bad action or merely approving of the action was not seen as being significantly different (with regard to karmic retribution).[106][110]

In Jain works on karma, karmas are generally divided into 8 types, four harming (ghātiyā) karmas and four non-harming karmas. The harming karmas are the "delusion karma" (mohanīya) which leads to wrong views, the "karma which blocks knowledge" (jñānāvaraṇīya), the "karma that obscures perception" (darshanāvaranīya) and the "obstacle karma" (antarāya), which obstructs the innate energy of the soul.[111] The non-harming karmas are "feeling" (vedanīya) karma which relates to pleasant or unpleasant experiences, "name" (nāman) karma which determines one's rebirth, "life" (āyus) karma that determines the lifespan and "clan" (gotra) karma which determines one's status.[103]

The Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities (tapas) and purity of conduct.[89] The ultimate Jain goal is spiritual liberation, which is often defined as release from all karmas.[112] According to Jainism, some souls called abhavya (incapable) can never attain moksha (liberation).[113][114] The abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.[115]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics of Jainism
 
Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of ahimsa (non-injury)
 
A depiction of a Jain monk and a tree depicting the five great vows. The Muhapatti (mouth covering) is a symbol of ahimsa and it is supposed to prevent small animals from flying into the mouth of the ascetic.
 
The twelve vows of a Jain lay disciple

Jain ethics is rooted in its metaphysics, particularly its karma theory.[116] Jain philosophers hold that harmful actions (hiṃsā) cause the soul to be tainted and defiled with karmas.[117] In fact, karma (good and bad) is constantly flowing (asrava) into soul as a result of actions by body, speech and mind, like water flowing into a lake.[118]

As such, those who seek to stop (samvara) the influx of bad karmas (in order to reach liberation) should practice right conduct by observing certain ethical rules.[119] Right conduct (samyak chāritra), is defined in the Sarvārthasiddhi as "the cessation of activity leading to the taking in of karmas by a wise person engaged in the removal of the causes of transmigration."[9]

To prevent karmic particles from sticking to and tainting the soul, Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These come in two main forms, the anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants.[120]

The Five vows, which are taken even by Jain laypersons (who have knowledge of the doctrine) are:[121]

  1. Ahiṃsā ("non-violence", "non-harming", "non-injury"):[122] The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals, but also plants).[122] This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.[123][117] According to the Tattvarthasutra, harming is defined as "the severance of vitalities out of passion".[124] According to a Jain ethical text called the Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, "non-manifestation of passions like attachment is non-injury (ahiṃsā), and manifestation of such passions is injury (hiṃsā)."[125] Vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahiṃsā.[126]
  2. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.[123][120]
  3. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.[122][127] Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.[128]
  4. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.[123][120]
  5. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.[120] Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.[129][130]

Jain ascetics are even more scrupulous regarding the vows, for example, regarding the first vow of ahimsa, they will often carry a broom or another tool to sweep the floor of small animals in front of them.[131]

Jain texts further prescribe seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas (training vows).[132][133] The three guṇa vows are:[134]

  1. digvrata – Restriction on movement with regard to the four directions.
  2. bhogopabhogaparimana – Vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things
  3. anartha-dandaviramana – Refraining from harmful occupations and activities (purposeless sins).

The four śikşā vows are:[135][134]

  1. samayika – Meditate by sitting still and concentrate periodically (for one muhūrta of 48 minutes, or for two or three muhurtas).
  2. desavrata – Limiting movement to certain places (house, village, etc.) for a fixed period of time.[136]
  3. upvas / paushad – Fasting for 24 hours on certain days (usually four times in a moon-month) or living a day which mimics the life of a Jain Monk.
  4. atihti samvibhag – Offering food to ascetics and needy people.

Finally, there is a vow called Sallekhana (or Santhara), a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.[137] This vow is a voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid resulting in the dispassionate ending of life.[138][139] This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.[140]

Liberation and the Path

Main article: Ratnatraya
 
A Jain sculpture, the central figure is a depiction of a fully liberated soul, a siddha. The cut out outline of a human form symbolizes the non-material nature of siddhas.[141]
 
Fourteen stages on the path to liberation

Ācārya Pujyapada's defines liberation (moksha, kevala jñana) in his Sarvārthasiddhi as follows:[6]

"Liberation is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characterized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering."

At the moment of final liberation, a Kevalin (liberated soul) will become free of their body and in an instant rise up to the siddhaloka, the realm of liberated souls at the top of the universe. As explained by Dundas, the enlightened soul "will exist perpetually without any further rebirth in a disembodied and genderless state of perfect joy, energy, consciousness and knowledge."[141]

Jains believe that the number of liberated souls is infinite. While these souls interpenetrate each other and all have the same qualities, Jainism strongly resists the idea that they are part of some monistic world soul (as in found in some schools of Hinduism).[141] According to Haribhadra, this Hindu monism makes no sense.

Dundas outlines his critique as follows:

"if the world-soul were inherently pure, it would be difficult to explain why the phenomenal world is manifestly impure, while if it were impure, there would then be no point in the liberated jīvas merging with it."[141]

Jain philosophers developed a schema of 14 stages of spiritual development called Gunasthana (Sanskrit: "levels of virtue").[142][143] These stages correspond to the abandoning of the various causes of karmic binding.[144]

Those who pass the last stage are enlightened siddhas and become fully established in Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.[145]

History

 
Umaswati, the first Jain philosopher to write a systematic exposition of Jain thought

The philosophy of early Jainism can be found in the Agamas. Though these early texts contain much philosophical content, it is not systematic and can be inconsistent.[146]

Umaswati was probably the first systematic Jain philosopher. His Tattvārthasūtra drew together all the ancient Jain doctrines and presented them in a systematic sutra style. His work was extremely influential and is accepted by all Jain schools of thought today.[147]

The main Digambara commentaries on the Tattvārthasūtra are those of Pūjyapāda (6th century), Akalaṇka (8th century) and Vidyānandi (9th century) while the main Svetambara commentaries are Siddhaseṇa Gaṇin's 8th century commentary and the Sva-bhāṣya.[148][147]

Harry Oldmeadow notes that Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components.[149] Dundas argues that this philosophical stability is largely do to the influence of Umaswati's work.[5]

However, the Jain tradition has since ancient times been divided into the Śvetāmbara and the Digambara traditions. The schism arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and whether women could achieve liberation in female bodies. Apart from these differences, there are no other major philosophical differences between Jain sects, though there are different interpretations of the basic doctrines such as anēkāntavāda. This doctrinal conservatism in Jainism has led scholars like Padmanabh Jaini to remark that in the course Jain history there were never any radically new movements (like Mahayana, tantra or bhakti) which effectively challenged mainstream Jainism.[150]

After the period of the early philosophers, like Umaswati, there follows a period of increasing philosophical sophistication, with a focus on epistemology (pramana) and logic (nyaya). This era saw the work of great epistemologists like Siddhasena Divakara, Samantabhadra and Akalanka.[147] The work of Kundakunda, particularly his theory of the two truths, was also extremely influential, especially on Digambara philosophy.[151] Jain philosophers' preoccupation with epistemology continued into the early modern period, which saw several great Jain scholars who wrote on the navya-nyaya ("new reason") philosophy, such as Yaśovijaya (1624–1688).

The Jain encounter with Islam also led to theological debates on the existence of God and on the use of violence.[152] According to Paul Dundas, Jain thinkers faced with the Muslim destruction of their temples also began to revisit their theory of ahimsa (non-violence). Dundas notes how the 12th century Jain thinker Jinadatta Suri argued in favor of violence in self-defense.[153] The modern era saw the rise of a new sect, the Śvētāmbara Terapanth, founded by Ācārya Bhikṣu in the 18th century. Terapanth scholars like Tulasī (1913–1997) and Ācārya Mahāprajña (1920– 2010) have been influential intellectual figures in modern Jainism, writing numerous works on Jain philosophy.[154]

The modern era also saw the rise of new sects led by the laity as well as various influential intellectual figures. The non-sectarian cult of Shrimad Rajchandra (1867 – 1901) is well known due to it being a major influence on Mahatma Gandhi.[155] Another influential figure was Kanjisvami, who was known for his stress on the mystical philosophy of Kundakunda.[156]

Contribution to Indian Thought

As one of the earliest and most influential of the sramana systems, Jainism influenced other Indian systems of thought. Scholarly research has shown that philosophical concepts that are typically Indian – Karma, Ahimsa, Moksa, reincarnation and like – either have their origins in the sramana traditions (one of the most ancient of which is Jainism). The sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life, was in stark contrast with the Brahmanical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life based on sacrifices, household duties and chants to deities. Sramanas developed and laid emphasis on Ahimsa, Karma, moksa and renunciation.[157][158]

Jain ideas seem to have had some influence on the Buddha and on Early Buddhism, and both worldviews share many common ideas (karma rebirth, an uncreated universe, ahimsa, denial of the Vedas).[159][160] The Buddha is depicted as practicing forms of asceticism which are found in Jainism (though he later rejected many of these practices as too extreme).[161] Helmuth von Glasenapp also argues that the Jain idea of non-violence, and particularly its promotion of vegetarianism, had an influence on Hinduism, especially on Vaishnavism.[162] Furthermore, von Glasenapp argues that some Hindu philosophical systems, particularly the dualistic Vedanta of Madhvacarya, was influenced by Jain philosophy. He also states that it is possible that Shaivasiddhanta was influenced by Jain thought as well.[162]

The Jain system of philosophy and ethics is also known for having had a major impact on modern figures like Dayanand Sarasvati and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.[163]

Major Jain philosophers

Numerous Jain philosophers have contributed to the development of Jain thought. Below is a partial list of some of the main Jain philosophers.[164][165]

  • Umāsvāti or Umasvami (possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) – The author of the first Jain work in Sanskrit, the Tattvārthasūtra, which systematised Jain philosophy in a form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.
  • Samantabhadra (c. 2nd – 5th century CE) – The first Jain writer to write on nyāya, (in his Apta-Mimāmsā). He also composed the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra and the Svayambhu Stotra.
  • Kundakunda (c. sometime between the 2nd century and the 8th century CE[166]). – An exponent of Jain metaphysics and an influential two truths theory. He was the author of Pañcāstikāyasāra "Essence of the Five Existents", the Pravacanasāra "Essence of the Scripture", the Samayasāra "Essence of the Doctrine", Niyamasāra "Essence of Discipline", Atthapāhuda "Eight Gifts", Dasabhatti "Ten Worships" and Bārasa Anuvekkhā "Twelve Contemplations".
  • Siddhasena Divākara (c. 5th century) – Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyāyāvatāra (on Logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge).[167]
  • Akalanka (c. 5th century) – key Jain logician, whose works such as Laghiyastraya, Pramānasangraha, Nyāyaviniscaya-vivarana, Siddhiviniscaya-vivarana, Astasati, Tattvārtharājavārtika, et al. are seen as landmarks in Indian logic. The impact of Akalanka may be surmised by the fact that Jain Nyāya is also known as Akalanka Nyāya.
  • Pujyapada (6th century) – Jain philosopher, grammarian, and Sanskritist. Composed Samadhitantra, Ishtopadesha and the Sarvarthasiddhi, a definitive commentary on the Tattvārthasūtra and Jainendra Vyakarana, the first work on Sanskrit grammar by a Jain monk.
  • Manikyanandi (6th century) – Jain logician, composed the Parikshamaukham, a masterpiece in the karika style of the Classical Nyaya school.
  • Jinabhadra Gaṇi (6th–7th century) – author of Avasyaksutra (Jain tenets) Visesanavati and Visesavasyakabhasya (Commentary on Jain essentials). He is said to have followed Siddhasena and compiled discussion and refutation on various views on Jaina doctrine.
  • Mallavadin (8th century) – author of Nayacakra and Dvadasaranayacakra (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) which discusses the schools of Indian philosophy.[167]
  • Yogīndudeva (8th century), author of Paramātmaprakāśaḥ.
  • Haribhadra (8th century) – Jain thinker, author, philosopher, satirist and great proponent of anekāntavāda and yoga studies. His works include Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya, Yogabindu, Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya and Dhurtakhyana. he pioneered the Dvatrimshatika genre of writing in Jainism, where various religious subjects were covered in 32 succinct Sanskrit verses.[167]
  • Prabhacandra (10th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya, Prameyakamalamartanda, based on Manikyanandi's Parikshamukham and Nyayakumudacandra on Akalanka's Laghiyastraya.
  • Nemichandra (10th century), author of the Gommatsāra, a great compendium of Digambara doctrine.
  • Abhayadeva (1057 to 1135) – author of Vadamahrnava (Ocean of Discussions) which is a 2,500 verse tika (Commentary) of Sanmartika and a great treatise on logic.[167]
  • Acharya Hemachandra (1089–1173) – Jain thinker, author, historian, grammarian and logician. His works include Yogaśāstra and Trishashthishalakapurushacaritra and the Siddhahemavyakarana.[167] He also authored an incomplete work on Jain Nyāya, titled Pramāna-Mimāmsā.
  • Vadideva (11th century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored Paramananayatattavalokalankara and its voluminous commentary the syadvadaratnakara, a work which focuses on the doctrine of Syādvāda.
  • Vidyanandi (11th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a commentary on Acarya Umasvami's Tattvarthasutra, known as Tattvarthashlokavartika.
  • Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) – Jain logician and one of the last intellectual giants to contribute to Jain philosophy. He specialised in Navya-Nyāya and commentaries on most of the earlier Jain Nyāya works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalent Navya-Nyāya style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Gujarati and Rajasthani. He is also famous for Jnanasara (essence of knowledge) and Adhayatmasara (essence of spirituality).
  • Vinayavijaya (17th century), author of the encyclopedic Lokaprakāsha.
  • Shrimad Rajchandra (19th century), composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, a 142 spiritual treatise that expounds the 6 fundamental truths of the soul.[168]

See also

References

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January 22, 2023
jain, philosophy, refers, ancient, indian, philosophical, system, found, jainism, main, features, dualistic, metaphysics, which, holds, that, there, distinct, categories, existence, living, conscious, sentient, being, jiva, living, material, ajiva, jain, texts. Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in Jainism One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its dualistic metaphysics which holds that there are two distinct categories of existence the living conscious or sentient being jiva and the non living or material ajiva 1 Jain texts discuss numerous philosophical topics such as epistemology metaphysics ethics cosmology and soteriology Jain thought is primarily concerned with understanding the nature of living beings how these beings are bound by karma which are seen as fine material particles and how living beings may be liberated moksha from the cycle of reincarnation Also notable is the Jain belief in a beginning less and cyclical universe and a rejection of a Creator deity From the Jain point of view Jain philosophy is eternal and has been taught numerous times in the remote past by the great enlightened tirthankaras ford makers 2 3 Historians trace the developments of Jain thought to a few key figures in ancient India mainly Mahavira c 5th century BCE a contemporary of the Buddha and possibly Parshvanatha c 8th or 7th century BCE though this is disputed 4 According to Paul Dundas Jain philosophy has remained relatively stable throughout its long history and no major radical doctrinal shift has taken place This is mainly because of the influence of Umaswati s Tattvarthasutra which has remained the central authoritative philosophical text among all Jains 5 Contents 1 Knowledge 1 1 Ontology 1 2 Epistemology 1 3 Relativity and Pluralism 1 3 1 Anekantavada 1 3 2 Nayavada 1 3 3 Syadvada 2 Jivas the Living 3 Cosmology 3 1 Time Cycles 4 The Non Living Reality 4 1 Pudgala 4 2 Motion Rest 4 3 Space 4 4 Time 5 Karma and Rebirth 6 Ethics 7 Liberation and the Path 8 History 8 1 Contribution to Indian Thought 8 2 Major Jain philosophers 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Citations 10 2 Sources 11 External linksKnowledge EditAccording to Acarya Pujyapada s Sarvarthasiddhi the ultimate good for a living being jiva is liberation from the cyclical world of reincarnation saṃsara 6 The attainment of liberation is also associated with omniscience and it is believed that past Jain sages like Mahavira have achieved omniscience 7 According to the Tattvarthasutra the means to achieve liberation is threefold this is known as the three jewels Right vision right knowledge and right conduct together constitute the path to liberation Tattvarthasutra 1 1 8 According to the Sarvarthasiddhi 9 Right Vision Samyak Darsana is defined as seeing based on true knowledge of the tattvas substances realities Right Vision is attained by right knowledge Right Knowledge Samyak Jnana is defined as knowing the tattvas such as the jivas living beings as they truly are artha Jains believe that sentient beings can achieve perfect and complete knowledge of all things omniscience Those who have such knowledge are the enlightened kevalins These are souls who have detached from all things and are therefore able to perceive all things directly since their soul s knowledge is no longer blocked by anything 10 For most beings the omniscience of their soul is blocked by the karmic particles stuck to their soul like a thick cloud blocks out the light of the sun 11 Therefore the only source of omniscient knowledge for lesser beings is the teachings of the kevalins Since there are no longer any living kevalins the Jain scriptures are the only source of such knowledge and are thus seen as the highest authority in Jain philosophy 10 Because of this Jain philosophy considers the doctrines found in the scriptures as absolute truths and philosophy s role is mainly to summarize explain and supplement these doctrines 12 Ontology Edit Main article Tattva Jainism According to Harry Oldmeadow Jain ontology is both realist and dualist 13 Jeffery D Long also affirms the realistic nature of Jain metaphysics which is a kind of pluralism that asserts the existence of various realities 14 The major metaphysical distinction writes von Glasenapp is between the animate or sentient substances jiva and the inanimate substances ajiva 15 Jain philosophy postulates at least seven tattvas truths realities or fundamental principles 16 17 18 19 Jiva The living being sentient or soul which is said to have a separate existence from the body that houses it The immaterial Jivas are characterized by unlimited consciousness knowledge bliss and energy Though they experience both birth and death they are neither destroyed nor created 20 It is thus both eternal in one way and yet impermanent in another Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state these being merely modifications of the jiva Ajiva refers to any insentient substance There are five ontological categories of insentients non sentient substance or matter pudgala principle of motion dharma the principle of rest adharma space akasa and time kala 21 22 Along with jivas these form a set of six ontological substances dravya Substances are simple and indestructible elements which come together into impermanent bodies or objects 23 Asrava influx the process by which good and bad karmic substances flow into the living being Bandha bondage mutual intermingling of the living being and the karmas thereby causing its change which cumulatively determines future rebirths 24 25 Samvara the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul Nirjara gradual dissociation separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul Mokṣha liberation complete annihilation of all karmic matter bound with any particular soul Svetambara Jains also often add two more realities to the above list good karma punya merits and bad karma papa negatives 17 18 19 Each entity can be analyzed in numerous different ways according to Jain thinkers Umasvati outlines numerous gateways of investigation called nikshepas These are nama name sthapana symbol dravya potentiality bhavata actuality nirdesa definition svamitva possession sadhana cause adhikarana location sthiti duration vidhanata variety sat existence samkhya numerical determination ksetra field occupied sparsana field touched kala continuity antara time lapse bhava states andalpabahutva relative size 26 Helmuth von Glasenapp pointed out that a central principle of Jain thought is its attempt to provide an ontology that includes both permanence and change As such every being contains something that is lasting and something which is inconstant For example in a pot its material atoms are imperishable but the form color and other qualities are subject to change 27 Epistemology Edit Main article Jain epistemology Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge pramana It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception pratyaksa inference anumana and testimony sabda or the word of scriptures 28 29 These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasutra Parvacanasara Nandi and Anuyogadvarini 30 29 Some Jain texts add analogy upamana as the fourth reliable means in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions 31 In Jainism jnana knowledge is said to be of five kinds Kevala jnana Omniscience Srutu jnana Scriptural Knowledge mati jnana Sensory Knowledge avadhi jnana Clairvoyance and manah prayaya jnana Telepathy 32 The first two are described as being indirect means of knowledge parokṣa with the others furnishing direct knowledge pratyakṣa by which it is meant that the object is known directly by the soul 33 Relativity and Pluralism Edit Jain epistemology includes three related doctrines which deal with the complex and manifold nature of knowledge anekantavada the theory of many sidedness syadvada the theory of conditioned predication and nayavada the theory of partial standpoints Long calls these three the Jain doctrines of relativity 34 Anekantavada Edit Main article Anekantavada A Jain illustration of the blind men and an elephant parable At the top the Kevalins are shown having the ability to view all perspectives One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is anekantavada literally the non one sided view 35 It refers to a kind of ontological pluralism and to the idea that reality is complex and multi faceted and therefore can only be understood from a multiplicity of perspectives 36 37 As Long notes this is ultimately an ontological doctrine that holds that all existent entities have infinite attributes 36 Jain thought generally affirms the reality of all of our perceptions even those which contradict each other such as continuity and change arising and perishing 36 This doctrine is often illustrated through the parable of the blind men and an elephant 38 In this story each blind man felt a different part of an elephant and then claimed to understand the true appearance of the elephant but could only partly succeed citation needed This principle is based on the idea that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence Because of this they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception According to the Jains only the Kevalis omniscient beings can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations 39 Indeed the Jain texts depict Mahavira as answering certain metaphysical questions that were considered unanswerable by the Buddha Mahavira is depicted as answering these with both a qualified yes and a no depending on the perspective of the questioner Thus the soul is both eternal in its intrinsic nature and yet also changing due to the karmas affecting it and the various states that arise and pass away within in and the universe is both eternal beginningless and yet also non eternal since it goes through cycles 40 Thus the Jains saw their metaphysics as a middle path embracing both permanence and impermanence as metaphysically fundamental against that of the Buddhists who defended impermanence and the Brahmins who generally held a doctrine of permanence 41 Anekantavada encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties Proponents of anekantavada apply this principle to religion and philosophy reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy even Jainism which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets is committing an error based on its limited point of view 42 The principle of anekantavada also influenced Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance ahiṃsa and satyagraha 43 Nayavada Edit A closely related theory is Nayavada which means the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints 44 Nayas are partially valid philosophical perspectives from which anything can be seen 26 An object has infinite aspects to it but when we describe an object in practice we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones 44 Jain philosophers use the theory of partial viewpoints in order to explain the complexity of reality part by part 45 This is how Jains can describe objects with seemingly contradictory statements the soul is both permanent and impermanent etc Since it is only from certain perspectives that each statement is made there is no contradiction 46 Nayavada holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints and the standpoints we adopt are although we may not realise it the outcome of purposes that we may pursue 47 According to Long Umasvati lists seven partial viewpoints naigamanaya common view samgrahanaya generic view vyavaharanaya pragmatic view rjusutranaya linear view sabdanaya verbal view samabhirudha naya etymological view andevambhutanaya actuality view The common view is how an entity is generally perceived what one might call a common sense or unrefined perspective A generic view seeks to classify the entity A pragmatic view assesses the entity in terms of its possible uses A linear view looks at the entity as it is in the present moment A verbal view seeks to name the entity An etymological view uses this name and its relations with other words to discern its nature And an actuality view is concerned with the concrete particulars of the entity 26 Jain thinkers also use the doctrine of standpoints in order to provide a doxography of non Jain philosophical systems According to Jain philosophers other philosophical systems rely on only one of the seven standpoints while excluding the others This is explains why they have reached false conclusions For example Nyaya Vaisesika is often associated with the first naya the common view Vedanta with the second naya generic view Materialism with the third naya pragmatic view and Buddhism with the fourth the linear view Meanwhile Jainism is seen as the only philosophy able to combine all seven nayas 48 One influential theory of Nayavada is the dual perspective model of Kundakunda 26 Kundakunda held that the perspective of the soul is the only certain niscaya supreme paramartha or pure suddha perspective Because of the adherence of karmic particles the soul loses knowledge of itself as being pure however it is never truly modified All other things in the universe are worldly and are to be viewed as having merely transactional and provisional value 49 As such the worldly perspective is ultimately false while the supreme perspective is the ultimate truth and according to Long corresponds to the kevalajnana of a Jina 50 Kundakunda s philosophy is especially influential in Digambara thought though it has also influenced some Svetambara scholars However other Svetambara thinkers like Yashovijaya famously criticized Kundakunda for his reliance on one single standpoint i e for ekantavada absolutism 51 52 Another influential theory of nayas was that of Siddhasena Divakara who in his Sanmatitarka The Logic of the True Doctrine divided the traditional nayas into two main categories those which affirm the substantiality of existence dravyastikanayas and those which affirm impermanence paryayastikanayas 53 Siddhasena also identified the various nayas with the different Indian philosophies all of which are seen as one sided and extreme views while the Jain view is seen as being in the middle and as embracing all the various points of views which while seemingly contradictory are just partial perspectives of the whole truth 54 Syadvada Edit Main article Syadvada Syadvada is the theory of conditioned predication which provides an expression to anekanta by recommending that the indeclinable syad or syat in a certain sense be prefixed to every phrase or expression 55 56 In the context of Jain thought syad often paired with eva surely or certainly means in some specific sense or from some specific perspective it is certainly the case that 57 As reality is complex no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully Thus the term syad should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement as well as indicating that the sentence is true only from a specific point of view 58 Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions syadvada is known as saptibhaṅginaya or the theory of seven conditioned predications These seven propositions also known as saptibhaṅgi are 59 60 syad asti from a certain perspective it is syad nasti from a certain perspective it is not syad asti nasti from a certain perspective it is and it is not syad asti avaktavyaḥ from a certain perspective it is and it is indescribable syad nasti avaktavyaḥ from a certain perspective it is not and it is indescribable syad asti nasti avaktavyaḥ from a certain perspective it is it is not and it is indescribable syad avaktavyaḥ from a certain perspective it is indescribable Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time space substance and mode 59 To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism 58 According to Long this sevenfold analysis is seen by Jain philosophers as being universally applicable and to be exhaustive of the possible truth values that a given proposition can convey 61 However as Long notes there is a limitation to the theories of relativity applied by Jain philosophers This limitation is the idea that the conclusions of the doctrines of relativity must be consistent with the Jain worldview This is summarized by Siddhasena as follows A well presented view of the form of naya only lends support to the Agamic doctrines while the same if ill presented destroys both i e itself as well as its rival 61 Thus the relativity doctrines are seen by Jains as being limited by the normative claims of the Jain tradition since these are seen as being founded on the omniscient perspective of the enlightened ones 62 Jivas the Living Edit Classification of Saṃsari Jivas transmigrating souls in Jainism An explanation of the five types of material bodies associated with a Jiva As outlined above the universe is composed of two main kinds of substances the jiva living and the ajiva non living These are un created existents which are always interacting with each other These substances behave according to natural laws and the intrinsic nature sahavō of a substance Understanding this intrinsic nature is the true nature of the Jain dharma 63 Jivas are categorised into two types liberated and non liberated A jiva has various essential qualities knowledge consciousness caitanya bliss sukha and vibrational energy virya 64 65 These qualities are fully enjoyed unhindered by liberated souls but obscured by karma in the case of non liberated souls resulting in karmic bondage 66 This bondage further results in a continuous co habitation of the soul with the body Thus an embodied non liberated soul is found in four realms of existence heavens hells humans and animal world in a continuous cycle of births and deaths also known as samsara According to Jain thinkers all living beings even gods experience extensive suffering and unquenchable desire while worldly happiness is fleeting and small in comparison like a mustard seed next to a mountain With the exception of the enlightened ones all living beings are all subject to death and rebirth 67 A soul is clothed in various material bodies of which there are five each one finer than the other see image on the right Every being has at least two bodies the fiery body and the karmic body These two bodies don t feel pain or pleasure and can pass through solid matter A being can have two more other bodies apart from these basic ones and only the earthly body can be perceived by the eyes 68 Jains believe that a soul with higher powers can partially leave the body act outside of it and then return later This is called samudghata 69 According to the Jain philosophy there are an infinite number of independent jivas sentients living beings souls which fill the entire universe 70 The jivas are divided into various categories these include the stationary beings like trees and the beings that move Jains developed a hierarchy of living beings depending on the various senses indriyas and vital aspects pranas that they have Animals are classed as five sensed being while plants and various microorganism have one sense 66 The vitalities or life principles are ten namely the five senses energy respiration life duration the organ of speech and the mind Humans gods and so on are five sensed beings that also have an inner sense or thinking mind manas 71 72 Regarding sex the Jains believed that there were three main sexes male female and the third sex napumsaka veda all beings without sex organs are part of this third sex 73 The Jains also affirmed the existence of tiny one sensed beings called nigodas which exists everywhere and fill the universe 74 A unique Jain view is that plants have a form of consciousness like other animals This is supposed to be seen in their desire for nourishment reproduction and self preservation They are even seen as capable of expressing moral feelings and thus eventually climbing the ladder of beings towards liberation 75 Cosmology EditMain article Jain cosmology Further information Jainism and non creationism Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures Our world according to Jain cosmology is a massive structure wide at the bottom narrow in the middle and broad in its upper regions It contains various realms or sub worlds including the siddhaloka world of the enlightened ones the heavens various hells and the human realm at the center of the universe which is a system of island continents including Jambudvipa at the center divided by mountains and surrounded by oceans with a giant mountain at the very center Mt Meru 76 77 Jain cosmology denies the existence of a supreme being responsible for creation and operation of the universe In Jainism this universe is an uncreated entity existing since infinity immutable in nature beginningless and endless 22 It has no creator governor judge or destroyer 78 79 Jain philosophers constantly attacked the doctrine of creationism In his Mahapuraṇa Acarya Jinasena critiqued the concept of a creator god 80 Some foolish men declare that the creator made the world The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected If god created the world where was he before the creation If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support where is he now How could god have made this world without any raw material If you say that he made this first and then the world you are faced with an endless regression Jainism does uphold the existence of heavenly and hell beings who die and are reborn according to their karma 81 82 Gods are believed to possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms 83 However once their past karmic merit is exhausted gods die and are reborn again as humans animals or other beings 83 84 Souls are also believed to be able to achieve total perfection a state commonly called paramatman the supreme self also commonly referred to as God in English as well 52 In Jainism perfect souls with a body are called arihant victors and perfect souls without a body are also called siddhas liberated souls 85 86 87 Time Cycles Edit Division of time as envisaged by Jains According to Jainism time is without beginning and eternal The kalacakra the cosmic wheel of time rotates ceaselessly 88 The wheel of time is divided into two half cycles utsarpiṇi ascending a time of progressive prosperity and happiness and avasarpiṇi descending a time of increasing sorrow and immorality 89 90 91 Each half cycle is further sub divided into six aras or epochs As the universe moves through these epochs worlds go through changes in happiness life span and general moral conduct No divine or supernatural beings are responsible for these changes rather they happen due to the force of karma 92 Jains believe that the time cycle is currently in the descending phase 93 During the each motion of the half cycle of the wheel of time 63 Salakapuruṣa or 63 illustrious persons consisting of the 24 Tirthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear 94 The Non Living Reality EditMain article Ajiva The five unconscious ajiva substances dravya are 95 Pudgala Edit Pudgala is a term for any non living particulate matter The Jains developed an elaborate theory of atomism Paramanus or atoms were the basic and building blocks of matter They cannot be perceived by the senses and cannot be further divided 96 An atom also always possesses four qualities a color varna a taste rasa a smell gandha and a certain kind of palpability sparsha touch such as lightness heaviness softness roughness etc 97 An atom occupies one space point It is uncreated and indestructible Atoms combine bandha change their modes and disintegrate bheda but their basic qualities remain citation needed An atom can also be bound together with other atoms to create an aggregate skandha Material aggregates are categorized according to how fine suksma or coarse sthula they are The finest kind of material aggregate is on the atomic scale extra fine matter then comes fine matter includes karmic particles then anything that can be sensed in some way like smell but not seen then comes matter which can be seen but not touched like light then there is the category of coarse things which includes any fluids and finally there is extra coarse matter solids 98 Material things can give off light or darkness Darkness is seen as a kind of matter in Jainism and so is sound 98 Motion Rest Edit Dharma Medium of Motion and Adharma Medium of Rest are substances which account for the principles of motion and rest As such they are a kind of aether 20 Also known as Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya they are said to pervade the entire universe Dharma and Adharma are not motion or rest themselves but mediate motion and rest in other bodies Without the medium of motion motion itself is not possible and vice versa It is a precondition for movement rest like the water which allows for fish to swim This doctrine is unique to Jainism 20 Space Edit Akasa Space is a substance that accommodates souls matter the principle of motion the principle of rest and time It is an all pervading receptable made up of infinite space points pradesha 20 According to Jains Space is a substance in the nature of a vacuum but not a pure vacuum Scale of time in Jain texts shown logarithmically It is an extended continuous vacuum As pure vacuum it will be non existent and non extended which will devoid it of even one positive quality Therefore Jains propound that Space which is endowed with infinite extension is a substance in itself Time Edit In Jainism time Kala is that which mediates change it causes what is new to become old and so on For Jains time is that which supports the changes to which substances are subject 99 From one point of view it is an infinite and endless continuity from another standpoint it is made up an infinite number of atomic moments samaya Some Jain philosophers hold that time is a substance while others do not 99 According to Champat Rai Jain Nothing in nature can exist destitute or devoid of function Function is discharged by the displacement of energy in the case of simple units and things If there were no Time substance to help in the performance of the movement of the displacement of energy things would be doomed to remain in the same condition always 100 Karma and Rebirth EditMain article Karma in Jainism Karma as action and reaction if we sow goodness we will reap goodness The various realms of existence in Jainism Classification of karmas as mentioned in Jain texts In Jainism as in other Indian religions it is karma which is responsible for the different forms of life that souls will take 101 Karma is envisioned as a material substance or subtle matter that can bind to the soul travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas 102 Jain texts compare karma to dust which gets stuck to a damp cloth i e the soul and its passions 101 As such karma is a kind of pollution that taints the soul with various colours lesya 103 Based on its karma a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence like heavens or hells or as humans or animals 89 Jainism does not believe in an intermediate state like some schools of Buddhism instead the souls is seen as leaping like a monkey in a sheath of subtle karmas from the dead body to a new body 104 Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth 105 The vibrational energy of a soul is said to be what draws karmic particles to it and creates bondage While the earliest texts focus on the role of the passions kasaya especially hatred in attracting karmas Umasvati states that it is physical verbal and mental activity which are responsible for the flowing in of karmic particles 106 According to von Glasenapp the main causes for the binding of karma are wrong view defective self discipline the passions and activity 107 Harming any life form will definitely have negative karmic effects 108 109 According to Paul Dundas the main difference between the Buddhist view of karma and the Jain view is that even involuntary actions would still lead to negative karmic effects for the person who did them Furthermore mental actions that are not carried out causing someone else to carry out a bad action or merely approving of the action was not seen as being significantly different with regard to karmic retribution 106 110 In Jain works on karma karmas are generally divided into 8 types four harming ghatiya karmas and four non harming karmas The harming karmas are the delusion karma mohaniya which leads to wrong views the karma which blocks knowledge jnanavaraṇiya the karma that obscures perception darshanavaraniya and the obstacle karma antaraya which obstructs the innate energy of the soul 111 The non harming karmas are feeling vedaniya karma which relates to pleasant or unpleasant experiences name naman karma which determines one s rebirth life ayus karma that determines the lifespan and clan gotra karma which determines one s status 103 The Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma and to obtain release from it through the austerities tapas and purity of conduct 89 The ultimate Jain goal is spiritual liberation which is often defined as release from all karmas 112 According to Jainism some souls called abhavya incapable can never attain moksha liberation 113 114 The abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act 115 Ethics EditMain article Ethics of Jainism Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of ahimsa non injury A depiction of a Jain monk and a tree depicting the five great vows The Muhapatti mouth covering is a symbol of ahimsa and it is supposed to prevent small animals from flying into the mouth of the ascetic The twelve vows of a Jain lay disciple Jain ethics is rooted in its metaphysics particularly its karma theory 116 Jain philosophers hold that harmful actions hiṃsa cause the soul to be tainted and defiled with karmas 117 In fact karma good and bad is constantly flowing asrava into soul as a result of actions by body speech and mind like water flowing into a lake 118 As such those who seek to stop samvara the influx of bad karmas in order to reach liberation should practice right conduct by observing certain ethical rules 119 Right conduct samyak charitra is defined in the Sarvarthasiddhi as the cessation of activity leading to the taking in of karmas by a wise person engaged in the removal of the causes of transmigration 9 To prevent karmic particles from sticking to and tainting the soul Jainism teaches five ethical duties which it calls five vows These come in two main forms the anuvratas small vows for Jain laypersons and mahavratas great vows for Jain mendicants 120 The Five vows which are taken even by Jain laypersons who have knowledge of the doctrine are 121 Ahiṃsa non violence non harming non injury 122 The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings as well as all living beings particularly animals but also plants 122 This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism and it applies not only to one s actions but demands that one be non violent in one s speech and thoughts 123 117 According to the Tattvarthasutra harming is defined as the severance of vitalities out of passion 124 According to a Jain ethical text called the Purusarthasiddhyupaya non manifestation of passions like attachment is non injury ahiṃsa and manifestation of such passions is injury hiṃsa 125 Vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahiṃsa 126 Satya truth This vow is to always speak the truth Neither lie nor speak what is not true and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth 123 120 Asteya not stealing A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given 122 127 Additionally a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given 128 Brahmacharya celibacy Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns For laypersons the vow means chastity faithfulness to one s partner 123 120 Aparigraha non possessiveness This includes non attachment to material and psychological possessions avoiding craving and greed 120 Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations own nothing and are attached to no one 129 130 Jain ascetics are even more scrupulous regarding the vows for example regarding the first vow of ahimsa they will often carry a broom or another tool to sweep the floor of small animals in front of them 131 Jain texts further prescribe seven supplementary vows including three guna vratas merit vows and four siksa vratas training vows 132 133 The three guṇa vows are 134 digvrata Restriction on movement with regard to the four directions bhogopabhogaparimana Vow of limiting consumable and non consumable things anartha dandaviramana Refraining from harmful occupations and activities purposeless sins The four siksa vows are 135 134 samayika Meditate by sitting still and concentrate periodically for one muhurta of 48 minutes or for two or three muhurtas desavrata Limiting movement to certain places house village etc for a fixed period of time 136 upvas paushad Fasting for 24 hours on certain days usually four times in a moon month or living a day which mimics the life of a Jain Monk atihti samvibhag Offering food to ascetics and needy people Finally there is a vow called Sallekhana or Santhara a religious death ritual observed at the end of life historically by Jain monks and nuns but rare in the modern age 137 This vow is a voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid resulting in the dispassionate ending of life 138 139 This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul s future rebirths 140 Liberation and the Path EditMain article Ratnatraya A Jain sculpture the central figure is a depiction of a fully liberated soul a siddha The cut out outline of a human form symbolizes the non material nature of siddhas 141 Fourteen stages on the path to liberationAcarya Pujyapada s defines liberation moksha kevala jnana in his Sarvarthasiddhi as follows 6 Liberation is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body characterized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering At the moment of final liberation a Kevalin liberated soul will become free of their body and in an instant rise up to the siddhaloka the realm of liberated souls at the top of the universe As explained by Dundas the enlightened soul will exist perpetually without any further rebirth in a disembodied and genderless state of perfect joy energy consciousness and knowledge 141 Jains believe that the number of liberated souls is infinite While these souls interpenetrate each other and all have the same qualities Jainism strongly resists the idea that they are part of some monistic world soul as in found in some schools of Hinduism 141 According to Haribhadra this Hindu monism makes no sense Dundas outlines his critique as follows if the world soul were inherently pure it would be difficult to explain why the phenomenal world is manifestly impure while if it were impure there would then be no point in the liberated jivas merging with it 141 Jain philosophers developed a schema of 14 stages of spiritual development called Gunasthana Sanskrit levels of virtue 142 143 These stages correspond to the abandoning of the various causes of karmic binding 144 Those who pass the last stage are enlightened siddhas and become fully established in Right View Right Knowledge and Right Conduct 145 History Edit Umaswati the first Jain philosopher to write a systematic exposition of Jain thought The philosophy of early Jainism can be found in the Agamas Though these early texts contain much philosophical content it is not systematic and can be inconsistent 146 Umaswati was probably the first systematic Jain philosopher His Tattvarthasutra drew together all the ancient Jain doctrines and presented them in a systematic sutra style His work was extremely influential and is accepted by all Jain schools of thought today 147 The main Digambara commentaries on the Tattvarthasutra are those of Pujyapada 6th century Akalaṇka 8th century and Vidyanandi 9th century while the main Svetambara commentaries are Siddhaseṇa Gaṇin s 8th century commentary and the Sva bhaṣya 148 147 Harry Oldmeadow notes that Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components 149 Dundas argues that this philosophical stability is largely do to the influence of Umaswati s work 5 However the Jain tradition has since ancient times been divided into the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions The schism arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and whether women could achieve liberation in female bodies Apart from these differences there are no other major philosophical differences between Jain sects though there are different interpretations of the basic doctrines such as anekantavada This doctrinal conservatism in Jainism has led scholars like Padmanabh Jaini to remark that in the course Jain history there were never any radically new movements like Mahayana tantra or bhakti which effectively challenged mainstream Jainism 150 After the period of the early philosophers like Umaswati there follows a period of increasing philosophical sophistication with a focus on epistemology pramana and logic nyaya This era saw the work of great epistemologists like Siddhasena Divakara Samantabhadra and Akalanka 147 The work of Kundakunda particularly his theory of the two truths was also extremely influential especially on Digambara philosophy 151 Jain philosophers preoccupation with epistemology continued into the early modern period which saw several great Jain scholars who wrote on the navya nyaya new reason philosophy such as Yasovijaya 1624 1688 The Jain encounter with Islam also led to theological debates on the existence of God and on the use of violence 152 According to Paul Dundas Jain thinkers faced with the Muslim destruction of their temples also began to revisit their theory of ahimsa non violence Dundas notes how the 12th century Jain thinker Jinadatta Suri argued in favor of violence in self defense 153 The modern era saw the rise of a new sect the Svetambara Terapanth founded by Acarya Bhikṣu in the 18th century Terapanth scholars like Tulasi 1913 1997 and Acarya Mahaprajna 1920 2010 have been influential intellectual figures in modern Jainism writing numerous works on Jain philosophy 154 The modern era also saw the rise of new sects led by the laity as well as various influential intellectual figures The non sectarian cult of Shrimad Rajchandra 1867 1901 is well known due to it being a major influence on Mahatma Gandhi 155 Another influential figure was Kanjisvami who was known for his stress on the mystical philosophy of Kundakunda 156 Contribution to Indian Thought Edit As one of the earliest and most influential of the sramana systems Jainism influenced other Indian systems of thought Scholarly research has shown that philosophical concepts that are typically Indian Karma Ahimsa Moksa reincarnation and like either have their origins in the sramana traditions one of the most ancient of which is Jainism The sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life was in stark contrast with the Brahmanical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life based on sacrifices household duties and chants to deities Sramanas developed and laid emphasis on Ahimsa Karma moksa and renunciation 157 158 Jain ideas seem to have had some influence on the Buddha and on Early Buddhism and both worldviews share many common ideas karma rebirth an uncreated universe ahimsa denial of the Vedas 159 160 The Buddha is depicted as practicing forms of asceticism which are found in Jainism though he later rejected many of these practices as too extreme 161 Helmuth von Glasenapp also argues that the Jain idea of non violence and particularly its promotion of vegetarianism had an influence on Hinduism especially on Vaishnavism 162 Furthermore von Glasenapp argues that some Hindu philosophical systems particularly the dualistic Vedanta of Madhvacarya was influenced by Jain philosophy He also states that it is possible that Shaivasiddhanta was influenced by Jain thought as well 162 The Jain system of philosophy and ethics is also known for having had a major impact on modern figures like Dayanand Sarasvati and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 163 Major Jain philosophers Edit Numerous Jain philosophers have contributed to the development of Jain thought Below is a partial list of some of the main Jain philosophers 164 165 Umasvati or Umasvami possibly between 2nd century and 5th century CE The author of the first Jain work in Sanskrit the Tattvarthasutra which systematised Jain philosophy in a form acceptable to all sects of Jainism Samantabhadra c 2nd 5th century CE The first Jain writer to write on nyaya in his Apta Mimamsa He also composed the Ratnakaranda sravakacara and the Svayambhu Stotra Kundakunda c sometime between the 2nd century and the 8th century CE 166 An exponent of Jain metaphysics and an influential two truths theory He was the author of Pancastikayasara Essence of the Five Existents the Pravacanasara Essence of the Scripture the Samayasara Essence of the Doctrine Niyamasara Essence of Discipline Atthapahuda Eight Gifts Dasabhatti Ten Worships and Barasa Anuvekkha Twelve Contemplations Siddhasena Divakara c 5th century Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit such as Nyayavatara on Logic and Sanmatisutra dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints knowledge and the objects of knowledge 167 Akalanka c 5th century key Jain logician whose works such as Laghiyastraya Pramanasangraha Nyayaviniscaya vivarana Siddhiviniscaya vivarana Astasati Tattvartharajavartika et al are seen as landmarks in Indian logic The impact of Akalanka may be surmised by the fact that Jain Nyaya is also known as Akalanka Nyaya Pujyapada 6th century Jain philosopher grammarian and Sanskritist Composed Samadhitantra Ishtopadesha and the Sarvarthasiddhi a definitive commentary on the Tattvarthasutra and Jainendra Vyakarana the first work on Sanskrit grammar by a Jain monk Manikyanandi 6th century Jain logician composed the Parikshamaukham a masterpiece in the karika style of the Classical Nyaya school Jinabhadra Gaṇi 6th 7th century author of Avasyaksutra Jain tenets Visesanavati and Visesavasyakabhasya Commentary on Jain essentials He is said to have followed Siddhasena and compiled discussion and refutation on various views on Jaina doctrine Mallavadin 8th century author of Nayacakra and Dvadasaranayacakra Encyclopedia of Philosophy which discusses the schools of Indian philosophy 167 Yogindudeva 8th century author of Paramatmaprakasaḥ Haribhadra 8th century Jain thinker author philosopher satirist and great proponent of anekantavada and yoga studies His works include Ṣaḍdarsanasamuccaya Yogabindu Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya and Dhurtakhyana he pioneered the Dvatrimshatika genre of writing in Jainism where various religious subjects were covered in 32 succinct Sanskrit verses 167 Prabhacandra 10th century Jain philosopher composed a 106 Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya Prameyakamalamartanda based on Manikyanandi s Parikshamukham and Nyayakumudacandra on Akalanka s Laghiyastraya Nemichandra 10th century author of the Gommatsara a great compendium of Digambara doctrine Abhayadeva 1057 to 1135 author of Vadamahrnava Ocean of Discussions which is a 2 500 verse tika Commentary of Sanmartika and a great treatise on logic 167 Acharya Hemachandra 1089 1173 Jain thinker author historian grammarian and logician His works include Yogasastra and Trishashthishalakapurushacaritra and the Siddhahemavyakarana 167 He also authored an incomplete work on Jain Nyaya titled Pramana Mimamsa Vadideva 11th century He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored Paramananayatattavalokalankara and its voluminous commentary the syadvadaratnakara a work which focuses on the doctrine of Syadvada Vidyanandi 11th century Jain philosopher composed a commentary on Acarya Umasvami s Tattvarthasutra known as Tattvarthashlokavartika Yasovijaya 1624 1688 Jain logician and one of the last intellectual giants to contribute to Jain philosophy He specialised in Navya Nyaya and commentaries on most of the earlier Jain Nyaya works by Samantabhadra Akalanka Manikyanandi Vidyanandi Prabhacandra and others in the then prevalent Navya Nyaya style Yasovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output more than 100 books in Sanskrit Prakrit Gujarati and Rajasthani He is also famous for Jnanasara essence of knowledge and Adhayatmasara essence of spirituality Vinayavijaya 17th century author of the encyclopedic Lokaprakasha Shrimad Rajchandra 19th century composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra a 142 spiritual treatise that expounds the 6 fundamental truths of the soul 168 See also Edit Religion portal Philosophy portalJaina seven valued logicReferences EditCitations Edit Jain S A 1992 p vi Jansma amp Jain 2006 p 28 Zimmer 1953 p 59 Dundas 2002 pp 30 31 a b Dundas 2002 p 86 a b Jain S A 1992 p 2 Dundas 2002 p 88 Jain Vijay K 2011 p 2 a b Jain S A 1992 pp 3 7 a b von Glasenapp 1999 p 168 von Glasenapp 1999 p 203 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 168 169 Oldmeadow 2007 p 149 Long 2009 p 124 von Glasenapp 1999 p 178 Jain S A 1992 pp 6 7 a b von Glasenapp 1925 pp 177 187 a b Jaini 1998 p 151 a b Dundas 2002 pp 96 98 a b c d von Glasenapp 1999 p 179 Grimes 1996 pp 118 119 a b Dundas 2002 p 90 Jain Champat Rai 1917 p 15 von Glasenapp 1925 pp 188 190 Jaini 1980 pp 219 228 a b c d Long 2009 p 125 von Glasenapp 1999 p 170 Grimes 1996 p 238 a b Soni 2000 Dundas 2002 pp 75 76 131 229 230 Dundas 2002 pp 229 230 Prasad 2006 pp 60 61 Jain Vijay K 2011 p 6 Long 2009 p 150 Long 2009 p 117 a b c Long 2009 p 141 Sethia 2004 pp 123 136 400 407 Long 2009 p 118 Jaini 1998 p 91 Long 2009 pp 118 119 Long 2009 p 119 Huntington Ronald Jainism and Ethics Archived from the original on 19 August 2007 Retrieved 11 December 2012 Hay 1970 pp 14 23 a b Grimes 1996 pp 202 203 Shah Natubhai 1998 p 80 Long 2009 p 143 McEvilley 2002 pp 335 337 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 171 172 Dundas 2002 p 108 Long 2009 pp 128 130 Long 2009 p 129 a b Dundas 2002 p 110 Long 2009 p 132 Long 2009 pp 132 133 Chatterjea 2001 pp 77 87 von Glasenapp 1999 p 172 Long 2009 p 147 a b Koller 2000 a b Grimes 1996 p 312 Long 2009 p 148 a b Long 2009 p 149 Long 2009 pp 149 150 Dowling amp Scarlett 2006 p 225 Jaini 1998 pp 104 106 Shah Natubhai 1998 p 47 a b Dundas 2002 p 95 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 213 215 von Glasenapp 1999 p 195 von Glasenapp 1999 p 201 Dundas 2002 p 94 Jain S A 1992 p 62 63 196 von Glasenapp 1999 p 198 von Glasenapp 1999 p 199 von Glasenapp 1999 p 251 Dundas 2002 p 106 Dundas 2002 pp 90 91 Shah Natubhai 1998 p 25 Long 2013 pp 83 85 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 241 242 Allday 2001 p 268 von Glasenapp 1925 pp 247 249 262 263 Dundas 2002 pp 20 21 34 35 74 91 95 96 103 a b von Glasenapp 1925 pp 262 263 Dundas 2002 pp 91 95 96 Jaini 1980 pp 222 223 Rankin amp Mardia 2013 p 40 Zimmer 1953 p 182 Shah Natubhai 1998 pp 35 38 a b c Doniger 1999 p 551 Singh Upinder 2016 p 313 von Glasenapp 1925 pp 271 272 Dundas 2002 p 40 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 271 272 Doniger 1999 p 550 Sanghvi 2008 p 26 von Glasenapp 1999 p 181 Jaini 1998 p 90 a b von Glasenapp 1999 p 182 a b von Glasenapp 1999 p 180 James 1969 p 45 a b Dundas 2002 p 97 Long 2013 pp 92 95 a b Dundas 2002 p 100 Dundas 2002 p 103 Dundas 2002 pp 99 103 a b Dundas 2002 p 98 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 217 218 Jaini 1980 pp 224 225 Sethia 2004 pp 30 31 Kirtivijay 1957 p 21 Dundas 2002 pp 99 100 Dundas 2002 p 104 Jaini 1980 p 226 Dundas 2002 pp 104 105 Jaini 1980 p 225 von Glasenapp 1999 p 225 a b Jain Vijay K 2012 p 33 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 225 226 von Glasenapp 1999 p 231 a b c d von Glasenapp 1925 pp 228 231 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 228 229 a b c von Glasenapp 1925 p 228 a b c Shah Pravin K Five Great Vows Maha vratas of Jainism Jainism Literature Center Archived from the original on 31 December 2014 Retrieved 7 May 2017 Jain Vijay K 2011 p 99 Jain Vijay K 2012 p 35 Dowling amp Scarlett 2006 p 226 Jain Vijay K 2012 p 68 von Glasenapp 1925 p 231 Shah Natubhai 2004 p 112 Long 2009 p 109 Babb Lawrence A 1998 Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture p 2 Motilal Banarsidass Jain Vijay K 2012 pp 87 88 Tukol 1976 p 5 a b Jain Vijay K 2012 p 88 von Glasenapp 1999 p 229 Jain Vijay K 2012 p 90 Dundas 2002 pp 179 180 Jaini 2000 p 16 Tukol 1976 p 7 Williams 1991 pp 166 167 a b c d Dundas 2002 p 105 Jain Vijay K 2014 p 14 Jaini 1998 pp 272 273 von Glasenapp 1999 p 218 Jain Champat Rai 1917 p 121 Panikar amp Sutcliffe 2010 p 352 a b c Panikar amp Sutcliffe 2010 p 353 Dundas 2002 p 87 Oldmeadow 2007 p 148 Jaini 2000 pp 31 35 Dundas 2002 pp 107 108 Dundas 1999 pp 37 38 Dundas 2002 pp 162 163 Dundas 2002 pp 260 262 Petit Jerome 2016 Rajacandra Jainpedia Sangave 1980 p 53 Pande 1994 pp 134 136 Worthington 1982 pp 27 30 Bronkhorst Johannes 1993 The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India p 22 von Glasenapp 1999 pp 500 504 Collins 2000 p 204 a b von Glasenapp 1999 p 498 von Glasenapp 1999 p 499 Malvania Dalsukh Soni Jayendra 2007 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume X Jain Philosophy part I page needed Panikar amp Sutcliffe 2010 pp 352 353 Long 2009 pp 65 66 a b c d e Jaini 1998 p 85 Wiley Kristi L 2009 The A to Z of Jainism Lanham Md Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 6821 2 OCLC 422763446 Sources Edit Allday J 2001 Quarks Leptons and The Big Bang CRC Press ISBN 978 0 3678 0623 1 Chatterjea Tara 2001 Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy Lanham MD Lexington Books ISBN 0 7391 0692 9 Collins Randall 2000 The sociology of philosophies a global theory of intellectual change Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0674001879 Doniger Wendy ed 1999 Encyclopedia of World Religions Merriam Webster ISBN 0 87779 044 2 Dowling Elizabeth M Scarlett W George eds 2006 Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development SAGE Publications ISBN 0 7619 2883 9 Dundas Paul 1999 Jain Perceptions of Islam in the Early Modern Period Indo Iranian Journal Brill Academic 42 1 35 46 doi 10 1163 000000099124993040 JSTOR 24663454 S2CID 161901119 Dundas Paul 2002 1992 The Jains Second ed Routledge ISBN 0 415 26605 X Grimes John 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English New York Suny Press ISBN 0 7914 3068 5 Hay Stephen N 1970 Jain Influences on Gandhi s Early Thought In Sibnarayan Ray ed Gandhi India and the World Bombay Nachiketa Publishers Jain Champat Rai 1917 The Practical Path The Central Jaina Publishing House Jain S A 1992 First edition 1960 Reality English Translation of Srimat Pujyapadacharya s Sarvarthasiddhi 2nd ed Jwalamalini Trust This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Jain Vijay K 2011 Acharya Umasvami s Tattvarthsutra 1st ed Uttarakhand Vikalp Printers ISBN 978 81 903639 2 1 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Jain Vijay K 2012 Acharya Amritchandra s Purushartha Siddhyupaya Realization of the Pure Self With Hindi and English Translation Vikalp Printers ISBN 978 81 903639 4 5 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Jain Vijay K 26 March 2014 Acarya Pujyapada s Istopadesa the Golden Discourse ISBN 978 81 903639 6 9 Jaini Padmanabh 1980 Doniger Wendy ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Jaini Padmanabh S 1998 1979 The Jaina Path of Purification Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1578 5 Jaini Padmanabh 2000 Collected Papers on Jaina Studies Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1691 9 James Edwin Oliver 1969 Creation and Cosmology A Historical and Comparative Inquiry Netherland Brill ISBN 90 04 01617 1 Jansma Rudi Jain Sneh Rani 2006 Introduction to Jainism Jaipur Prakrit Bharti Academy ISBN 81 89698 09 5 Kirtivijay M 1957 Jainism in nutshell Bombay Navprabhat Printing Press Koller John M July 2000 Syadvada as the Epistemological Key to the Jaina Middle Way Metaphysics of Anekantavada Philosophy East and West 50 3 400 407 doi 10 1353 pew 2000 0009 ISSN 0031 8221 JSTOR 1400182 S2CID 170240551 Long Jeffery D 2009 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 4416 3839 7 OCLC 608555139 Long Jeffery D 2013 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris ISBN 978 0 85771 392 6 McEvilley Thomas 2002 The Shape of Ancient Thought Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies New York Allworth Communications ISBN 1 58115 203 5 Oldmeadow Harry 2007 Light from the East Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West Indiana World Wisdom ISBN 978 1 933316 22 2 Pande Govindchandra 1994 Life and Thought of Sankaracarya Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1104 6 Panikar Agustin Sutcliffe David 2010 Jainism History Society Philosophy and Practice Motilal Banarsidass Prasad Jyoti 2006 Religion amp culture of the Jains Delhi Bharatiya Jnanpith Rankin Aidan D Mardia Kantilal 2013 Living Jainism An Ethical Science John Hunt Publishing ISBN 978 1 78099 911 1 Sangave Vilas Adinath 1980 1959 Jaina Community A Social Survey Popular Prakashan ISBN 0 317 12346 7 Sanghvi Jayatilal S 2008 A Treatise on Jainism Forgotten Books ISBN 978 1 60506 728 5 Sethia Tara 2004 Ahiṃsa Anekanta and Jainism Motilal Banarsidass Shah Natubhai 1998 Jainism The World of Conquerors Volume I and II Sussex Sussex Academy Press ISBN 1 898723 30 3 Shah Natubhai 2004 First published in 1998 Jainism The World of Conquerors Vol I Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1938 2 Singh Upinder 2016 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education ISBN 978 93 325 6996 6 Soni Jayandra 2000 Basic Jaina Epistemology Philosophy East and West 50 3 367 377 JSTOR 1400179 Tatia Nathmal 1994 Tattvartha Sutra That Which Is of Vacaka Umasvati in Sanskrit and English Lanham MD Rowman Altamira ISBN 0 7619 8993 5 Tukol Justice T K 1976 Sallekhana is Not Suicide 1st ed Ahmedabad L D Institute of Indology This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain von Glasenapp Helmuth 1925 Jainism An Indian Religion of Salvation Der Jainismus Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion Translated by Shridhar B Shrotri Delhi Motilal Banarsidass von Glasenapp Helmuth 1999 Jainism An Indian Religion of Salvation Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1376 6 Williams Robert 1991 Jaina Yoga A Survey of the Mediaeval Sravakacaras Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0775 4 Worthington Vivian 1982 A History of Yoga London Routledge ISBN 0 7100 9258 X Zimmer Heinrich 1953 April 1952 Campbell Joseph ed Philosophies of India London Routledge amp Kegan Paul Ltd ISBN 978 81 208 0739 6 External links Edit Media related to Jain philosophy at Wikimedia Commons Jain philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jain philosophy amp oldid 1132321091, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, 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