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Upanishads

November 25, 2023

The Upanishads (/ʊˈpʌnɪʃədz/;[1] Sanskrit: उपनिषद् Upaniṣad pronounced [ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd]) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions"[2] and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hinduism.[2][note 1] They are the most recent addition to the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge. Earlier parts of the Vedas dealt with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices.[3][4][5]

Upanishads
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Information
ReligionHinduism
LanguageSanskrit
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads document a wide variety of "rites, incantations, and esoteric knowledge"[6] departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions. Of all Vedic literature, the Upanishads alone are widely known, and their diverse ideas, interpreted in various ways, informed later traditions of Hinduism.[note 1] The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person,[7] postulating Ātman and Brahman as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe,"[8][9][10] but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found.[10][note 2]

Around 108 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[11][12] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas[13] and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down orally. The mukhya Upanishads predate the Common Era, but there is no scholarly consensus on their date, or even on which ones are pre- or post-Buddhist. The Brhadaranyaka is seen as particularly ancient by modern scholars.[14][15][16] Of the remainder, 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktikā canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.[17][18] New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era,[19] though often dealing with subjects that are unconnected to the Vedas.[20] The mukhya Upanishads, along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi),[21] are interpreted in divergent ways in the several later schools of Vedanta.[10][note 3][22]

With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a Western audience. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called them "the most profitable and elevating reading which ... is possible in the world."[23] Modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and the works of major Western philosophers.[24][25][26]

Etymology edit

The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad originally meant “connection” or “equivalence",[27] but came to be understood as "sitting near a teacher,"[27] from upa "by" and ni-ṣad "sit down",[28] "sitting down near", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving spiritual knowledge (Gurumukh).[29] Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine". Monier-Williams' Sanskrit Dictionary notes – "According to native authorities, Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit."[30]

Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, that is, "knowledge of the self", or Brahmavidyā "knowledge of Brahman". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in the first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. Max Müller as well as Paul Deussen translate the word Upanishad in these verses as "secret doctrine",[31][32] Robert Hume translates it as "mystic meaning",[33] while Patrick Olivelle translates it as "hidden connections".[34]

Development edit

Authorship edit

The authorship of most Upanishads is unknown. Radhakrishnan states, "almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads".[35] The ancient Upanishads are embedded in the Vedas, the oldest of Hinduism's religious scriptures, which some traditionally consider to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[36] and "impersonal, authorless".[37][38][39] The Vedic texts assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.[40]

The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous sages such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada, and Sanatkumara.[35][41] Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi, participate in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.[42] There are some exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to sage Shvetashvatara, and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.[43]

Many scholars believe that early Upanishads were interpolated[44] and expanded over time. There are differences within manuscripts of the same Upanishad discovered in different parts of South Asia, differences in non-Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived, and differences within each text in terms of meter,[45] style, grammar and structure.[46][47] The existing texts are believed to be the work of many authors.[48]

Chronology edit

Scholars are uncertain about when the Upanishads were composed.[49] The chronology of the early Upanishads is difficult to resolve, states philosopher and Sanskritist Stephen Phillips,[11] because all opinions rest on scanty evidence and analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, and are driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies. Indologist Patrick Olivelle says that "in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents [early Upanishads] that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards".[14]

Some scholars have tried to analyse similarities between Hindu Upanishads and Buddhist literature to establish chronology for the Upanishads.[15] Precise dates are impossible, and most scholars give only broad ranges encompassing various centuries. Gavin Flood states that "the Upanisads are not a homogeneous group of texts. Even the older texts were composed over a wide expanse of time from about 600 to 300 BCE."[50] Stephen Phillips places the early or "principal" Upanishads in the 800 to 300 BCE range.[11]

Patrick Olivelle, a Sanskrit Philologist and Indologist, gives the following chronology for the early Upanishads, also called the Principal Upanishads:[49][14]

  • The Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads. They are edited texts, some of whose sources are much older than others. The two texts are pre-Buddhist; they may be placed in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE, give or take a century or so.[51][15]
  • The three other early prose Upanisads—Taittiriya, Aitareya, and Kausitaki come next; all are probably pre-Buddhist and can be assigned to the 6th to 5th centuries BCE.[52]
  • The Kena is the oldest of the verse Upanisads followed by probably the Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka. All these Upanisads were composed probably in the last few centuries BCE.[53] According to Olivelle, "All exhibit strong theistic tendencies and are probably the earliest literary products of the theistic tradition, whose later literature includes the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas."[54]
  • The two late prose Upanisads, the Prasna and the Mandukya, cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era.[49][14]

Meanwhile, the Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst argues for a later date for the Upanishads than has generally been accepted. Bronkhorst places even the oldest of the Upanishads, such as the Brhadaranyaka as possibly still being composed at "a date close to Katyayana and Patañjali [the grammarian]" (i.e., c. 2nd century BCE).[16]

The later Upanishads, numbering about 95, also called minor Upanishads, are dated from the late 1st-millennium BCE to mid 2nd-millennium CE.[17] Gavin Flood dates many of the twenty Yoga Upanishads to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period.[18] Patrick Olivelle and other scholars date seven of the twenty Sannyasa Upanishads to likely have been complete sometime between the last centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE to 300 CE.[17] About half of the Sannyasa Upanishads were likely composed in 14th- to 15th-century CE.[17]

Geography edit

 
Geography of the Late Vedic Period

The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads is considered as northern India. The region is bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range.[14] Scholars are reasonably sure that the early Upanishads were produced at the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, Kuru-Panchala, and Kosala-Videha, a "frontier region" of Brahmanism, together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.[55] This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, and northern Madhya Pradesh.[14]

While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.[56] The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more western than eastern location in the Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.[57]

Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.[58] In the fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad, a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.[14]

Classification edit

Muktika canon: major and minor Upanishads edit

There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktikā Upanishad, predates 1656 CE[59] and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads,[60] including itself as the last. These are further divided into Upanishads associated with Shaktism (goddess Shakti), Sannyasa (renunciation, monastic life), Shaivism (god Shiva), Vaishnavism (god Vishnu), Yoga, and Sāmānya (general, sometimes referred to as Samanya-Vedanta).[61][62]

Some of the Upanishads are categorized as "sectarian" since they present their ideas through a particular god or goddess of a specific Hindu tradition such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, or a combination of these such as the Skanda Upanishad. These traditions sought to link their texts as Vedic, by asserting their texts to be an Upanishad, thereby a Śruti.[63] Most of these sectarian Upanishads, for example the Rudrahridaya Upanishad and the Mahanarayana Upanishad, assert that all the Hindu gods and goddesses are the same, all an aspect and manifestation of Brahman, the Vedic concept for metaphysical ultimate reality before and after the creation of the Universe.[64][65]

Principal Upanishads edit

Main article: Principal Upanishads

The Principal Upanishads, also known as the Mukhya Upanishads, can be grouped into periods. Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya, the oldest.[66][note 4]

 
A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript

The Aitareya, Kauṣītaki and Taittirīya Upanishads may date to as early as the mid-1st millennium BCE, while the remnant date from between roughly the 4th to 1st centuries BCE, roughly contemporary with the earliest portions of the Sanskrit epics. One chronology assumes that the Aitareya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Mundaka, Prasna, and Katha Upanishads has Buddha's influence, and is consequently placed after the 5th century BCE, while another proposal questions this assumption and dates it independent of Buddha's date of birth. The Kena, Mandukya, and Isa Upanishads are typically placed after these Principal Upanishads, but other scholars date these differently. [15] Not much is known about the authors except for those, like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka, mentioned in the texts.[13] A few women discussants, such as Gargi and Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkayva,[68] also feature occasionally.

Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (shakhas).[69] Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads, being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.[70]

Veda-Shakha-Upanishad association
Veda Recension Shakha Principal Upanishad
Rig Veda Only one recension Shakala Aitareya
Sama Veda Only one recension Kauthuma Chāndogya
Jaiminiya Kena
Ranayaniya
Yajur Veda Krishna Yajur Veda Katha Kaṭha
Taittiriya Taittirīya
Maitrayani
Hiranyakeshi (Kapishthala)
Kathaka
Shukla Yajur Veda Vajasaneyi Madhyandina Isha and Bṛhadāraṇyaka
Kanva Shakha
Atharva Veda Two recensions Shaunaka Māṇḍūkya and Muṇḍaka
Paippalada Prashna Upanishad

New Upanishads edit

There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.[71] In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named Bashkala, Chhagaleya, Arsheya, and Saunaka, by Friedrich Schrader,[72] who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.[73] The text of three of them, namely the Chhagaleya, Arsheya, and Saunaka, were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.[73]

Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.[74] These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology[75] to renunciation[76] to sectarian theories.[74] They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).[74][76] While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,[17][18] many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,[74] they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.[20]

The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.[77]

Association with Vedas edit

All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.[78] During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of the Upanishads.[74] These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad,[note 5] and published in Telugu language, became the most common by the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.[74][79] In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.[74]

The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as mukhya,[80][note 6] 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,[84] 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.[85] The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.[78] The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted.[82]

Veda-Upanishad association
Veda Number[78] Mukhya[80] Sāmānya Sannyāsa[84] Śākta[86] Vaiṣṇava[87] Śaiva[88] Yoga[85]
Ṛigveda 10 Aitareya, Kauśītāki Ātmabodha, Mudgala Nirvāṇa Tripura, Saubhāgya-lakshmi, Bahvṛca - Akṣamālika Nādabindu
Sāmaveda 16 Chāndogya, Kena Vajrasūchi, Maha, Sāvitrī Āruṇi, Maitreya, Brhat-Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika (Laghu-Sannyāsa) - Vāsudeva, Avyakta Rudrākṣa, Jābāli Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana
Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda 32 Taittiriya, Katha, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrāyaṇi[note 7] Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Skanda, Garbha, Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi Brahma, (Laghu, Brhad) Avadhūta, Kaṭhasruti Sarasvatī-rahasya Nārāyaṇa, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripād vibhuti), Kaivalya, Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma Amṛtabindu, Tejobindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini, Varāha
Śukla Yajurveda 19 Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa Subala, Mantrika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma, Muktikā Jābāla, Bhikṣuka, Turīyātītavadhuta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyaniya - Tārasāra - Advayatāraka, Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa
Atharvaveda 31 Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna Ātmā, Sūrya, Prāṇāgnihotra[90] Āśrama, Nārada-parivrājaka, Paramahamsa, Paramahaṃsa parivrājaka, Parabrahma Sītā, Devī, Tripurātapini, Bhāvana Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa Atharvasiras,[91] Atharvaśikha, Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya
Total Upaniṣads 108 13[note 6] 21 18 8 14 14 20

Philosophy edit

See also: Vedanta
 
Impact of a drop of water, a common analogy for Brahman and the Ātman

The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person,[7] postulating Ātman and Brahman as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe,"[8][9][10] but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found.[10][note 2]

The Upanishadic reflect a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.[92] The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.[93] They contain a plurality of ideas.[94][note 2]

The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been at the foundation of Indian traditions. For example, the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest known declarations of Ahimsa (non-violence) as an ethical precept.[95][96] Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah (temperance, self-restraint), Satya (truthfulness), Dāna (charity), Ārjava (non-hypocrisy), Daya (compassion), and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many later Upanishads.[97][98] Similarly, the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is the oldest Upanishad.[99]

Development of thought edit

While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.[100] The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink.[100]

The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that "external rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening, must be replaced with inner Agnihotram, the ritual of introspection", and that "not rituals, but knowledge should be one's pursuit".[101] The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been called upon, promised benefits for, scared unto and misled into performing sacrifices, oblations and pious works.[102] Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail, by those who encourage it and those who follow it, because it makes no difference to man's current life and after-life, it is like blind men leading the blind, it is a mark of conceit and vain knowledge, ignorant inertia like that of children, a futile useless practice.[102][103] The Maitri Upanishad states,[104]

The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires,[105] meditate on the Self, to become complete and perfect. But who is to be meditated on?

— Maitri Upanishad[106][107]

The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads. On occasions, the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.[100]

In similar fashion, Vedic gods such as the Agni, Aditya, Indra, Rudra, Visnu, Brahma, and others become equated in the Upanishads to the supreme, immortal, and incorporeal Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, god becomes synonymous with self, and is declared to be everywhere, inmost being of each human being and within every living creature.[108][109][110] The one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva advitiyam or "the one and only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.[100] Brahman-Atman and self-realization develops, in the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation; freedom in this life or after-life).[110][111][112]

According to Jayatilleke, the thinkers of Upanishadic texts can be grouped into two categories.[113] One group, which includes early Upanishads along with some middle and late Upanishads, were composed by metaphysicians who used rational arguments and empirical experience to formulate their speculations and philosophical premises. The second group includes many middle and later Upanishads, where their authors professed theories based on yoga and personal experiences.[113] Yoga philosophy and practice, adds Jayatilleke, is "not entirely absent in the Early Upanishads".[113]

The development of thought in these Upanishadic theories contrasted with Buddhism, since the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed Atman, but nevertheless assumes its existence,[114] "[reifying] consciousness as an eternal self."[115] The Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence," states Jayatilleke.[114]

Atman and Brahman edit

Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Brahman

The Upanishads postulate Ātman and Brahman as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe."[8][9][10] Both have multiple meanings,[116] and various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found.[10][note 2]

Atman has "a wide range of lexical meanings, including ‘breath’, ‘spirit’, and ‘body’."[117] In the Upanishads it refers to the body, but also to the essence of the concrete physical human body,[8] "an essence, a life-force, consciousness, or ultimate reality."[117] The Chāndogya Upaniṣhad (6.1-16) "offers an organic understanding of ātman, characterizing the self in terms of the life force that animates all living beings," while the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣhad "characterizes ātman more in terms of consciousness than as a life-giving essence."[117]

Brahman may refer to a "formulation of truth," but also to "the ultimate and basic essence of the cosmos," standing at the "summit of the hierarchical scheme, or at the bottom as the ultimate foundation of all things."[116] Brahman is "beyond the reach of human perception and thought."[118] Atman likewise has multiple meanings, one of them being 'self', the inner essence of a human body/person[119][120][note 8]

Various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found.[10][note 2] Two distinct, somewhat divergent themes stand out. Older upanishads state thet Atman is part of Brahman but not identical, while younger Upanishads state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with Atman.[121][122] The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (c. 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories. According to Nakamura, the Brahmasutras see Atman and Brahman as both different and not-different, a point of view which came to be called bhedabheda in later times.[123] According to Koller, the Brahmasutras state that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.[121] This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism.

Reality and Maya edit

Main article: Maya (illusion)

Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan. The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all-inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing reality is an appearance (Maya).[124]

The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).[125] The former manifests itself as Ātman (soul, self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of Atman as "true knowledge" (Vidya), and the knowledge of Maya as "not true knowledge" (Avidya, Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).[126]

Hendrick Vroom explains, "the term Maya [in the Upanishads] has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination. Maya means that the world is not as it seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned."[127] According to Wendy Doniger, "to say that the universe is an illusion (māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge."[128]

In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.[129][130] Maya, or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating self-knowledge, it is Maya which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.[131][132]

Schools of Vedanta edit

Main article: Vedanta
 
Adi Shankara, expounder of Advaita Vedanta and commentator (bhashya) on the Upanishads

The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.[133] Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads.[note 2][note 9] The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.[134] The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:[135]

  • According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.[135]
  • According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
  • According to Dvaita, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities.

Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita, Vallabha's Suddhadvaita, and Chaitanya's Acintya Bhedabheda.[136] The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.[137]

Advaita Vedanta edit

Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.[138] It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.[138] Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting statements of the Upanishads.[139] Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further developed by Shankara (8th century CE).[140][141] King states that Gaudapada's main work, Māṇḍukya Kārikā, is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.[142] King also suggests that there are clear differences between Shankara's writings and the Brahmasutra,[140][141] and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with those in the Upanishads.[143] Radhakrishnan, on the other hand, suggests that Shankara's views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra,[144] and many ideas of Shankara derive from the Upanishads.[145]

Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts that Atman (soul, self) exists, whereas Buddhism asserts that there is no soul, no self.[146][147][148]

The Upanishads contain four sentences, the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings), which were used by Shankara to establish the identity of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth:

Vishishtadvaita edit

The second school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE). Ramanuja disagreed with Adi Shankara and the Advaita school.[153] Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.[154] Ramanuja frequently cited the Upanishads, and stated that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.[155][156]

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita interpretation of the Upanishads is that of qualified monism.[157][158] Ramanuja interprets the Upanishadic literature to be teaching a body-soul theory, states Jeaneane Fowler – a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies, where the Brahman is the dweller in all things, yet also distinct and beyond all things, as the soul, the inner controller, the immortal.[156] The Upanishads, according to the Vishishtadvaita school, teach individual souls to be of the same quality as the Brahman, but quantitatively distinct.[159][160][161]

In the Vishishtadvaita school, the Upanishads are interpreted to be teaching about Ishvara (Vishnu), who is the seat of all auspicious qualities, with all of the empirically perceived world as the body of God who dwells in everything.[156] The school recommends a devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of a personal god. This ultimately leads one to the oneness with abstract Brahman.[162][163][164] The Brahman in the Upanishads is a living reality, states Fowler, and "the Atman of all things and all beings" in Ramanuja's interpretation.[156]

Dvaita edit

The third school of Vedanta called the Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE).[165] It is regarded as a strongly theistic philosophic exposition of the Upanishads.[154] Madhvacharya, much like Adi Shankara claims for Advaita, and Ramanuja claims for Vishishtadvaita, states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads.[155]

According to the Dvaita school, states Fowler, the "Upanishads that speak of the soul as Brahman, speak of resemblance and not identity".[166] Madhvacharya interprets the Upanishadic teachings of the self becoming one with Brahman, as "entering into Brahman", just like a drop enters an ocean. This to the Dvaita school implies duality and dependence, where Brahman and Atman are different realities. Brahman is a separate, independent and supreme reality in the Upanishads, Atman only resembles the Brahman in limited, inferior, dependent manner according to Madhvacharya.[166][167][168]

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools,[162] both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.[169][170]

Similarities with Platonic thought edit

See also: Proto-Indo-European religion and Ṛta

Several scholars have recognised parallels between the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato and that of the Upanishads, including their ideas on sources of knowledge, concept of justice and path to salvation, and Plato's allegory of the cave. Platonic psychology with its divisions of reason, spirit and appetite, also bears resemblance to the three gunas in the Indian philosophy of Samkhya.[171][172][note 10]

Various mechanisms for such a transmission of knowledge have been conjectured including Pythagoras traveling as far as India; Indian philosophers visiting Athens and meeting Socrates; Plato encountering the ideas when in exile in Syracuse; or, intermediated through Persia.[171][174]

However, other scholars, such as Arthur Berriedale Keith, J. Burnet and A. R. Wadia, believe that the two systems developed independently. They note that there is no historical evidence of the philosophers of the two schools meeting, and point out significant differences in the stage of development, orientation and goals of the two philosophical systems. Wadia writes that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in this life and his primary aim was to develop an ideal state.[172] In contrast, Upanishadic focus was the individual, the self (atman, soul), self-knowledge, and the means of an individual's moksha (freedom, liberation in this life or after-life).[175][176]

Translations edit

The Upanishads have been translated into various languages including Persian, Italian, Urdu, French, Latin, German, English, Dutch, Polish, Japanese, Spanish and Russian.[177] The Mughal Emperor Akbar's reign (1556–1586) saw the first translations of the Upanishads into Persian.[178][179] His great-grandson, Dara Shukoh, produced a collection called Sirr-i-Akbar in 1656, wherein 50 Upanishads were translated from Sanskrit into Persian.[180]

Anquetil-Duperron, a French Orientalist, received a manuscript of the Oupanekhat and translated the Persian version into French and Latin, publishing the Latin translation in two volumes in 1801–1802 as Oupneck'hat.[180][178] The French translation was never published.[181] More recently, several translations in French of some Upanishads or the whole of 108 have been published : by indianists Louis Renou , Kausitaki, Svetasvatra, Prasna, Taittiriya Upanisads, 1948;[182] Jean Varenne, Mahâ-Nârâyana Upanisad, 1960,[183] and Sept Upanishads, 1981;[184] Alyette Degrâces-Fadh, Samnyâsa-Upanisad (Upanisad du renoncement) , 1989;[185] Martine Buttex, Les 108 Upanishads (full translation), 2012.[186]

The Latin version was the initial introduction of the Upanishadic thought to Western scholars.[187] However, according to Deussen, the Persian translators took great liberties in translating the text and at times changed the meaning.[188]

The first Sanskrit-to-English translation of the Aitareya Upanishad was made by Colebrooke[189] in 1805, and the first English translation of the Kena Upanishad was made by Rammohun Roy in 1816.[190][191]

The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer's English version appeared in 1853. However, Max Mueller's 1879 and 1884 editions were the first systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads.[177] Other major translations of the Upanishads have been by Robert Ernest Hume (13 Principal Upanishads),[192] Paul Deussen (60 Upanishads),[193] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (18 Upanishads),[194] Patrick Olivelle (32 Upanishads in two books)[195][196] and Bhānu Swami (13 Upanishads with commentaries of Vaiṣṇava ācāryas). Olivelle's translation won the 1998 A.K. Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation.[197]

Throughout the 1930s, Irish poet W. B. Yeats worked with the Indian-born mendicant-teacher Shri Purohit Swami on their own translation of the Upanishads, eventually titled The Ten Principal Upanishads and published in 1938. This translation was the final piece of work published by Yeats before his death less than a year later.[198]

Reception in the West edit

 
German 19th century philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, impressed by the Upanishads, called the texts "the production of the highest human wisdom".

The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851).[199] He found his own philosophy was in accord with the Upanishads, which taught that the individual is a manifestation of the one basis of reality. For Schopenhauer, that fundamentally real underlying unity is what we know in ourselves as "will". Schopenhauer used to keep a copy of the Latin Oupnekhet by his side and commented,

In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death.[200]

Schopenhauer's philosophy influenced many famous people and introduced them to the Upanishads. One of them was the Austrian Physicist Erwin Schrödinger, who once wrote:

“There is obviously only one alternative,” he wrote, “namely the unification of minds or consciousnesses. Their multiplicity is only apparent, in truth there is only one mind. This is the doctrine of the Upanishads.”[201]

Another German philosopher, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, praised the ideas in the Upanishads,[202] as did others.[203] In the United States, the group known as the Transcendentalists were influenced by the German idealists. Americans, such as Emerson and Thoreau embraced Schelling's interpretation of Kant's Transcendental idealism, as well as his celebration of the romantic, exotic, mystical aspect of the Upanishads. As a result of the influence of these writers, the Upanishads gained renown in Western countries.[204] Danish physicist Niels Bohr said, “I go to the Upanishad to ask questions.”[205]

The poet T. S. Eliot, inspired by his reading of the Upanishads, based the final portion of his famous poem The Waste Land (1922) upon one of its verses.[206] According to Eknath Easwaran, the Upanishads are snapshots of towering peaks of consciousness.[207]

Juan Mascaró, a professor at the University of Barcelona and a translator of the Upanishads, states that the Upanishads represents for the Hindu approximately what the New Testament represents for the Christian, and that the message of the Upanishads can be summarized in the words, "the kingdom of God is within you".[208]

Paul Deussen in his review of the Upanishads, states that the texts emphasize Brahman-Atman as something that can be experienced, but not defined.[209] This view of the soul and self are similar, states Deussen, to those found in the dialogues of Plato and elsewhere. The Upanishads insisted on oneness of soul, excluded all plurality, and therefore, all proximity in space, all succession in time, all interdependence as cause and effect, and all opposition as subject and object.[209] Max Müller, in his review of the Upanishads, summarizes the lack of systematic philosophy and the central theme in the Upanishads as follows,

There is not what could be called a philosophical system in these Upanishads. They are, in the true sense of the word, guesses at truth, frequently contradicting each other, yet all tending in one direction. The key-note of the old Upanishads is "know thyself," but with a much deeper meaning than that of the γνῶθι σεαυτόν of the Delphic Oracle. The "know thyself" of the Upanishads means, know thy true self, that which underlines thine Ego, and find it and know it in the highest, the eternal Self, the One without a second, which underlies the whole world.

— Max Müller

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b Central concepts:
    • Doniger (1990, p. 2-3: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus." * Dissanayake (1993, p. 39): "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought"; * Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism"; * Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210. These new concepts and practices include rebirth, samsara, karma, meditation, renunciation and moksha.(Olivelle 1998, pp. xx–xxiv) The Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions, which share some common concepts and interests. While Kuru-Panchala, at the central Ganges Plain, formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition, Kosala-Magadha at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other shramanic traditions.(Samuel 2010))
  2. ^ a b c d e f Oliville: "In this Introduction I have avoided speaking of 'the philosophy of the upanishads', a common feature of most introductions to their translations. These documents were composed over several centuries and in various regions, and it is futile to try to discover a single doctrine or philosophy in them."[94]
  3. ^ Vedanta has been interpreted as the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" and alternatively as "object, the highest purpose of the Veda".
  4. ^ These are believed to pre-date Gautam Buddha (c. 500 BCE)[67]
  5. ^ The Muktika manuscript found in colonial era Calcutta is the usual default, but other recensions exist.
  6. ^ a b Some scholars list ten as principal, while most consider twelve or thirteen as principal mukhya Upanishads.[81][82][83]
  7. ^ Parmeshwaranand classifies Maitrayani with Samaveda, most scholars with Krishna Yajurveda[78][89]
  8. ^ Atman:
    • , Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012): "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";
    • John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192800947, See entry for Atman;
    • WJ Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198610250, See entry for Atman (self);
    • Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791425138, page 64 "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of Atman with Brahman".
    • Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195340136, page 63: "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman ("soul") and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."
    • David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0-415215277, pages 208-209: "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".
  9. ^ Collins 2000, p. 195: "The breakdown of the Vedic cults is more obscured by retrospective ideology than any other period in Indian history. It is commonly assumed that the dominant philosophy now became an idealist monism, the identification of atman (self) and Brahman (Spirit), and that this mysticism was believed to provide a way to transcend rebirths on the wheel of karma. This is far from an accurate picture of what we read in the Upanishads. It has become traditional to view the Upanishads through the lens of Shankara's Advaita interpretation. This imposes the philosophical revolution of about 700 C.E. upon a very different situation 1,000 to 1,500 years earlier. Shankara picked out monist and idealist themes from a much wider philosophical lineup."
  10. ^ For instances of Platonic pluralism in the early Upanishads see Randall.[173]

References edit

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  3. ^ Flood (1996), p. 35–39.
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  91. ^ Atharvasiras is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, page 568
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    Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 3.17, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 212-213
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Further reading edit

  • Edgerton, Franklin (1965). The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Embree, Ainslie T. (1966). The Hindu Tradition. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-71702-3.
  • Hume, Robert Ernest (1921). The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Oxford University Press.
  • Johnston, Charles (1898). From the Upanishads. Kshetra Books (Reprinted in 2014). ISBN 9781495946530.
  • Mascaró, Juan (1965). The Upanishads. London, England: Penguin Books Ltd.
  • Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part I, New York: Dover Publications (1879; Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20992-X
  • Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part II, New York: Dover Publications (1884; Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20993-8
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953). The Principal Upanishads. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers India (Reprinted in 1994). ISBN 81-7223-124-5.

External links edit

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Upanishads.
 
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Upanishads
 
Sanskrit Wikisource has original text related to this article:
उपनिषत्
  • The Upanishads translated into English by Swami Paramananda
  • , Adyar Library
  • Upanishads, Sanskrit documents in various formats
  • The Upaniṣads article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • The Theory of 'Soul' in the Upanishads, T. W. Rhys Davids (1899)
  • Spinozistic Substance and Upanishadic Self: A Comparative Study, M. S. Modak (1931)
  • W. B. Yeats and the Upanishads, A. Davenport (1952)
  • The Concept of Self in the Upanishads: An Alternative Interpretation, D. C. Mathur (1972)

November 25, 2023
upanishads, sanskrit, उपन, षद, upaniṣad, pronounced, ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd, late, vedic, post, vedic, sanskrit, texts, that, document, transition, from, archaic, ritualism, veda, into, religious, ideas, institutions, emergence, central, religious, concepts, hinduism, note. The Upanishads ʊ ˈ p ʌ n ɪ ʃ e d z 1 Sanskrit उपन षद Upaniṣad pronounced ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd are late Vedic and post Vedic Sanskrit texts that document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions 2 and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hinduism 2 note 1 They are the most recent addition to the Vedas the oldest scriptures of Hinduism and deal with meditation philosophy consciousness and ontological knowledge Earlier parts of the Vedas dealt with mantras benedictions rituals ceremonies and sacrifices 3 4 5 UpanishadsClockwise from top left A guru teaches a disciple giving rise to the etymology of the term Upanishad Yama teaches Nachiketa in the Katha Upanishad A manuscript of the minor Vajrasuchi Upanishad The Upanishadic phrase Tat Tvam Asi displayed at the Sabarimala temple in KeralaInformationReligionHinduismLanguageSanskritThis article contains Indic text Without proper rendering support you may see question marks or boxes misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture the Upanishads document a wide variety of rites incantations and esoteric knowledge 6 departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions Of all Vedic literature the Upanishads alone are widely known and their diverse ideas interpreted in various ways informed later traditions of Hinduism note 1 The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual cosmic realities including gods and the human body person 7 postulating Atman and Brahman as the summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe 8 9 10 but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found 10 note 2 Around 108 Upanishads are known of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main mukhya Upanishads 11 12 The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas 13 and were for centuries memorized by each generation and passed down orally The mukhya Upanishads predate the Common Era but there is no scholarly consensus on their date or even on which ones are pre or post Buddhist The Brhadaranyaka is seen as particularly ancient by modern scholars 14 15 16 Of the remainder 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon composed from about the last centuries of 1st millennium BCE through about 15th century CE 17 18 New Upanishads beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era 19 though often dealing with subjects that are unconnected to the Vedas 20 The mukhya Upanishads along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi 21 are interpreted in divergent ways in the several later schools of Vedanta 10 note 3 22 With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a Western audience German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called them the most profitable and elevating reading which is possible in the world 23 Modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and the works of major Western philosophers 24 25 26 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Development 2 1 Authorship 2 2 Chronology 2 3 Geography 3 Classification 3 1 Muktika canon major and minor Upanishads 3 2 Principal Upanishads 3 3 New Upanishads 3 4 Association with Vedas 4 Philosophy 4 1 Development of thought 4 2 Atman and Brahman 4 3 Reality and Maya 5 Schools of Vedanta 5 1 Advaita Vedanta 5 2 Vishishtadvaita 5 3 Dvaita 6 Similarities with Platonic thought 7 Translations 8 Reception in the West 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External linksEtymology editThe Sanskrit term Upaniṣad originally meant connection or equivalence 27 but came to be understood as sitting near a teacher 27 from upa by and ni ṣad sit down 28 sitting down near referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving spiritual knowledge Gurumukh 29 Other dictionary meanings include esoteric doctrine and secret doctrine Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary notes According to native authorities Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit 30 Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Atmavidya that is knowledge of the self or Brahmavidya knowledge of Brahman The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in the first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad Max Muller as well as Paul Deussen translate the word Upanishad in these verses as secret doctrine 31 32 Robert Hume translates it as mystic meaning 33 while Patrick Olivelle translates it as hidden connections 34 Development editAuthorship edit The authorship of most Upanishads is unknown Radhakrishnan states almost all the early literature of India was anonymous we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads 35 The ancient Upanishads are embedded in the Vedas the oldest of Hinduism s religious scriptures which some traditionally consider to be apauruṣeya which means not of a man superhuman 36 and impersonal authorless 37 38 39 The Vedic texts assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis sages after inspired creativity just as a carpenter builds a chariot 40 The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous sages such as Yajnavalkya Uddalaka Aruni Shvetaketu Shandilya Aitareya Balaki Pippalada and Sanatkumara 35 41 Women such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads 42 There are some exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads The Shvetashvatara Upanishad for example includes closing credits to sage Shvetashvatara and he is considered the author of the Upanishad 43 Many scholars believe that early Upanishads were interpolated 44 and expanded over time There are differences within manuscripts of the same Upanishad discovered in different parts of South Asia differences in non Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived and differences within each text in terms of meter 45 style grammar and structure 46 47 The existing texts are believed to be the work of many authors 48 Chronology edit Scholars are uncertain about when the Upanishads were composed 49 The chronology of the early Upanishads is difficult to resolve states philosopher and Sanskritist Stephen Phillips 11 because all opinions rest on scanty evidence and analysis of archaism style and repetitions across texts and are driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas and presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies Indologist Patrick Olivelle says that in spite of claims made by some in reality any dating of these documents early Upanishads that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards 14 Some scholars have tried to analyse similarities between Hindu Upanishads and Buddhist literature to establish chronology for the Upanishads 15 Precise dates are impossible and most scholars give only broad ranges encompassing various centuries Gavin Flood states that the Upanisads are not a homogeneous group of texts Even the older texts were composed over a wide expanse of time from about 600 to 300 BCE 50 Stephen Phillips places the early or principal Upanishads in the 800 to 300 BCE range 11 Patrick Olivelle a Sanskrit Philologist and Indologist gives the following chronology for the early Upanishads also called the Principal Upanishads 49 14 The Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads They are edited texts some of whose sources are much older than others The two texts are pre Buddhist they may be placed in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE give or take a century or so 51 15 The three other early prose Upanisads Taittiriya Aitareya and Kausitaki come next all are probably pre Buddhist and can be assigned to the 6th to 5th centuries BCE 52 The Kena is the oldest of the verse Upanisads followed by probably the Katha Isa Svetasvatara and Mundaka All these Upanisads were composed probably in the last few centuries BCE 53 According to Olivelle All exhibit strong theistic tendencies and are probably the earliest literary products of the theistic tradition whose later literature includes the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas 54 The two late prose Upanisads the Prasna and the Mandukya cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era 49 14 Meanwhile the Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst argues for a later date for the Upanishads than has generally been accepted Bronkhorst places even the oldest of the Upanishads such as the Brhadaranyaka as possibly still being composed at a date close to Katyayana and Patanjali the grammarian i e c 2nd century BCE 16 The later Upanishads numbering about 95 also called minor Upanishads are dated from the late 1st millennium BCE to mid 2nd millennium CE 17 Gavin Flood dates many of the twenty Yoga Upanishads to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period 18 Patrick Olivelle and other scholars date seven of the twenty Sannyasa Upanishads to likely have been complete sometime between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE to 300 CE 17 About half of the Sannyasa Upanishads were likely composed in 14th to 15th century CE 17 Geography edit nbsp Geography of the Late Vedic PeriodThe general area of the composition of the early Upanishads is considered as northern India The region is bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley on the east by lower Ganges region on the north by the Himalayan foothills and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range 14 Scholars are reasonably sure that the early Upanishads were produced at the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism Kuru Panchala and Kosala Videha a frontier region of Brahmanism together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these 55 This region covers modern Bihar Nepal Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Himachal Pradesh Haryana eastern Rajasthan and northern Madhya Pradesh 14 While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads the results are tentative Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha whose king Janaka features prominently in the Upanishad 56 The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more western than eastern location in the Indian subcontinent possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru Panchala country 57 Compared to the Principal Upanishads the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktika belong to an entirely different region probably southern India and are considerably relatively recent 58 In the fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad a location named Kashi modern Varanasi is mentioned 14 Classification editMuktika canon major and minor Upanishads edit There are more than 200 known Upanishads one of which the Muktika Upanishad predates 1656 CE 59 and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads 60 including itself as the last These are further divided into Upanishads associated with Shaktism goddess Shakti Sannyasa renunciation monastic life Shaivism god Shiva Vaishnavism god Vishnu Yoga and Samanya general sometimes referred to as Samanya Vedanta 61 62 Some of the Upanishads are categorized as sectarian since they present their ideas through a particular god or goddess of a specific Hindu tradition such as Vishnu Shiva Shakti or a combination of these such as the Skanda Upanishad These traditions sought to link their texts as Vedic by asserting their texts to be an Upanishad thereby a Sruti 63 Most of these sectarian Upanishads for example the Rudrahridaya Upanishad and the Mahanarayana Upanishad assert that all the Hindu gods and goddesses are the same all an aspect and manifestation of Brahman the Vedic concept for metaphysical ultimate reality before and after the creation of the Universe 64 65 Principal Upanishads edit Main article Principal Upanishads The Principal Upanishads also known as the Mukhya Upanishads can be grouped into periods Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya the oldest 66 note 4 nbsp A page of Isha Upanishad manuscriptThe Aitareya Kauṣitaki and Taittiriya Upanishads may date to as early as the mid 1st millennium BCE while the remnant date from between roughly the 4th to 1st centuries BCE roughly contemporary with the earliest portions of the Sanskrit epics One chronology assumes that the Aitareya Taittiriya Kausitaki Mundaka Prasna and Katha Upanishads has Buddha s influence and is consequently placed after the 5th century BCE while another proposal questions this assumption and dates it independent of Buddha s date of birth The Kena Mandukya and Isa Upanishads are typically placed after these Principal Upanishads but other scholars date these differently 15 Not much is known about the authors except for those like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka mentioned in the texts 13 A few women discussants such as Gargi and Maitreyi the wife of Yajnavalkayva 68 also feature occasionally Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas shakhas 69 Many Shakhas are said to have existed of which only a few remain The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads being less subtle and more formalized As a result they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader 70 Veda Shakha Upanishad association Veda Recension Shakha Principal UpanishadRig Veda Only one recension Shakala AitareyaSama Veda Only one recension Kauthuma ChandogyaJaiminiya KenaRanayaniyaYajur Veda Krishna Yajur Veda Katha KaṭhaTaittiriya TaittiriyaMaitrayaniHiranyakeshi Kapishthala KathakaShukla Yajur Veda Vajasaneyi Madhyandina Isha and BṛhadaraṇyakaKanva ShakhaAtharva Veda Two recensions Shaunaka Maṇḍukya and MuṇḍakaPaippalada Prashna UpanishadNew Upanishads edit There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads have continued to be discovered and composed 71 In 1908 for example four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts and these were named Bashkala Chhagaleya Arsheya and Saunaka by Friedrich Schrader 72 who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads 73 The text of three of them namely the Chhagaleya Arsheya and Saunaka were incomplete and inconsistent likely poorly maintained or corrupted 73 Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads 74 These new Upanishads number in the hundreds cover diverse range of topics from physiology 75 to renunciation 76 to sectarian theories 74 They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era 1600 CE 74 76 While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre 3rd century CE 17 18 many of these new texts under the title of Upanishads originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE 74 they are not Vedic texts and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads 20 The main Shakta Upanishads for example mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary reflecting the sect of their compilers so that they yield no evidence of their location in Tantric tradition impeding correct interpretation The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non Tantrikas Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism 77 Association with Vedas edit All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas Rigveda Samaveda Yajurveda there are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda Shukla Yajurveda Krishna Yajurveda and Atharvaveda 78 During the modern era the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of the Upanishads 74 These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas many such lists exist and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas In south India the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad note 5 and published in Telugu language became the most common by the 19th century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads 74 79 In north India a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common 74 The Muktika Upanishad s list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as mukhya 80 note 6 21 as Samanya Vedanta 20 as Sannyasa 84 14 as Vaishnava 12 as Shaiva 8 as Shakta and 20 as Yoga 85 The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktika are shown in the table below 78 The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted 82 Veda Upanishad association Veda Number 78 Mukhya 80 Samanya Sannyasa 84 Sakta 86 Vaiṣṇava 87 Saiva 88 Yoga 85 Ṛigveda 10 Aitareya Kausitaki Atmabodha Mudgala Nirvaṇa Tripura Saubhagya lakshmi Bahvṛca Akṣamalika NadabinduSamaveda 16 Chandogya Kena Vajrasuchi Maha Savitri Aruṇi Maitreya Brhat Sannyasa Kuṇḍika Laghu Sannyasa Vasudeva Avyakta Rudrakṣa Jabali Yogachuḍamaṇi DarsanaKṛṣṇa Yajurveda 32 Taittiriya Katha Svetasvatara Maitrayaṇi note 7 Sarvasara Sukarahasya Skanda Garbha Sariraka Ekakṣara Akṣi Brahma Laghu Brhad Avadhuta Kaṭhasruti Sarasvati rahasya Narayaṇa Kali Saṇṭaraṇa Mahanarayaṇa Tripad vibhuti Kaivalya Kalagnirudra Dakṣiṇamurti Rudrahṛdaya Pancabrahma Amṛtabindu Tejobindu Amṛtanada Kṣurika Dhyanabindu Brahmavidya Yogatattva Yogasikha Yogakuṇḍalini VarahaSukla Yajurveda 19 Bṛhadaraṇyaka isa Subala Mantrika Niralamba Paingala Adhyatma Muktika Jabala Bhikṣuka Turiyatitavadhuta Yajnavalkya Saṭyayaniya Tarasara Advayataraka Haṃsa Trisikhi MaṇḍalabrahmaṇaAtharvaveda 31 Muṇḍaka Maṇḍukya Prasna Atma Surya Praṇagnihotra 90 Asrama Narada parivrajaka Paramahamsa Paramahaṃsa parivrajaka Parabrahma Sita Devi Tripuratapini Bhavana Nṛsiṃhatapani Ramarahasya Ramatapaṇi Gopalatapani Kṛṣṇa Hayagriva Dattatreya Garuḍa Atharvasiras 91 Atharvasikha Bṛhajjabala Sarabha Bhasma Gaṇapati Saṇḍilya Pasupata MahavakyaTotal Upaniṣads 108 13 note 6 21 18 8 14 14 20Philosophy editSee also Vedanta nbsp Impact of a drop of water a common analogy for Brahman and the AtmanThe central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual cosmic realities including gods and the human body person 7 postulating Atman and Brahman as the summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe 8 9 10 but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found 10 note 2 The Upanishadic reflect a pluralism of worldviews While some Upanishads have been deemed monistic others including the Katha Upanishad are dualistic 92 The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism in contrast to the non dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school 93 They contain a plurality of ideas 94 note 2 The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been at the foundation of Indian traditions For example the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest known declarations of Ahimsa non violence as an ethical precept 95 96 Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah temperance self restraint Satya truthfulness Dana charity Arjava non hypocrisy Daya compassion and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many later Upanishads 97 98 Similarly the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad which is the oldest Upanishad 99 Development of thought edit While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual 100 The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual Anyone who worships a divinity other than the self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The Chandogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om Let s eat Om Let s drink 100 The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that external rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening must be replaced with inner Agnihotram the ritual of introspection and that not rituals but knowledge should be one s pursuit 101 The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been called upon promised benefits for scared unto and misled into performing sacrifices oblations and pious works 102 Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail by those who encourage it and those who follow it because it makes no difference to man s current life and after life it is like blind men leading the blind it is a mark of conceit and vain knowledge ignorant inertia like that of children a futile useless practice 102 103 The Maitri Upanishad states 104 The performance of all the sacrifices described in the Maitrayana Brahmana is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman to prepare a man for meditation Therefore let such man after he has laid those fires 105 meditate on the Self to become complete and perfect But who is to be meditated on Maitri Upanishad 106 107 The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads On occasions the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning For example the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse sacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically It states that the over lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse 100 In similar fashion Vedic gods such as the Agni Aditya Indra Rudra Visnu Brahma and others become equated in the Upanishads to the supreme immortal and incorporeal Brahman Atman of the Upanishads god becomes synonymous with self and is declared to be everywhere inmost being of each human being and within every living creature 108 109 110 The one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva advitiyam or the one and only and sans a second in the Upanishads 100 Brahman Atman and self realization develops in the Upanishad as the means to moksha liberation freedom in this life or after life 110 111 112 According to Jayatilleke the thinkers of Upanishadic texts can be grouped into two categories 113 One group which includes early Upanishads along with some middle and late Upanishads were composed by metaphysicians who used rational arguments and empirical experience to formulate their speculations and philosophical premises The second group includes many middle and later Upanishads where their authors professed theories based on yoga and personal experiences 113 Yoga philosophy and practice adds Jayatilleke is not entirely absent in the Early Upanishads 113 The development of thought in these Upanishadic theories contrasted with Buddhism since the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed Atman but nevertheless assumes its existence 114 reifying consciousness as an eternal self 115 The Buddhist inquiry is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence states Jayatilleke 114 Atman and Brahman edit Main articles Atman Hinduism and Brahman The Upanishads postulate Atman and Brahman as the summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe 8 9 10 Both have multiple meanings 116 and various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found 10 note 2 Atman has a wide range of lexical meanings including breath spirit and body 117 In the Upanishads it refers to the body but also to the essence of the concrete physical human body 8 an essence a life force consciousness or ultimate reality 117 The Chandogya Upaniṣhad 6 1 16 offers an organic understanding of atman characterizing the self in terms of the life force that animates all living beings while the Bṛhadaraṇyaka Upaniṣhad characterizes atman more in terms of consciousness than as a life giving essence 117 Brahman may refer to a formulation of truth but also to the ultimate and basic essence of the cosmos standing at the summit of the hierarchical scheme or at the bottom as the ultimate foundation of all things 116 Brahman is beyond the reach of human perception and thought 118 Atman likewise has multiple meanings one of them being self the inner essence of a human body person 119 120 note 8 Various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found 10 note 2 Two distinct somewhat divergent themes stand out Older upanishads state thet Atman is part of Brahman but not identical while younger Upanishads state that Brahman Highest Reality Universal Principle Being Consciousness Bliss is identical with Atman 121 122 The Brahmasutra by Badarayana c 100 BCE synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories According to Nakamura the Brahmasutras see Atman and Brahman as both different and not different a point of view which came to be called bhedabheda in later times 123 According to Koller the Brahmasutras state that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance but at the deepest level and in the state of self realization Atman and Brahman are identical non different 121 This ancient debate flowered into various dual non dual theories in Hinduism Reality and Maya edit Main article Maya illusion Two different types of the non dual Brahman Atman are presented in the Upanishads according to Mahadevan The one in which the non dual Brahman Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical changing reality is an appearance Maya 124 The Upanishads describe the universe and the human experience as an interplay of Purusha the eternal unchanging principles consciousness and Prakṛti the temporary changing material world nature 125 The former manifests itself as Atman soul self and the latter as Maya The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of Atman as true knowledge Vidya and the knowledge of Maya as not true knowledge Avidya Nescience lack of awareness lack of true knowledge 126 Hendrick Vroom explains the term Maya in the Upanishads has been translated as illusion but then it does not concern normal illusion Here illusion does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination Maya means that the world is not as it seems the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned 127 According to Wendy Doniger to say that the universe is an illusion maya is not to say that it is unreal it is to say instead that it is not what it seems to be that it is something constantly being made Maya not only deceives people about the things they think they know more basically it limits their knowledge 128 In the Upanishads Maya is the perceived changing reality and it co exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality 129 130 Maya or illusion is an important idea in the Upanishads because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating self knowledge it is Maya which obscures confuses and distracts an individual 131 132 Schools of Vedanta editMain article Vedanta nbsp Adi Shankara expounder of Advaita Vedanta and commentator bhashya on the UpanishadsThe Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras 133 Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads note 2 note 9 The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman and the relation between Brahman and the world 134 The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman 135 According to Advaita Vedanta there is no difference 135 According to Vishishtadvaita the jivatman is a part of Brahman and hence is similar but not identical According to Dvaita all individual souls jivatmans and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka s Dvaitadvaita Vallabha s Suddhadvaita and Chaitanya s Acintya Bhedabheda 136 The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads 137 Advaita Vedanta edit Advaita literally means non duality and it is a monistic system of thought 138 It deals with the non dual nature of Brahman and Atman Advaita is considered the most influential sub school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy 138 Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting statements of the Upanishads 139 Gaudapada s Advaita ideas were further developed by Shankara 8th century CE 140 141 King states that Gaudapada s main work Maṇḍukya Karika is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies 142 King also suggests that there are clear differences between Shankara s writings and the Brahmasutra 140 141 and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with those in the Upanishads 143 Radhakrishnan on the other hand suggests that Shankara s views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra 144 and many ideas of Shankara derive from the Upanishads 145 Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism stating that Hinduism asserts that Atman soul self exists whereas Buddhism asserts that there is no soul no self 146 147 148 The Upanishads contain four sentences the Mahavakyas Great Sayings which were used by Shankara to establish the identity of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth Prajnanam brahma Consciousness is Brahman Aitareya Upanishad 149 Aham brahmasmi I am Brahman Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 150 Tat tvam asi That Thou art Chandogya Upanishad 151 Ayamatma brahma This Atman is Brahman Mandukya Upanishad 152 Vishishtadvaita edit The second school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita which was founded by Ramanuja 1017 1137 CE Ramanuja disagreed with Adi Shankara and the Advaita school 153 Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta 154 Ramanuja frequently cited the Upanishads and stated that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads 155 156 Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita interpretation of the Upanishads is that of qualified monism 157 158 Ramanuja interprets the Upanishadic literature to be teaching a body soul theory states Jeaneane Fowler a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies where the Brahman is the dweller in all things yet also distinct and beyond all things as the soul the inner controller the immortal 156 The Upanishads according to the Vishishtadvaita school teach individual souls to be of the same quality as the Brahman but quantitatively distinct 159 160 161 In the Vishishtadvaita school the Upanishads are interpreted to be teaching about Ishvara Vishnu who is the seat of all auspicious qualities with all of the empirically perceived world as the body of God who dwells in everything 156 The school recommends a devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of a personal god This ultimately leads one to the oneness with abstract Brahman 162 163 164 The Brahman in the Upanishads is a living reality states Fowler and the Atman of all things and all beings in Ramanuja s interpretation 156 Dvaita edit The third school of Vedanta called the Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya 1199 1278 CE 165 It is regarded as a strongly theistic philosophic exposition of the Upanishads 154 Madhvacharya much like Adi Shankara claims for Advaita and Ramanuja claims for Vishishtadvaita states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads 155 According to the Dvaita school states Fowler the Upanishads that speak of the soul as Brahman speak of resemblance and not identity 166 Madhvacharya interprets the Upanishadic teachings of the self becoming one with Brahman as entering into Brahman just like a drop enters an ocean This to the Dvaita school implies duality and dependence where Brahman and Atman are different realities Brahman is a separate independent and supreme reality in the Upanishads Atman only resembles the Brahman in limited inferior dependent manner according to Madhvacharya 166 167 168 Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara s Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools 162 both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation in contrast Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned 169 170 Similarities with Platonic thought editSee also Proto Indo European religion and Ṛta Several scholars have recognised parallels between the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato and that of the Upanishads including their ideas on sources of knowledge concept of justice and path to salvation and Plato s allegory of the cave Platonic psychology with its divisions of reason spirit and appetite also bears resemblance to the three gunas in the Indian philosophy of Samkhya 171 172 note 10 Various mechanisms for such a transmission of knowledge have been conjectured including Pythagoras traveling as far as India Indian philosophers visiting Athens and meeting Socrates Plato encountering the ideas when in exile in Syracuse or intermediated through Persia 171 174 However other scholars such as Arthur Berriedale Keith J Burnet and A R Wadia believe that the two systems developed independently They note that there is no historical evidence of the philosophers of the two schools meeting and point out significant differences in the stage of development orientation and goals of the two philosophical systems Wadia writes that Plato s metaphysics were rooted in this life and his primary aim was to develop an ideal state 172 In contrast Upanishadic focus was the individual the self atman soul self knowledge and the means of an individual s moksha freedom liberation in this life or after life 175 176 Translations editThe Upanishads have been translated into various languages including Persian Italian Urdu French Latin German English Dutch Polish Japanese Spanish and Russian 177 The Mughal Emperor Akbar s reign 1556 1586 saw the first translations of the Upanishads into Persian 178 179 His great grandson Dara Shukoh produced a collection called Sirr i Akbar in 1656 wherein 50 Upanishads were translated from Sanskrit into Persian 180 Anquetil Duperron a French Orientalist received a manuscript of the Oupanekhat and translated the Persian version into French and Latin publishing the Latin translation in two volumes in 1801 1802 as Oupneck hat 180 178 The French translation was never published 181 More recently several translations in French of some Upanishads or the whole of 108 have been published by indianists Louis Renou Kausitaki Svetasvatra Prasna Taittiriya Upanisads 1948 182 Jean Varenne Maha Narayana Upanisad 1960 183 and Sept Upanishads 1981 184 Alyette Degraces Fadh Samnyasa Upanisad Upanisad du renoncement 1989 185 Martine Buttex Les 108 Upanishads full translation 2012 186 The Latin version was the initial introduction of the Upanishadic thought to Western scholars 187 However according to Deussen the Persian translators took great liberties in translating the text and at times changed the meaning 188 The first Sanskrit to English translation of the Aitareya Upanishad was made by Colebrooke 189 in 1805 and the first English translation of the Kena Upanishad was made by Rammohun Roy in 1816 190 191 The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer s English version appeared in 1853 However Max Mueller s 1879 and 1884 editions were the first systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads 177 Other major translations of the Upanishads have been by Robert Ernest Hume 13 Principal Upanishads 192 Paul Deussen 60 Upanishads 193 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 18 Upanishads 194 Patrick Olivelle 32 Upanishads in two books 195 196 and Bhanu Swami 13 Upanishads with commentaries of Vaiṣṇava acaryas Olivelle s translation won the 1998 A K Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation 197 Throughout the 1930s Irish poet W B Yeats worked with the Indian born mendicant teacher Shri Purohit Swami on their own translation of the Upanishads eventually titled The Ten Principal Upanishads and published in 1938 This translation was the final piece of work published by Yeats before his death less than a year later 198 Reception in the West edit nbsp German 19th century philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer impressed by the Upanishads called the texts the production of the highest human wisdom The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work The World as Will and Representation 1819 as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena 1851 199 He found his own philosophy was in accord with the Upanishads which taught that the individual is a manifestation of the one basis of reality For Schopenhauer that fundamentally real underlying unity is what we know in ourselves as will Schopenhauer used to keep a copy of the Latin Oupnekhet by his side and commented In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads It has been the solace of my life it will be the solace of my death 200 Schopenhauer s philosophy influenced many famous people and introduced them to the Upanishads One of them was the Austrian Physicist Erwin Schrodinger who once wrote There is obviously only one alternative he wrote namely the unification of minds or consciousnesses Their multiplicity is only apparent in truth there is only one mind This is the doctrine of the Upanishads 201 Another German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling praised the ideas in the Upanishads 202 as did others 203 In the United States the group known as the Transcendentalists were influenced by the German idealists Americans such as Emerson and Thoreau embraced Schelling s interpretation of Kant s Transcendental idealism as well as his celebration of the romantic exotic mystical aspect of the Upanishads As a result of the influence of these writers the Upanishads gained renown in Western countries 204 Danish physicist Niels Bohr said I go to the Upanishad to ask questions 205 The poet T S Eliot inspired by his reading of the Upanishads based the final portion of his famous poem The Waste Land 1922 upon one of its verses 206 According to Eknath Easwaran the Upanishads are snapshots of towering peaks of consciousness 207 Juan Mascaro a professor at the University of Barcelona and a translator of the Upanishads states that the Upanishads represents for the Hindu approximately what the New Testament represents for the Christian and that the message of the Upanishads can be summarized in the words the kingdom of God is within you 208 Paul Deussen in his review of the Upanishads states that the texts emphasize Brahman Atman as something that can be experienced but not defined 209 This view of the soul and self are similar states Deussen to those found in the dialogues of Plato and elsewhere The Upanishads insisted on oneness of soul excluded all plurality and therefore all proximity in space all succession in time all interdependence as cause and effect and all opposition as subject and object 209 Max Muller in his review of the Upanishads summarizes the lack of systematic philosophy and the central theme in the Upanishads as follows There is not what could be called a philosophical system in these Upanishads They are in the true sense of the word guesses at truth frequently contradicting each other yet all tending in one direction The key note of the old Upanishads is know thyself but with a much deeper meaning than that of the gnῶ8i seayton of the Delphic Oracle The know thyself of the Upanishads means know thy true self that which underlines thine Ego and find it and know it in the highest the eternal Self the One without a second which underlies the whole world Max MullerSee also edit nbsp Hinduism portalThe 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written Bhagavad Gita Hinduism Prasthanatrayi Principal UpanishadsNotes edit a b Central concepts Doniger 1990 p 2 3 The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy they are widely known and quoted by most well educated Hindus and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank and file Hindus Dissanayake 1993 p 39 The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought Patrick Olivelle 2014 The Early Upanisads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195352429 page 3 Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth shruti in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown 2009 World Religions Penguin ISBN 978 1592578467 pages 208 210 These new concepts and practices include rebirth samsara karma meditation renunciation and moksha Olivelle 1998 pp xx xxiv The Upanishadic Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions which share some common concepts and interests While Kuru Panchala at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition Kosala Magadha at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other shramanic traditions Samuel 2010 a b c d e f Oliville In this Introduction I have avoided speaking of the philosophy of the upanishads a common feature of most introductions to their translations These documents were composed over several centuries and in various regions and it is futile to try to discover a single doctrine or philosophy in them 94 Vedanta has been interpreted as the last chapters parts of the Veda and alternatively as object the highest purpose of the Veda These are believed to pre date Gautam Buddha c 500 BCE 67 The Muktika manuscript found in colonial era Calcutta is the usual default but other recensions exist a b Some scholars list ten as principal while most consider twelve or thirteen as principal mukhya Upanishads 81 82 83 Parmeshwaranand classifies Maitrayani with Samaveda most scholars with Krishna Yajurveda 78 89 Atman Atman Oxford Dictionaries Oxford University Press 2012 1 real self of the individual 2 a person s soul John Bowker 2000 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0192800947 See entry for Atman WJ Johnson 2009 A Dictionary of Hinduism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198610250 See entry for Atman self Richard King 1995 Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791425138 page 64 Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe Thus we can see in the Upanishads a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm culminating in the equating of Atman with Brahman Chad Meister 2010 The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195340136 page 63 Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman soul and Brahman Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu David Lorenzen 2004 The Hindu World Editors Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby Routledge ISBN 0 415215277 pages 208 209 Advaita and nirguni movements on the other hand stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul atman with the universal ground of being brahman or to find god within himself Collins 2000 p 195 The breakdown of the Vedic cults is more obscured by retrospective ideology than any other period in Indian history It is commonly assumed that the dominant philosophy now became an idealist monism the identification of atman self and Brahman Spirit and that this mysticism was believed to provide a way to transcend rebirths on the wheel of karma This is far from an accurate picture of what we read in the Upanishads It has become traditional to view the Upanishads through the lens of Shankara s Advaita interpretation This imposes the philosophical revolution of about 700 C E upon a very different situation 1 000 to 1 500 years earlier Shankara picked out monist and idealist themes from a much wider philosophical lineup For instances of Platonic pluralism in the early Upanishads see Randall 173 References edit Upanishad Archived 20 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine Random House Webster s Unabridged Dictionary a b Olivelle 1996 p xxiii sfn error no target CITEREFOlivelle1996 help Flood 1996 p 35 39 A Bhattacharya 2006 Hindu Dharma Introduction to Scriptures and Theology ISBN 978 0595384556 pp 8 14 George M Williams 2003 Handbook of Hindu Mythology Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195332612 p 285 Jan Gonda 1975 Vedic Literature Saṃhitas and Brahmaṇas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447016032 Patrick Olivelle 1998 pp 51 sfn error no target CITEREFPatrick Olivelle1998 help a b Olivelle 1996 p lii sfn error no target CITEREFOlivelle1996 help a b c d Olivelle 1996 p lv sfn error no target CITEREFOlivelle1996 help a b c Mahadevan 1956 p 59 a b c d e f g h Raju 1985 p 35 36 a b c Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231144858 pp 25 29 and Chapter 1 E Easwaran 2007 The Upanishads ISBN 978 1586380212 pages 298 299 a b Mahadevan 1956 p 56 a b c d e f g Patrick Olivelle 2014 The Early Upanishads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195124354 pages 12 14 a b c d King 1995 p 52 a b Bronkhorst Johannes 2007 Greater Magadha Studies in the Culture of Early India pp 258 259 BRILL a b c d e Olivelle 1992 pp 5 8 9 a b c Flood 1996 p 96 Ranade 1926 p 12 a b Varghese 2008 p 101 Ranade 1926 p 205 Max Muller The Upanishads Part 1 Oxford University Press page LXXXVI footnote 1 Clarke John James 1997 Oriental Enlightenment The Encounter Between Asian and Western Thought Abingdon Oxfordshire Routledge p 68 ISBN 978 0 415 13376 0 Archived from the original on 17 May 2021 Retrieved 31 March 2020 Deussen 2010 p 42 Quote Here we have to do with the Upanishads and the world wide historical significance of these documents cannot in our judgement be more clearly indicated than by showing how the deep fundamental conception of Plato and Kant was precisely that which already formed the basis of Upanishad teaching Lawrence Hatab 1982 R Baine Harris ed Neoplatonism and Indian Thought State University of New York Press pp 31 38 ISBN 978 0 87395 546 1 Archived from the original on 17 May 2021 Retrieved 4 November 2016 Paulos Gregorios 2002 Neoplatonism and Indian Philosophy State University of New York Press pp 71 79 190 192 210 214 ISBN 978 0 7914 5274 5 Ben Ami Scharfstein 1998 A Comparative History of World Philosophy From the Upanishads to Kant State University of New York Press pp 62 74 ISBN 978 0 7914 3683 7 Archived from the original on 18 December 2021 Retrieved 4 November 2016 a b Doniger Gold amp Smith 2023 Upanishad Online Etymology Dictionary Jones Constance 2007 Encyclopedia of Hinduism New York Infobase Publishing p 472 ISBN 978 0816073368 Monier Williams 1976 p 201 Max Muller Chandogya Upanishad 1 13 4 The Upanishads Part I Oxford University Press page 22 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 page 85 Robert Hume Chandogya Upanishad 1 13 4 Oxford University Press page 190 Patrick Olivelle 1998 The Early Upaniṣads p 185 ISBN 978 0 19 535242 9 ISSN 0262 7280 Wikidata Q108772045 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help a b S Radhakrishnan The Principal Upanishads George Allen amp Co 1951 pages 22 Reprinted as ISBN 978 8172231248 Vaman Shivaram Apte The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary Archived 15 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine see apauruSeya D Sharma Classical Indian Philosophy A Reader Columbia University Press ISBN pages 196 197 Jan Westerhoff 2009 Nagarjuna s Madhyamaka A Philosophical Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195384963 page 290 Warren Lee Todd 2013 The Ethics of Saṅkara and Santideva A Selfless Response to an Illusory World ISBN 978 1409466819 page 128 Hartmut Scharfe 2002 Handbook of Oriental Studies BRILL Academic ISBN 978 9004125568 pages 13 14 Mahadevan 1956 pp 59 60 Ellison Findly 1999 Women and the Arahant Issue in Early Pali Literature Archived 4 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion Vol 15 No 1 pages 57 76 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 301 304 For example see Kaushitaki Upanishad Robert Hume Translator Oxford University Press page 306 footnote 2 Max Muller The Upanishads p PR72 at Google Books Oxford University Press page LXXII Patrick Olivelle 1998 Unfaithful Transmitters Journal of Indian Philosophy April 1998 Volume 26 Issue 2 pages 173 187 Patrick Olivelle 2014 The Early Upanishads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195124354 pages 583 640 WD Whitney The Upanishads and Their Latest Translation The American Journal of Philology Vol 7 No 1 pages 1 26 F Rusza 2010 The authorlessness of the philosophical sutras Acta Orientalia Volume 63 Number 4 pages 427 442 Mark Juergensmeyer et al 2011 Encyclopedia of Global Religion SAGE Publications ISBN 978 0761927297 page 1122 a b c Olivelle 1998 pp 12 13 Flood Gavin D 2018 An Introduction to Hinduism p 40 Cambridge University Press Olivelle 1998 p xxxvi Patrick Olivelle 2014 The Early Upanishads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195124354 pp 12 13 Upanishad Hindu religious text Britannica www britannica com 23 May 2023 Patrick Olivelle 2014 The Early Upanishads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195124354 p 13 Olivelle 1998 p xxxvii xxxix Olivelle 1998 p xxxviii Olivelle 1998 p xxxix Deussen 1908 pp 35 36 Tripathy 2010 p 84 Sen 1937 p 19 Ayyangar T R Srinivasa 1941 The Samanya Vedanta Upanishads Jain Publishing Reprint 2007 ISBN 978 0895819833 OCLC 27193914 Deussen 1997 pp 556 568 Holdrege 1995 pp 426 Srinivasan Doris 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes BRILL Academic pp 112 120 ISBN 978 9004107588 Archived from the original on 14 May 2016 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Ayyangar TRS 1953 Saiva Upanishads Jain Publishing Co Reprint 2007 pp 194 196 ISBN 978 0895819819 M Fujii On the formation and transmission of the JUB Harvard Oriental Series Opera Minora 2 1997 Olivelle 1998 pp 3 4 Ranade 1926 p 61 Joshi 1994 pp 90 92 Heehs 2002 p 85 Rinehart 2004 p 17 Singh 2002 pp 3 4 a b Schrader amp Adyar Library 1908 p v a b c d e f g Olivelle 1998 pp xxxii xxxiii Paul Deussen 1966 The Philosophy of the Upanishads Dover ISBN 978 0486216164 pages 283 296 for an example see Garbha Upanishad a b Patrick Olivelle 1992 The Samnyasa Upanisads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195070453 pages 1 12 98 100 for an example see Bhikshuka Upanishad Brooks 1990 pp 13 14 a b c d Parmeshwaranand 2000 pp 404 406 Paul Deussen 2010 Reprint Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 2 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814691 pages 566 568 a b Peter Heehs 2002 Indian Religions New York University Press ISBN 978 0814736500 pages 60 88 Robert C Neville 2000 Ultimate Realities SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791447765 page 319 a b Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231144858 pages 28 29 Olivelle 1998 p xxiii a b Patrick Olivelle 1992 The Samnyasa Upanisads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195070453 pages x xi 5 a b The Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar Translator SS Sastri Editor Adyar Library AM Sastri The Sakta Upaniṣads with the commentary of Sri Upaniṣad Brahma Yogin Adyar Library OCLC 7475481 AM Sastri The Vaishnava upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad brahma yogin Adyar Library OCLC 83901261 AM Sastri The Saiva Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad Brahma Yogin Adyar Library OCLC 863321204 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 217 219 Praṇagnihotra is missing in some anthologies included by Paul Deussen 2010 Reprint Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 2 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814691 page 567 Atharvasiras is missing in some anthologies included by Paul Deussen 2010 Reprint Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 2 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814691 page 568 Glucklich 2008 p 70 Fields 2001 p 26 a b Olivelle 1998 p 4 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 114 115 with preface and footnotes Robert Hume Chandogya Upanishad 3 17 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pages 212 213 Henk Bodewitz 1999 Hindu Ahimsa in Violence Denied Editors Jan E M Houben et al Brill ISBN 978 9004113442 page 40 PV Kane Samanya Dharma History of Dharmasastra Vol 2 Part 1 page 5 Chatterjea Tara Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy Oxford Lexington Books p 148 Tull Herman W The Vedic Origins of Karma Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual SUNY Series in Hindu Studies P 28 a b c d Mahadevan 1956 p 57 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 30 42 a b Max Muller 1962 Manduka Upanishad in The Upanishads Part II Oxford University Press Reprinted as ISBN 978 0486209937 pages 30 33 Eduard Roer Mundaka Upanishad permanent dead link Bibliotheca Indica Vol XV No 41 and 50 Asiatic Society of Bengal pages 153 154 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 331 333 laid those fires is a phrase in Vedic literature that implies yajna and related ancient religious rituals see Maitri Upanishad Sanskrit Text with English Translation permanent dead link EB Cowell Translator Cambridge University Bibliotheca Indica First Prapathaka Max Muller The Upanishads Part 2 Maitrayana Brahmana Upanishad Oxford University Press pages 287 288 Hume Robert Ernest 1921 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pp 412 414 Hume Robert Ernest 1921 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pp 428 429 Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 350 351 a b Paul Deussen The Philosophy of Upanishads at Google Books University of Kiel T amp T Clark pages 342 355 396 412 RC Mishra 2013 Moksha and the Hindu Worldview Psychology amp Developing Societies Vol 25 No 1 pages 21 42 Mark B Woodhouse 1978 Consciousness and Brahman Atman Archived 4 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Monist Vol 61 No 1 Conceptions of the Self East amp West January 1978 pages 109 124 a b c Jayatilleke 1963 p 32 a b Jayatilleke 1963 pp 39 Mackenzie 2012 a b Olivelle 1998 p lvi a b c Black amp unknown sfn error no target CITEREFBlackunknown help Brodd 2009 p 43 47 Olivelle 1998 p lv Lochtefeld 2002 p 122 sfn error no target CITEREFLochtefeld2002 help a b John Koller 2012 Shankara in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Editors Chad Meister Paul Copan Routledge ISBN 978 0415782944 pages 99 102 Paul Deussen The Philosophy of the Upanishads at Google Books Dover Publications pages 86 111 182 212 Nakamura 1990 A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy p 500 Motilall Banarsidas Mahadevan 1956 pp 62 63 Paul Deussen The Philosophy of the Upanishads p 161 at Google Books pages 161 240 254 Ben Ami Scharfstein 1998 A Comparative History of World Philosophy From the Upanishads to Kant State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791436844 page 376 H M Vroom 1996 No Other Gods Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0802840974 page 57 Wendy Doniger O Flaherty 1986 Dreams Illusion and Other Realities University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226618555 page 119 Archibald Edward Gough 2001 The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics Routledge ISBN 978 0415245227 pages 47 48 Teun Goudriaan 2008 Maya Divine And Human Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120823891 pages 1 17 KN Aiyar Translator 1914 Sarvasara Upanishad in Thirty Minor Upanishads page 17 OCLC 6347863 Adi Shankara Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad at Google Books SS Sastri Translator Harvard University Archives pages 191 198 Radhakrishnan 1956 p 272 Raju 1992 p 176 177 a b Raju 1992 p 177 Ranade 1926 pp 179 182 Mahadevan 1956 p 63 a b Encyclopaedia Britannica Radhakrishnan 1956 p 273 a b King 1999 p 221 a b Nakamura 2004 p 31 King 1999 p 219 Collins 2000 p 195 Radhakrishnan 1956 p 284 John Koller 2012 Shankara in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Editors Chad Meister Paul Copan Routledge ISBN 978 0415782944 pages 99 108 Edward Roer translator Shankara s Introduction p 3 at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 3 4 Quote Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist There are four sects among the followers of Buddha 1 Madhyamicas who maintain all is void 2 Yogacharas who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void 3 Sautranticas who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations 4 Vaibhashikas who agree with later Sautranticas except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect Edward Roer Translator Shankara s Introduction p 3 at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at page 3 OCLC 19373677 KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 8120806191 pages 246 249 from note 385 onwards Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0791422175 page 64 Quote Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence Edward Roer Translator Shankara s Introduction p 2 at Google Books pages 2 4Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Philosophy Now John C Plott et al 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120801585 page 63 Quote The Buddhist schools reject any Atman concept As we have already observed this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism Panikkar 2001 p 669 Panikkar 2001 pp 725 727 Panikkar 2001 pp 747 750 Panikkar 2001 pp 697 701 Klostermaier 2007 pp 361 363 a b Chari 1956 p 305 a b Stafford Betty 2010 Dvaita Advaita and Visiṣṭadvaita Contrasting Views of Mokṣa Asian Philosophy Vol 20 No 2 pages 215 224 doi 10 1080 09552367 2010 484955 a b c d Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press pp 298 299 320 321 331 with notes ISBN 978 1 898723 93 6 Archived from the original on 22 January 2017 Retrieved 3 November 2016 William M Indich 1995 Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta Motilal Banarsidass pp 1 2 97 102 ISBN 978 81 208 1251 2 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 3 November 2016 Bruce M Sullivan 2001 The A to Z of Hinduism Rowman amp Littlefield p 239 ISBN 978 0 8108 4070 6 Archived from the original on 15 April 2021 Retrieved 3 November 2016 Stafford Betty 2010 Dvaita Advaita and Visiṣṭadvaita Contrasting Views of Mokṣa Asian Philosophy An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East Volume 20 Issue 2 pages 215 224 Edward Craig 2000 Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415223645 pages 517 518 Sharma Chandradhar 1994 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass pp 373 374 ISBN 81 208 0365 5 a b J A B van Buitenen 2008 Ramanuja Hindu theologian and Philosopher Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica Jon Paul Sydnor 2012 Ramanuja and Schleiermacher Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology Casemate pp 20 22 with footnote 32 ISBN 978 0227680247 Archived from the original on 3 January 2017 Retrieved 3 November 2016 Joseph P Schultz 1981 Judaism and the Gentile Faiths Comparative Studies in Religion Fairleigh Dickinson University Press pp 81 84 ISBN 978 0 8386 1707 6 Archived from the original on 3 January 2017 Retrieved 3 November 2016 Raghavendrachar 1956 p 322 a b Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press pp 356 357 ISBN 978 1 898723 93 6 Archived from the original on 22 January 2017 Retrieved 3 November 2016 Stoker Valerie 2011 Madhva 1238 1317 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 12 October 2016 Retrieved 2 November 2016 Bryant Edwin 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma Oxford University Press pp 358 359 ISBN 978 0195148923 Sharma Chandradhar 1994 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass pp 374 375 ISBN 81 208 0365 5 Bryant Edwin 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma Oxford University Press pp 361 362 ISBN 978 0195148923 a b Chousalkar 1986 pp 130 134 a b Wadia 1956 p 64 65 Collins 2000 pp 197 198 Urwick 1920 Keith 2007 pp 602 603 RC Mishra 2013 Moksha and the Hindu Worldview Psychology amp Developing Societies Vol 25 No 1 pages 21 42 Chousalkar Ashok 1986 Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma pages 130 134 a b Sharma 1985 p 20 a b Muller 1900 p lvii Muller 1899 p 204 a b Deussen 1997 pp 558 59 Muller 1900 p lviii Louis Renou 1948 Adrien Maisonneuve ed Kausitaki Svetasvatra Prasna Taittiriya Upanisads in French Paris p 268 ISBN 978 2 7200 0972 3 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Jean Varenne 1960 Editions de Boccard ed Maha Narayana Upanisad 2 vol in French Paris pp 155 and 144 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Reprint in 1986 Jean Varenne 1981 Seuil ed Sept Upanishads in French Paris p 227 ISBN 9782020058728 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Alyette Degraces Fadh 1989 Fayard ed Samnyasa Upanisad Upanisad du renoncement in French Paris p 461 ISBN 9782213018782 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Martine Buttex 2012 Editions Dervy ed Les 108 Upanishads in French Paris p 1400 ISBN 978 2 84454 949 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Deussen 1997 pp 558 559 Deussen 1997 pp 915 916 See Henry Thomas Colebrooke 1858 Essays on the religion and philosophy of the Hindus London Williams and Norgate In this volume see chapter 1 pp 1 69 On the Vedas or Sacred Writings of the Hindus reprinted from Colebrooke s Asiatic Researches Calcutta 1805 Vol 8 pp 369 476 A translation of the Aitareya Upanishad appears in pages 26 30 of this chapter Zastoupil L 2010 Rammohun Roy and the Making of Victorian Britain By Lynn Zastoupil Springer ISBN 9780230111493 Archived from the original on 2 October 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2014 The Upanishads Part 1 by Max Muller Archived from the original on 29 July 2014 Retrieved 2 June 2014 Hume Robert Ernest 1921 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press Deussen 1997 Radhakrishnan Sarvapalli 1953 The Principal Upanishads New Delhi HarperCollins Publishers 1994 Reprint ISBN 81 7223 124 5 Olivelle 1992 Olivelle 1998 AAS SAC A K Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation Association of Asian Studies 25 June 2002 Archived from the original on 25 June 2002 Retrieved 27 November 2018 William Butler Yeats papers library udel edu University of Delaware Archived from the original on 2 November 2020 Retrieved 30 October 2020 Schopenhauer amp Payne 2000 p 395 Schopenhauer amp Payne 2000 p 397 Schrodinger Erwin Penrose Roger 2012 Science and Religion What is Life Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 140 152 doi 10 1017 cbo9781107295629 016 ISBN 978 1 107 29562 9 archived from the original on 2 October 2022 retrieved 10 May 2021 Herman Wayne Tull 1989 The Vedic Origins of Karma Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual State University of New York Press pp 14 15 ISBN 978 0 7914 0094 4 Archived from the original on 8 June 2020 Retrieved 4 November 2016 Klaus G Witz 1998 The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads An Introduction Motilal Banarsidass pp 35 44 ISBN 978 81 208 1573 5 Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 Retrieved 4 November 2016 Versluis 1993 pp 69 76 95 106 110 Capra Fritjof 2010 The Tao of physics an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism Shambhala Publications ISBN 978 1 59030 835 6 OCLC 664164771 Eliot 1963 Easwaran 2007 p 9 Juan Mascaro The Upanishads Penguin Classics ISBN 978 0140441635 page 7 146 cover a b Paul Deussen The Philosophy of the Upanishads University of Kiel T amp T Clark pages 150 179Sources editBlack Brian The Upaniṣads Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Brodd Jeffrey 2009 World Religions A Voyage of Discovery Saint Mary s Press ISBN 978 0884899976 Brooks Douglas Renfrew 1990 The Secret of the Three Cities An Introduction to Hindu Shakta Tantrism The University of Chicago Press Brown Rev George William 1922 Missionary review of the world vol 45 Funk amp Wagnalls archived from the original on 2 October 2022 retrieved 22 November 2020 Chari P N Srinivasa 1956 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ed History of Philosophy Eastern and Western Chousalkar Ashok 1986 Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma Mittal Publications archived from the original on 2 October 2022 retrieved 22 November 2020 Collins Randall 2000 The Sociology of Philosophies A Global Theory of Intellectual Change Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 00187 7 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retrieved 28 December 2015 Joshi Kireet 1994 The Veda and Indian culture an introductory essay Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0889 8 archived from the original on 24 January 2021 retrieved 22 November 2020 Keith Arthur Berriedale 2007 The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 0644 3 Archived from the original on 30 June 2020 Retrieved 15 November 2015 King Richard 1999 Indian philosophy an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought Edinburgh University Press ISBN 0 87840 756 1 King Richard 1995 Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism the Mahayana context of the Gauḍapadiya karika Gauḍapada State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2513 8 Klostermaier Klaus K 2007 A survey of Hinduism SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 585 04507 8 Lanman Charles R 1897 The Outlook vol 56 Outlook Co archived from the original on 2 October 2022 retrieved 22 November 2020 Lal Mohan 1992 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature sasay to zorgot Sahitya 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Sarvepalli 1956 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ed History of Philosophy Eastern and Western George Allen amp Unwin Ltd Raghavendrachar Vidvan H N 1956 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ed History of Philosophy Eastern and Western Raju P T 1985 Structural Depths of Indian Thought State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887061394 Ranade R D 1926 A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Rinehart Robin 2004 Robin Rinehart ed Contemporary Hinduism ritual culture and practice ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 57607 905 8 Schopenhauer Arthur Payne E F J 2000 E F J Payne ed Parerga and paralipomena short philosophical essays vol 2 of Parerga and Paralipomena E F J Payne Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 924221 4 archived from the original on 3 April 2021 retrieved 22 November 2020 Schrodinger Erwin 1992 What is life Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 42708 1 Archived from the original on 2 October 2022 Retrieved 22 November 2020 Schrader Friedrich Otto Adyar Library 1908 A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the Adyar Library Oriental Pub Co Sen Sris Chandra 1937 Vedic literature and Upanishads The Mystic Philosophy of the Upanishads General Printers amp Publishers Sharma B N Krishnamurti 2000 A history of the Dvaita school of Vedanta and its literature from the earliest beginnings to our own times Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 1575 9 Sharma Shubhra 1985 Life in the Upanishads Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 202 4 Singh N K 2002 Encyclopaedia of Hinduism Anmol Publications PVT LTD ISBN 978 81 7488 168 7 Slater Thomas Ebenezer 1897 Studies in the Upanishads ATLA monograph preservation program Christian Literature Society for India Smith Huston 1995 The Illustrated World s Religions A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions New York Labyrinth Publishing ISBN 0 06 067453 9 Tripathy Preeti 2010 Indian religions tradition history and culture Axis Publications ISBN 978 93 80376 17 2 archived from the original on 30 June 2020 retrieved 15 November 2015 Urwick Edward Johns 1920 The message of Plato a re interpretation of the Republic Methuen amp Co Ltd ISBN 9781136231162 archived from the original on 27 October 2013 retrieved 22 November 2020 Varghese Alexander P 2008 India History Religion Vision And Contribution To The World vol 1 Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors ISBN 978 81 269 0903 2 archived from the original on 30 April 2017 retrieved 22 November 2020 Versluis Arthur 1993 American transcendentalism and Asian religions Oxford University Press US ISBN 978 0 19 507658 5 archived from the original on 2 October 2022 retrieved 22 November 2020 Wadia A R 1956 Socrates Plato and Aristotle in Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli ed History of Philosophy Eastern and Western vol II George Allen amp Unwin Ltd Raju P T 1992 The Philosophical Traditions of India Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private LimitedFurther reading editEdgerton Franklin 1965 The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy Cambridge Harvard University Press Embree Ainslie T 1966 The Hindu Tradition New York Random House ISBN 0 394 71702 3 Hume Robert Ernest 1921 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press Johnston Charles 1898 From the Upanishads Kshetra Books Reprinted in 2014 ISBN 9781495946530 Mascaro Juan 1965 The Upanishads London England Penguin Books Ltd Muller Max translator The Upaniṣads Part I New York Dover Publications 1879 Reprinted in 1962 ISBN 0 486 20992 X Muller Max translator The Upaniṣads Part II New York Dover Publications 1884 Reprinted in 1962 ISBN 0 486 20993 8 Radhakrishnan Sarvapalli 1953 The Principal Upanishads New Delhi HarperCollins Publishers India Reprinted in 1994 ISBN 81 7223 124 5 External links edit nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Upanishads nbsp Wikisource has original text related to this article Upanishads nbsp Sanskrit Wikisource has original text related to this article उपन षत The Upanishads translated into English by Swami Paramananda Complete set of 108 Upanishads Manuscripts with the commentary of Brahma Yogin Adyar Library Upanishads Sanskrit documents in various formats The Upaniṣads article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Theory of Soul in the Upanishads T W Rhys Davids 1899 Spinozistic Substance and Upanishadic Self A Comparative Study M S Modak 1931 W B Yeats and the Upanishads A Davenport 1952 The Concept of Self in the Upanishads An Alternative Interpretation D C Mathur 1972 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Upanishads amp oldid 1186362083, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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