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Indian philosophy

January 06, 2023

Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.[2][3][4]

Indian philosophical traditions
Yajnavalkya (c. 8th century BCE), an important Vedic sage associated with the thought of the early Upanishads.[1]
Jain philosophy was propagated by Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE) and Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE).
Buddhist philosophy was founded by Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE).
Sikh philosophy was developed by Guru Gobind Singh (c. 1666–1708 CE).

There are six major schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and five major heterodox (sramanic) schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.[5][6]

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era.[citation needed] Competition and integration between the various schools was intense, despite later claims of Hindu unity. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not.

Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.[7][8][9]

Common themes

Indian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma, karma, samsara, dukkha, renunciation, meditation, with almost all of them focusing on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual from dukkha and samsara through diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana).[10] They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that disagreed with each other. Their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures.[11]

Orthodox schools

Main articles: Hindu philosophy, Hinduism, Vedas, and Upanishads
 
Hindu philosophy has a diversity of traditions and numerous saints and scholars, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta school.

Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (Astika) schools (darshanas), the "Six Philosophies" (ṣaḍ-darśana), all of which accept the testimony of the Vedas.

These "Six Philosophies" (ṣaḍ-darśana) are:

  • Sāṃkhya, a philosophical tradition which regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruṣa (the perceiving consciousness) and prakṛti (perceived reality, including mind, perception, kleshas, and matter) and which describes a soteriology based on this duality, in which purush is discerned and disentangled from the impurities of prakriti. It has included atheistic authors as well as some theistic thinkers, and forms the basis of much of subsequent Indian philosophy.
  • Yoga, a school similar to Sāṃkhya (or perhaps even a branch of it) which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice.
  • Nyāya, a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology. It accepts six kinds of pramanas (epistemic warrants): (1) perception, (2) inference, (3) comparison and analogy, (4) postulation, derivation from circumstances, (5) non-perception, negative/cognitive proof and (6) word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. Nyāya defends a form of direct realism and a theory of substances (dravya).
  • Vaiśeṣika, closely related to the Nyāya school, this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike Nyāya, they only accept two pramanas: perception and inference.
  • Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā, a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas, philology and the interpretation of Vedic ritual.
  • Vedānta (also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā), focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly the soteriological and metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman.

Sometimes these groups are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mīmāṃsā-Vedānta.

Each tradition included different currents and sub-schools, for example, Vedānta was divided among the sub-schools of Advaita (non-dualism), Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable oneness and difference).

Besides these schools Mādhava Vidyāraṇya also includes the following of the aforementioned theistic philosophies based on the Agamas and Tantras:[5]

The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools. These systems, accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy; besides these, schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are heterodox (nastika) systems such as Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and Charvaka.[12][13][14] This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit. According to Andrew Nicholson, there have been various heresiological translations of Āstika and Nāstika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies, but quite many are unsophisticated and flawed.[4]

Heterodox (Śramaṇic schools)

Main article: Śramaṇa

Several Śramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy.[16] The Śramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating.[17] Notable philosophies that arose from Śramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Charvaka, Ajñana and Ājīvika.[18]

Ajñana philosophy

Main article: Ajñana

Ajñana was one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.

Jain philosophy

Main articles: Jain philosophy and Jainism
 
Rishabhanatha, believed to have lived over a million years ago, is considered the founder of Jain religion in the present time cycle.

Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely.[19] Jainism was revived and re-established after Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara, synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago.[20] According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.[21]

Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.[22] Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world (Saṃsāra) is full of hiṃsā (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya, that are Samyak Darshan (right perception), Samyak Gnana (right knowledge) and Samyak Chàritra (right conduct) which are the key requisites to attain liberation.[23]

Buddhist philosophy

Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Early Buddhist schools
 
The Buddhist philosophy is based on the teachings of the Buddha.

Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, or "awakened one". Buddhism is founded on elements of the Śramaṇa movement, which flowered in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE, but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other Sramana movements. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts, states Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences.[24] Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (soul, self) at the foundation of Hindu philosophies.[25][26][27]

Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma – a cause-and-effect relationship, samsara – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, dharma – ideas about ethics, duties and values, impermanence of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation (nirvana or moksha).[28][29] A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul (atman) in favour of anatta (non-Self).[30] After the death of the Buddha, several competing philosophical systems termed Abhidharma began to emerge as ways to systematize Buddhist philosophy.[31] The Mahayana movement also arose (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and included new ideas and scriptures.

The main traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India (from 300 BCE to 1000 CE) were:[31]: xxiv 

 
A Japanese depiction of Nagarjuna, one of the greatest Buddhist philosophers and founder of Madhyamaka
  • The Mahāsāṃghika ("Great Community") tradition (which included numerous sub-schools, all are now extinct)
  • The schools of the Sthavira ("Elders") tradition:
    • Vaibhāṣika ("Commentators") also known as the Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāśika, was an Abhidharma tradition that composed the "Great Commentary" (Mahāvibhāṣa). They were known for their defense of the doctrine of "sarvāstitva" (all exists), which is a form of eternalism regarding the philosophy of time. They also supported direct realism and a theory of substances (svabhāva).
    • Sautrāntika ("Those who uphold the sutras"), a tradition which did not see the Abhidharma as authoritative, and instead focused on the Buddhist sutras. They disagreed with the Vaibhāṣika on several key points, including their eternalistic theory of time.
    • Pudgalavāda ("Personalists"), which were known for their controversial theory of the "person" (pudgala), now extinct.
    • Vibhajyavāda ("The Analysts"), a widespread tradition which reached Kashmir, South India and Sri Lanka. A part of this school has survived into the modern era as the Theravada tradition. Their orthodox positions can be found in the Kathavatthu. They rejected the views of the Pudgalavāda and of the Vaibhāṣika among others.
  • The schools of the Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") tradition (which continue to influence Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism)
    • Madhyamaka ("Middle way" or "Centrism") founded by Nagarjuna. Also known as Śūnyavāda (the emptiness doctrine) and Niḥsvabhāvavāda (the no svabhāva doctrine), this tradition focuses on the idea that all phenomena are empty of any essence or substance (svabhāva).
    • Yogācāra ("Yoga praxis"), an idealistic school which held that only consciousness exists, and thus was also known as Vijñānavāda (the doctrine of consciousness).
    • Some scholars see the Tathāgatagarbha (or "Buddha womb/source") texts as constituting a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna.[32]
    • Vajrayāna (also known as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism) is often placed in a separate category due to its unique tantric elements.
  • The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition is an influential school of thought which focused on epistemology, or pramāṇa ('means of knowledge').

Many of these philosophies were brought to other regions, like Central Asia and China. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions.[33][34]

 
Monastic life has been a part of all Indian philosophy traditions. Mendicant caves of extinct Ājīvikas in Bihar.[35]

Ājīvika philosophy

Main article: Ājīvika

The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism.[36] Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.[37]

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[38] The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.[38][39] Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.[40] Ājīvikas were atheists[41] and rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.[42][43]

Charvaka philosophy

Main article: Charvaka

Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक; IAST: Cārvāka), also known as Lokāyata, is an ancient school of Indian materialism.[44] Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism and supernaturalism.[45][46][47][48][49] It was a popular belief system in ancient India.[note 1]

The etymology of Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) is uncertain. Bhattacharya quotes the grammarian Hemacandra, to the effect that the word cārvāka is derived from the root carv, 'to chew' : "A Cārvāka chews the self (carvatyātmānaṃ cārvākaḥ). Hemacandra refers to his own grammatical work, Uṇādisūtra 37, which runs as follows: mavāka-śyāmāka-vārtāka-jyontāka-gūvāka-bhadrākādayaḥ. Each of these words ends with the āka suffix and is formed irregularly". This may also allude to the philosophy's hedonistic precepts of "eat, drink, and be merry".

Brihaspati is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy, although some scholars dispute this.[51][52] During the Hindu reformation period in the first millennium BCE, when Buddhism was established by Gautama Buddha and Jainism was re-organized by Parshvanatha, the Charvaka philosophy was well documented and opposed by both religions.[53] Much of the primary literature of Charvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras, were lost either due to waning popularity or other unknown reasons.[54] Its teachings have been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras, and the Indian epic poetry as well as in the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and from Jain literature.[54][55] However, there is text that may belong to the Charvaka tradition, written by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa, known as the Tattvôpaplava-siṁha, that provides information about this school, albeit unorthodox.[56][57]

One of the widely studied principles of Charvaka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.[58][59] In other words, the Charvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[60][61]

Comparison of Indian philosophies

The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy and its six schools of Hindu philosophy. The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul,[62] from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.[63]

Comparison of ancient Indian philosophies
Ājīvika Early Buddhism Charvaka Jainism Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy
(Non-Śramaṇic)
Karma Denies[40][64] Affirms[63] Denies[63] Affirms[63] Affirms
Samsara, Rebirth Affirms Affirms[65] Denies[66] Affirms[63] Some school affirm, some not[67]
Ascetic life Affirms Affirms Denies[63] Affirms Affirms as Sannyasa[68]
Rituals, Bhakti Affirms Affirms, optional[69]
(Pali: Bhatti)		 Denies Affirms, optional[70] Theistic school: Affirms, optional[71]
Others: Deny[72][73]
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Affirms Affirms,
Unclear on meat as food[74]		 Strongest proponent
of non-violence;
Vegetarianism to avoid
violence against animals[75]		 Affirms as highest virtue,
but Just War affirmed
Vegetarianism encouraged, but
choice left to the Hindu[76][77]
Free will Denies[39] Affirms[78] Affirms Affirms Affirms[79]
Maya Affirms[80] Affirms
(prapañca)[81]		 Denies Affirms Affirms[82][83]
Atman (Soul, Self) Affirms Denies[62] Denies[84] Affirms[85]: 119  Affirms[86]
Creator god Denies Denies Denies Denies Theistic schools: Affirm[87]
Others: Deny[88][89]
Epistemology
(Pramana)		 Pratyakṣa,
Anumāṇa,
Śabda		 Pratyakṣa,
Anumāṇa[90][91]		 Pratyakṣa[92] Pratyakṣa,
Anumāṇa,
Śabda[90]		 Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six):[90][93]
Pratyakṣa (perception),
Anumāṇa (inference),
Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy),
Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation),
Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof),
Śabda (Reliable testimony)
Epistemic authority Denies: Vedas Affirms: Buddha text[94]
Denies: Vedas		 Denies: Vedas Affirms: Jain Agamas
Denies: Vedas		 Affirm: Vedas and Upanishads,[note 2]
Affirm: other texts[94][96]
Salvation
(Soteriology)		 Samsdrasuddhi[97] Nirvana
(realize Śūnyatā)[98]		 Siddha,[99]

Nirvana

Moksha, Nirvana, Kaivalya
Advaita, Yoga, others: Jivanmukti[100]
Dvaita, theistic: Videhamukti
Metaphysics
(Ultimate Reality)		 Śūnyatā[101][102] Anekāntavāda[103]
 Brahman[104][105]

Political philosophy

The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy.

The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced the later independence and Civil Rights movements, especially those led by Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar's Progressive Utilization Theory[106] is also a major socio-economic and political philosophy.[107]

Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh.

Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with a human being at center stage. This approach made this concept different from Socialism and Capitalism. Integral Humanism was adopted as Jan Sangh's political doctrine and its new openness to other opposition forces made it possible for the Hindu nationalist movement to have an alliance in the early 1970s with the prominent Gandhian Sarvodaya movement going on under the leadership of J. P. Narayan. This was considered to be the first major public breakthrough for the Hindu nationalist movement.

Influence

In appreciation of complexity of the Indian philosophy, T. S. Eliot wrote that the great philosophers of India "make most of the great European philosophers look like schoolboys".[108][109] Arthur Schopenhauer used Indian philosophy to improve upon Kantian thought. In the preface to his book The World As Will And Representation, Schopenhauer writes that one who "has also received and assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom, then he is the best of all prepared to hear what I have to say to him."[110] The 19th-century American philosophical movement Transcendentalism was also influenced by Indian thought.[111][112]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."[50]
  2. ^ Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[95] Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.

References

Citations

  1. ^ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A comparative history of world philosophy: from the Upanishads to Kant, Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 9-11
  2. ^ John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 259
  3. ^ Wendy Doniger (2014). On Hinduism. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6.
  4. ^ a b Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, Chapter 9
  5. ^ a b Cowell and Gough, p. xii.
  6. ^ Nicholson, pp. 158-162.
  7. ^ Roy W. Perrett (2001). Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8153-3608-2.
  8. ^ Stephen H Phillips (2013). Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-51898-0.
  9. ^ Arvind Sharma (1982). The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. ISBN 9789993624318.;
    Purusottama Bilimoria; Joseph Prabhu; Renuka M. Sharma (2007). Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3.
  10. ^ Kathleen Kuiper (2010). The Culture of India. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 174–178. ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2.
  11. ^ Sue Hamilton (2001). Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–17, 136–140. ISBN 978-0-19-157942-4.
  12. ^ Roy Perrett (2000), Indian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, page 88
  13. ^ Sushil Mittal & Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772273, pages 729-730
  14. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 82, 224–49.
  15. ^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy249. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
  16. ^ Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195134834, pages 237-240, 247-249
  17. ^ Padmanabh S Jaini (2001), Collected papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817760, pages 57-77
  18. ^ AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812048, pages 94-103
  19. ^ "dravya – Jainism". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  20. ^ Patel, Haresh (March 2009). Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint]. ISBN 9781606938461.
  21. ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31.
  22. ^ Jay L. Garfield; William Edelglass (2011). The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-19-532899-8.
  23. ^ Das, Ravish Kumar (2018). Jainism and Jain Architecture. Lulu.com. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-387-50342-1.[self-published source]
  24. ^ Paul Williams (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Routledge. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-1-134-25057-8.
  25. ^ Robert Neville (2004). Jeremiah Hackett (ed.). Philosophy of Religion for a New Century: Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long. Jerald Wallulis. Springer. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-4020-2073-5., Quote: "[Buddhism's ontological hypotheses] that nothing in reality has its own-being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada. The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God, Brahman, the Dao, or any transcendent creative source or principle."
  26. ^ Anatta Buddhism, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
  27. ^ [a] Christmas Humphreys (2012). Exploring Buddhism. Routledge. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-1-136-22877-3.
    [b] Gombrich (2006), page 47, Quote: "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon."
  28. ^ Brian K. Smith (1998). Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-208-1532-2.
  29. ^ Peter J. Claus; Sarah Diamond; Margaret Ann Mills (2003). South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Routledge. pp. 322–323. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5.
  30. ^ [a] Anatta, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";
    [b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
    [c] John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism";
    [d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
    [e] David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pages 65-74
  31. ^ a b Westerhoff, Jan. 2018. The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  32. ^ Kiyota, M. (1985). Tathāgatagarbha Thought: A Basis of Buddhist Devotionalism in East Asia. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 207–231.
  33. ^ Dreyfus, Georges B. J. Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations (Suny Series in Buddhist Studies), 1997, p. 22.
  34. ^ JeeLoo Liu, Tian-tai Metaphysics vs. Hua-yan Metaphysics A Comparative Study
  35. ^ Pia Brancaccio (2014). Cave Architecture of India, in Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9848-1. ISBN 978-94-007-3934-5.
  36. ^ Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, ISBN 978-1845116255, page 199
  37. ^ Basham 1951, pp. 145–146.
  38. ^ a b Basham 1951, Chapter 1.
  39. ^ a b James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 22
  40. ^ a b Ajivikas World Religions Project, University of Cumbria, United Kingdom
  41. ^ Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199644650, page 654
  42. ^ Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, ISBN 978-1899579549, pages 207-208
  43. ^ Basham 1951, pp. 240–261, 270–273.
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Sources

Further reading

External links

 
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  • Surendranath Dasgupta. A History of Indian Philosophy | HTML (vol. 1) | (vol. 2) | (vol. 3) | (vol. 4) | (vol. 5), ebook at Wisdomlib.org
  • Surendranath Dasgupta. Indian Idealism at archive.org
  • A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of University College, London: London Philosophy Study Guide – Indian Philosophy
  • Articles at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • Indian Psychology Institute The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology
  • The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive.org
  • Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive.org
  • Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive.org
  • History of Philosophy – Eastern and Western Edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive.org
  • (Jiva Institute)

January 06, 2023
indian, philosophy, refers, philosophical, traditions, indian, subcontinent, traditional, hindu, classification, divides, āstika, nāstika, schools, philosophy, depending, three, alternate, criteria, whether, believes, vedas, valid, source, knowledge, whether, . Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent A traditional Hindu classification divides astika and nastika schools of philosophy depending on one of three alternate criteria whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas 2 3 4 Indian philosophical traditionsYajnavalkya c 8th century BCE an important Vedic sage associated with the thought of the early Upanishads 1 Jain philosophy was propagated by Tirthankaras notably Parshvanatha c 872 c 772 BCE and Mahavira c 549 477 BCE Buddhist philosophy was founded by Gautama Buddha c 563 483 BCE Sikh philosophy was developed by Guru Gobind Singh c 1666 1708 CE There are six major schools of Vedic philosophy Nyaya Vaisheshika Samkhya Yoga Mimaṃsa and Vedanta and five major heterodox sramanic schools Jain Buddhist Ajivika Ajnana and Charvaka However there are other methods of classification Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Saiva and Rasesvara traditions 5 6 The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era citation needed Competition and integration between the various schools was intense despite later claims of Hindu unity Some schools like Jainism Buddhism Yoga Saiva and Vedanta survived but others like Ajnana Charvaka and Ajivika did not Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology metaphysics Brahman Atman Sunyata Anatta reliable means of knowledge epistemology Pramanas value system axiology and other topics 7 8 9 Contents 1 Common themes 2 Orthodox schools 3 Heterodox Sramaṇic schools 3 1 Ajnana philosophy 3 2 Jain philosophy 3 3 Buddhist philosophy 3 4 Ajivika philosophy 3 5 Charvaka philosophy 4 Comparison of Indian philosophies 5 Political philosophy 6 Influence 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksCommon themes EditIndian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma karma samsara dukkha renunciation meditation with almost all of them focusing on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual from dukkha and samsara through diverse range of spiritual practices moksha nirvana 10 They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation resulting in numerous schools that disagreed with each other Their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures 11 Orthodox schools EditMain articles Hindu philosophy Hinduism Vedas and Upanishads Hindu philosophy has a diversity of traditions and numerous saints and scholars such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta school Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox Astika schools darshanas the Six Philosophies ṣaḍ darsana all of which accept the testimony of the Vedas These Six Philosophies ṣaḍ darsana are Saṃkhya a philosophical tradition which regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities puruṣa the perceiving consciousness and prakṛti perceived reality including mind perception kleshas and matter and which describes a soteriology based on this duality in which purush is discerned and disentangled from the impurities of prakriti It has included atheistic authors as well as some theistic thinkers and forms the basis of much of subsequent Indian philosophy Yoga a school similar to Saṃkhya or perhaps even a branch of it which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice Nyaya a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology It accepts six kinds of pramanas epistemic warrants 1 perception 2 inference 3 comparison and analogy 4 postulation derivation from circumstances 5 non perception negative cognitive proof and 6 word testimony of past or present reliable experts Nyaya defends a form of direct realism and a theory of substances dravya Vaiseṣika closely related to the Nyaya school this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance and on defending a theory of atoms Unlike Nyaya they only accept two pramanas perception and inference Purva Mimaṃsa a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas philology and the interpretation of Vedic ritual Vedanta also called Uttara Mimaṃsa focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the Upanishads particularly the soteriological and metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman Sometimes these groups are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons Nyaya Vaiseṣika Saṃkhya Yoga and Mimaṃsa Vedanta Each tradition included different currents and sub schools for example Vedanta was divided among the sub schools of Advaita non dualism Visishtadvaita qualified non dualism Dvaita dualism Dvaitadvaita dualistic non dualism Suddhadvaita and Achintya Bheda Abheda inconceivable oneness and difference Besides these schools Madhava Vidyaraṇya also includes the following of the aforementioned theistic philosophies based on the Agamas and Tantras 5 Pasupata school of Shaivism by Nakulisa Saiva the theistic Sankhya school Pratyabhijna the recognitive school Rasesvara the mercurial school Paṇini Darsana the grammarian school which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems they are the chief ones and there are other orthodox schools These systems accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as orthodox astika schools of Hindu philosophy besides these schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are heterodox nastika systems such as Buddhism Jainism Ajivika and Charvaka 12 13 14 This orthodox heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit According to Andrew Nicholson there have been various heresiological translations of Astika and Nastika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies but quite many are unsophisticated and flawed 4 Charvaka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism 15 Heterodox Sramaṇic schools EditMain article Sramaṇa Several Sramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE and these influenced both the astika and nastika traditions of Indian philosophy 16 The Sramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul atomism antinomian ethics materialism atheism agnosticism fatalism to free will idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life strict ahimsa non violence and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat eating 17 Notable philosophies that arose from Sramaṇic movement were Jainism early Buddhism Charvaka Ajnana and Ajivika 18 Ajnana philosophy Edit Main article Ajnana Ajnana was one of the nastika or heterodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism It was a Sramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions and even if knowledge was possible it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own Jain philosophy Edit Main articles Jain philosophy and Jainism Rishabhanatha believed to have lived over a million years ago is considered the founder of Jain religion in the present time cycle Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body matter from the soul consciousness completely 19 Jainism was revived and re established after Mahavira the last and the 24th Tirthankara synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Sramaṇic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago 20 According to Dundas outside of the Jain tradition historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th century BCE and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha based on the c 250 year gap is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE 21 Jainism is a Sramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas However like all Indian religions it shares the core concepts such as karma ethical living rebirth samsara and moksha Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism ahimsa non violence and anekantavada relativity of viewpoints as a means of spiritual liberation ideas that influenced other Indian traditions 22 Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one s decisions and that self reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one s liberation According to the Jain philosophy the world Saṃsara is full of hiṃsa violence Therefore one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya that are Samyak Darshan right perception Samyak Gnana right knowledge and Samyak Charitra right conduct which are the key requisites to attain liberation 23 Buddhist philosophy Edit Main articles Buddhist philosophy and Early Buddhist schools The Buddhist philosophy is based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha or awakened one Buddhism is founded on elements of the Sramaṇa movement which flowered in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other Sramana movements Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts states Paul Williams however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences 24 Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of Brahman ultimate reality and Atman soul self at the foundation of Hindu philosophies 25 26 27 Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems such as belief in karma a cause and effect relationship samsara ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth dharma ideas about ethics duties and values impermanence of all material things and of body and possibility of spiritual liberation nirvana or moksha 28 29 A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul atman in favour of anatta non Self 30 After the death of the Buddha several competing philosophical systems termed Abhidharma began to emerge as ways to systematize Buddhist philosophy 31 The Mahayana movement also arose c 1st century BCE onwards and included new ideas and scriptures The main traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were 31 xxiv A Japanese depiction of Nagarjuna one of the greatest Buddhist philosophers and founder of Madhyamaka The Mahasaṃghika Great Community tradition which included numerous sub schools all are now extinct The schools of the Sthavira Elders tradition Vaibhaṣika Commentators also known as the Sarvastivada Vaibhasika was an Abhidharma tradition that composed the Great Commentary Mahavibhaṣa They were known for their defense of the doctrine of sarvastitva all exists which is a form of eternalism regarding the philosophy of time They also supported direct realism and a theory of substances svabhava Sautrantika Those who uphold the sutras a tradition which did not see the Abhidharma as authoritative and instead focused on the Buddhist sutras They disagreed with the Vaibhaṣika on several key points including their eternalistic theory of time Pudgalavada Personalists which were known for their controversial theory of the person pudgala now extinct Vibhajyavada The Analysts a widespread tradition which reached Kashmir South India and Sri Lanka A part of this school has survived into the modern era as the Theravada tradition Their orthodox positions can be found in the Kathavatthu They rejected the views of the Pudgalavada and of the Vaibhaṣika among others The schools of the Mahayana Great Vehicle tradition which continue to influence Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism Madhyamaka Middle way or Centrism founded by Nagarjuna Also known as Sunyavada the emptiness doctrine and Niḥsvabhavavada the no svabhava doctrine this tradition focuses on the idea that all phenomena are empty of any essence or substance svabhava Yogacara Yoga praxis an idealistic school which held that only consciousness exists and thus was also known as Vijnanavada the doctrine of consciousness Some scholars see the Tathagatagarbha or Buddha womb source texts as constituting a third school of Indian Mahayana 32 Vajrayana also known as Mantrayana Tantrayana Secret Mantra and Tantric Buddhism is often placed in a separate category due to its unique tantric elements The Dignaga Dharmakirti tradition is an influential school of thought which focused on epistemology or pramaṇa means of knowledge Many of these philosophies were brought to other regions like Central Asia and China After the disappearance of Buddhism from India some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions 33 34 Monastic life has been a part of all Indian philosophy traditions Mendicant caves of extinct Ajivikas in Bihar 35 Ajivika philosophy Edit Main article Ajivika The philosophy of Ajivika was founded by Makkhali Gosala it was a Sramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism 36 Ajivikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle 37 Original scriptures of the Ajivika school of philosophy may once have existed but these are currently unavailable and probably lost Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas 38 The Ajivika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism fate the premise that there is no free will that everything that has happened is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles 38 39 Ajivika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy 40 Ajivikas were atheists 41 and rejected the authority of the Vedas but they believed that in every living being is an atman a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism 42 43 Charvaka philosophy Edit Main article Charvaka Charvaka Sanskrit च र व क IAST Carvaka also known as Lokayata is an ancient school of Indian materialism 44 Charvaka holds direct perception empiricism and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism and supernaturalism 45 46 47 48 49 It was a popular belief system in ancient India note 1 The etymology of Charvaka Sanskrit च र व क is uncertain Bhattacharya quotes the grammarian Hemacandra to the effect that the word carvaka is derived from the root carv to chew A Carvaka chews the self carvatyatmanaṃ carvakaḥ Hemacandra refers to his own grammatical work Uṇadisutra 37 which runs as follows mavaka syamaka vartaka jyontaka guvaka bhadrakadayaḥ Each of these words ends with the aka suffix and is formed irregularly This may also allude to the philosophy s hedonistic precepts of eat drink and be merry Brihaspati is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokayata philosophy although some scholars dispute this 51 52 During the Hindu reformation period in the first millennium BCE when Buddhism was established by Gautama Buddha and Jainism was re organized by Parshvanatha the Charvaka philosophy was well documented and opposed by both religions 53 Much of the primary literature of Charvaka the Barhaspatya sutras were lost either due to waning popularity or other unknown reasons 54 Its teachings have been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as in the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and from Jain literature 54 55 However there is text that may belong to the Charvaka tradition written by the skeptic philosopher Jayarasi Bhaṭṭa known as the Tattvopaplava siṁha that provides information about this school albeit unorthodox 56 57 One of the widely studied principles of Charvaka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid universal knowledge and metaphysical truths 58 59 In other words the Charvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths one must acknowledge doubt inferred knowledge is conditional 60 61 Comparison of Indian philosophies EditThe Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy and its six schools of Hindu philosophy The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul self atman to asserting that there is no soul 62 from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth 63 Comparison of ancient Indian philosophies Ajivika Early Buddhism Charvaka Jainism Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy Non Sramaṇic Karma Denies 40 64 Affirms 63 Denies 63 Affirms 63 AffirmsSamsara Rebirth Affirms Affirms 65 Denies 66 Affirms 63 Some school affirm some not 67 Ascetic life Affirms Affirms Denies 63 Affirms Affirms as Sannyasa 68 Rituals Bhakti Affirms Affirms optional 69 Pali Bhatti Denies Affirms optional 70 Theistic school Affirms optional 71 Others Deny 72 73 Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Affirms Affirms Unclear on meat as food 74 Strongest proponentof non violence Vegetarianism to avoidviolence against animals 75 Affirms as highest virtue but Just War affirmedVegetarianism encouraged butchoice left to the Hindu 76 77 Free will Denies 39 Affirms 78 Affirms Affirms Affirms 79 Maya Affirms 80 Affirms prapanca 81 Denies Affirms Affirms 82 83 Atman Soul Self Affirms Denies 62 Denies 84 Affirms 85 119 Affirms 86 Creator god Denies Denies Denies Denies Theistic schools Affirm 87 Others Deny 88 89 Epistemology Pramana Pratyakṣa Anumaṇa Sabda Pratyakṣa Anumaṇa 90 91 Pratyakṣa 92 Pratyakṣa Anumaṇa Sabda 90 Various Vaisheshika two to Vedanta six 90 93 Pratyakṣa perception Anumaṇa inference Upamaṇa comparison and analogy Arthapatti postulation derivation Anupalabdi non perception negative cognitive proof Sabda Reliable testimony Epistemic authority Denies Vedas Affirms Buddha text 94 Denies Vedas Denies Vedas Affirms Jain AgamasDenies Vedas Affirm Vedas and Upanishads note 2 Affirm other texts 94 96 Salvation Soteriology Samsdrasuddhi 97 Nirvana realize Sunyata 98 Siddha 99 Nirvana Moksha Nirvana KaivalyaAdvaita Yoga others Jivanmukti 100 Dvaita theistic VidehamuktiMetaphysics Ultimate Reality Sunyata 101 102 Anekantavada 103 Brahman 104 105 Political philosophy EditThe Arthashastra attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa non violence and Satyagraha popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence In turn it influenced the later independence and Civil Rights movements especially those led by Martin Luther King Jr and Nelson Mandela Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar s Progressive Utilization Theory 106 is also a major socio economic and political philosophy 107 Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with a human being at center stage This approach made this concept different from Socialism and Capitalism Integral Humanism was adopted as Jan Sangh s political doctrine and its new openness to other opposition forces made it possible for the Hindu nationalist movement to have an alliance in the early 1970s with the prominent Gandhian Sarvodaya movement going on under the leadership of J P Narayan This was considered to be the first major public breakthrough for the Hindu nationalist movement Influence EditIn appreciation of complexity of the Indian philosophy T S Eliot wrote that the great philosophers of India make most of the great European philosophers look like schoolboys 108 109 Arthur Schopenhauer used Indian philosophy to improve upon Kantian thought In the preface to his book The World As Will And Representation Schopenhauer writes that one who has also received and assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom then he is the best of all prepared to hear what I have to say to him 110 The 19th century American philosophical movement Transcendentalism was also influenced by Indian thought 111 112 See also Edit India portal Philosophy portal Religion portalAffectionism Ancient Indian philosophy Hindu philosophy M Hiriyanna Indian art Indian logic Indian psychology Svayam bhagavan TrikaranasuddhiNotes Edit Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition One virulently anti supernatural system is was the so called Charvaka school 50 Elisa Freschi 2012 The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu 95 Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions References EditCitations Edit Ben Ami Scharfstein 1998 A comparative history of world philosophy from the Upanishads to Kant Albany State University of New York Press pp 9 11 John Bowker Oxford Dictionary of World Religions p 259 Wendy Doniger 2014 On Hinduism Oxford University Press p 46 ISBN 978 0 19 936008 6 a b Andrew J Nicholson 2013 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231149877 Chapter 9 a b Cowell and Gough p xii Nicholson pp 158 162 Roy W Perrett 2001 Indian Philosophy Metaphysics Routledge ISBN 978 0 8153 3608 2 Stephen H Phillips 2013 Epistemology in Classical India The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 51898 0 Arvind Sharma 1982 The Puruṣarthas a study in Hindu axiology Asian Studies Center Michigan State University ISBN 9789993624318 Purusottama Bilimoria Joseph Prabhu Renuka M Sharma 2007 Indian Ethics Classical traditions and contemporary challenges Ashgate ISBN 978 0 7546 3301 3 Kathleen Kuiper 2010 The Culture of India The Rosen Publishing Group pp 174 178 ISBN 978 1 61530 149 2 Sue Hamilton 2001 Indian Philosophy A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press pp 1 17 136 140 ISBN 978 0 19 157942 4 Roy Perrett 2000 Indian Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0815336112 page 88 Sushil Mittal amp Gene Thursby 2004 The Hindu World Routledge ISBN 978 0415772273 pages 729 730 Flood 1996 pp 82 224 49 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A Moore A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy249 ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Reginald Ray 1999 Buddhist Saints in India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195134834 pages 237 240 247 249 Padmanabh S Jaini 2001 Collected papers on Buddhist Studies Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120817760 pages 57 77 AL Basham 1951 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas a Vanished Indian Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812048 pages 94 103 dravya Jainism Encyclopaedia Britannica Patel Haresh March 2009 Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect A Latter Day Saint ISBN 9781606938461 Dundas 2002 pp 30 31 Jay L Garfield William Edelglass 2011 The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy Oxford University Press p 168 ISBN 978 0 19 532899 8 Das Ravish Kumar 2018 Jainism and Jain Architecture Lulu com p 4 ISBN 978 1 387 50342 1 self published source Paul Williams 2008 Mahayana Buddhism The Doctrinal Foundations Routledge pp 84 85 ISBN 978 1 134 25057 8 Robert Neville 2004 Jeremiah Hackett ed Philosophy of Religion for a New Century Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long Jerald Wallulis Springer p 257 ISBN 978 1 4020 2073 5 Quote Buddhism s ontological hypotheses that nothing in reality has its own being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God Brahman the Dao or any transcendent creative source or principle Anatta Buddhism Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013 a Christmas Humphreys 2012 Exploring Buddhism Routledge pp 42 43 ISBN 978 1 136 22877 3 b Gombrich 2006 page 47 Quote Buddha s teaching that beings have no soul no abiding essence This no soul doctrine anatta vada he expounded in his second sermon Brian K Smith 1998 Reflections on Resemblance Ritual and Religion Motilal Banarsidass p 14 ISBN 978 81 208 1532 2 Peter J Claus Sarah Diamond Margaret Ann Mills 2003 South Asian Folklore An Encyclopedia Afghanistan Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Routledge pp 322 323 ISBN 978 0 415 93919 5 a Anatta Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013 Quote Anatta in Buddhism the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent underlying soul The concept of anatta or anatman is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman the self b Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0791422175 page 64 Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence c John C Plott et al 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120801585 page 63 Quote The Buddhist schools reject any Atman concept As we have already observed this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism d Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Philosophy Now e David Loy 1982 Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same International Philosophical Quarterly Volume 23 Issue 1 pages 65 74 a b Westerhoff Jan 2018 The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy Oxford Oxford University Press Kiyota M 1985 Tathagatagarbha Thought A Basis of Buddhist Devotionalism in East Asia Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 207 231 Dreyfus Georges B J Recognizing Reality Dharmakirti s Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations Suny Series in Buddhist Studies 1997 p 22 JeeLoo Liu Tian tai Metaphysics vs Hua yan Metaphysics A Comparative Study Pia Brancaccio 2014 Cave Architecture of India in Encyclopaedia of the History of Science Technology and Medicine in Non Western Cultures Springer pp 1 9 doi 10 1007 978 94 007 3934 5 9848 1 ISBN 978 94 007 3934 5 Jeffrey D Long 2009 Jainism An Introduction Macmillan ISBN 978 1845116255 page 199 Basham 1951 pp 145 146 a b Basham 1951 Chapter 1 a b James Lochtefeld Ajivika The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 1 A M Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 0823931798 page 22 a b Ajivikas World Religions Project University of Cumbria United Kingdom Johannes Quack 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Atheism Editors Stephen Bullivant Michael Ruse Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199644650 page 654 Analayo 2004 Satipaṭṭhana The Direct Path to Realization ISBN 978 1899579549 pages 207 208 Basham 1951 pp 240 261 270 273 Seema Chishti 21 August 2018 Indian rationalism Charvaka to Narendra Dabholkar The Indian Express Tiwari 1998 p 67 sfn error no target CITEREFTiwari1998 help Perrett 1984 pp 161 174 sfn error no target CITEREFPerrett1984 help Bhattacharya 2011 pp 21 32 sfn error no target CITEREFBhattacharya2011 help Radhakrishnan amp Moore 1957 pp 187 227 234 sfn error no target CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957 help Flint 1899 p 463 sfn error no target CITEREFFlint1899 help Raman 2012 pp 549 574 sfn error no target CITEREFRaman2012 help Bhattacharya 2002 sfn error no target CITEREFBhattacharya2002 help Jeaneane Fowler 2015 A C Grayling ed The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Humanism John Wiley amp Sons pp 114 with footnote 17 ISBN 978 1 119 97717 9 Quack 2011 p 50 See footnote 3sfn error no target CITEREFQuack2011 help a b Radhakrishnan amp Moore 1957 pp 227 249 sfn error no target CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957 help Bhattacharya 2011 pp 21 44 65 74 sfn error no target CITEREFBhattacharya2011 help Balcerowicz Piotr 2016 Jayarasi in Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2016 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University retrieved 8 July 2020 Kamal 1998 pp 13 16 sfn error no target CITEREFKamal1998 help Acharya 1894 p 5 sfn error no target CITEREFAcharya1894 help Bhattacharya 2011 p 58 sfn error no target CITEREFBhattacharya2011 help Cowell and Gough p 42 Cowell and Gough p 4 a b a Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0791422175 page 64 Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence b KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 8120806191 pages 246 249 from note 385 onwards c John C Plott et al 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120801585 page 63 Quote The Buddhist schools reject any Atman concept As we have already observed this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism d Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Philosophy Now e Anatta Encyclopaedia Britannica Quote In Buddhism the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent underlying substance that can be called the soul The concept of anatta or anatman is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman self a b c d e f Randall Collins 2000 The sociology of philosophies a global theory of intellectual change Harvard University Press pp 199 200 ISBN 9780674001879 Gananath Obeyesekere 2005 Karma and Rebirth A Cross Cultural Study Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120826090 page 106 Damien Keown 2013 Buddhism A Very Short Introduction 2nd Edition Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199663835 pages 32 46 Haribhadrasuri Translator M Jain 1989 Saddarsanasamuccaya Asiatic Society OCLC 255495691 Halbfass Wilhelm 2000 Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken Diederichs Munchen ISBN 978 3896313850 Patrick Olivelle 2005 The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Editor Flood Gavin Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1405132510 pages 277 278 Karel Werner 1995 Love Divine Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism Routledge ISBN 978 0700702350 pages 45 46 John Cort Jains in the World Religious Values and Ideology in India Oxford University Press ISBN pages 64 68 86 90 100 112 Christian Novetzke 2007 Bhakti and Its Public International Journal of Hindu Studies Vol 11 No 3 page 255 272 a Knut Jacobsen 2008 Theory and Practice of Yoga Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120832329 pages 15 16 76 78 b Lloyd Pflueger Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra in Theory and Practice of Yoga Editor Knut Jacobsen Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120832329 pages 38 39 a Karl Potter 2008 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol III Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120803107 pages 16 18 220 b Basant Pradhan 2014 Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy Springer Academic ISBN 978 3319091044 page 13 see A 4 U Tahtinen 1976 Ahimsa Non Violence in Indian Tradition London ISBN 978 0091233402 pages 75 78 94 106 U Tahtinen 1976 Ahimsa Non Violence in Indian Tradition London ISBN 978 0091233402 pages 57 62 109 111 U Tahtinen 1976 Ahimsa Non Violence in Indian Tradition London ISBN 978 0091233402 pages 34 43 89 97 109 110 Christopher Chapple 1993 Nonviolence to Animals Earth and Self in Asian Traditions State University of New York Press ISBN 0 7914 1498 1 pages 16 17 Karin Meyers 2013 Free Will Agency and Selfhood in Indian Philosophy Editors Matthew R Dasti Edwin F Bryant Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199922758 pages 41 61 Howard Coward 2008 The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791473368 pages 103 114 Harold Coward 2003 Encyclopedia of Science and Religion Macmillan Reference see Karma ISBN 978 0028657042 AL Basham 1951 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas a Vanished Indian Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812048 pages 237 Damien Keown 2004 A Dictionary of Buddhism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198605607 Entry for Prapanca Quote Term meaning proliferation in the sense of the multiplication of erroneous concepts ideas and ideologies which obscure the true nature of reality Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott 2009 Hindu Goddesses Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1902210438 pages 14 16 Wendy Doniger O Flaherty 1986 Dreams Illusion and Other Realities University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226618555 page 119 Ramkrishna Bhattacharya 2011 Studies on the Carvaka Lokayata Anthem ISBN 978 0857284334 page 216 Padmanabh S Jaini 2001 Collected papers on Buddhist studies Motilal Banarsidass Publications ISBN 9788120817760 Anatta Encyclopaedia Britannica Quote In Buddhism the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent underlying substance that can be called the soul The concept of anatta or anatman is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman self Oliver Leaman 2000 Eastern Philosophy Key Readings Routledge ISBN 978 0415173582 page 251 Mikel Burley 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0415648875 page 39 Paul Hacker 1978 Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara Avidya Namarupa Maya Isvara in Kleine Schriften Editor L Schmithausen Franz Steiner Verlag Weisbaden pages 101 109 in German also pages 69 99 a b c John A Grimes A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791430675 page 238 D Sharma 1966 Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic Abhava versus Anupalabdhi Indo Iranian Journal 9 4 291 300 MM Kamal 1998 The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 46 2 pages 13 16 Eliott Deutsche 2000 in Philosophy of Religion Indian Philosophy Vol 4 Editor Roy Perrett Routledge ISBN 978 0815336112 pages 245 248 a b Christopher Bartley 2011 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1847064493 pages 46 120 Elisa Freschi 2012 Duty Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa BRILL ISBN 978 9004222601 page 62 Catherine Cornille 2009 Criteria of Discernment in Interreligious Dialogue Wipf amp Stock ISBN 978 1606087848 pages 185 186 AL Basham 1951 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas a Vanished Indian Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812048 pages 227 Jerald Gort 1992 On Sharing Religious Experience Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality Rodopi ISBN 978 0802805058 pages 209 210 John Cort 2010 Framing the Jina Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195385021 pages 80 188 Andrew Fort 1998 Jivanmukti in Transformation State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791439043 Masao Abe and Steven Heine 1995 Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0824817527 pages 105 106 Chad Meister 2009 Introducing Philosophy of Religion Routledge ISBN 978 0415403276 page 60 Quote In this chapter we looked at religious metaphysics and saw two different ways of understanding Ultimate Reality On the one hand it can be understood as an absolute state of being Within Hindu absolutism for example it is Brahman the undifferentiated Absolute Within Buddhist metaphysics fundamental reality is Sunyata or the Void Christopher Key Chapple 2004 Jainism and Ecology Nonviolence in the Web of Life Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120820456 page 20 PT Raju 2006 Idealistic Thought of India Routledge ISBN 978 1406732627 page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII Roy W Perrett Editor 2000 Indian Philosophy Metaphysics Volume 3 Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0815336082 page xvii AC Das 1952 Brahman and Maya in Advaita Metaphysics Philosophy East and West Vol 2 No 2 pages 144 154 Sarkar Prabhatranjan Banglapedia en banglapedia org Retrieved 13 October 2020 Weber Thomas 2004 Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor Cambridge University Press p 136 ISBN 978 1 139 45657 9 Jeffry M Perl and Andrew P Tuck 1985 The Hidden Advantage of Tradition On the Significance of T S Eliot s Indic Studies Philosophy East amp West University of Hawaii Press 35 Retrieved 13 August 2012 Eliot Thomas Stearns 1933 After Strange Gods A Primer of Modern Heresy London Faber p 40 Barua Arati 2008 Schopenhauer and Indian Philosophy A Dialogue Between India and Germany Northern Book Centre p 3 ISBN 978 81 7211 243 1 Transcendentalism The Oxford Companion to American Literature James D Hart ed Oxford University Press 1995 Oxford Reference Online Web 24 Oct 2011 Werner Karel 1998 Yoga And Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass p 170 ISBN 978 81 208 1609 1 Sources Edit Dundas Paul 2002 1992 The Jains Second ed Routledge ISBN 0 415 26605 X Nicholson Andrew J 2010 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University PressFurther reading EditApte Vaman Shivram 1965 The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary 4th Rev and Enlarged ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 0567 4 Basham A L 1951 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas 2nd ed Delhi India Moltilal Banarsidass Reprint 2002 ISBN 81 208 1204 2 originally published by Luzac amp Company Ltd London 1951 Balcerowicz Piotr 2015 Early Asceticism in India Ajivikism and Jainism 1st ed Routledge p 368 ISBN 9781317538530 Chattopadhyaya D P ed History of Science Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization Vol 15 volum parts Set Delhi Centre for Studies in Civilizations Cowell E B Gough A E 2001 The Sarva Darsana Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy Trubner s Oriental Series Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 415 24517 3 Dasgupta Surendranath 1922 1955 A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 1 5 London Cambridge University Press Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol 3 Vol 4 Vol 5 Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 43878 0 Gandhi M K 1961 Non Violent Resistance Satyagraha New York Schocken Books Jain Dulichand 1998 Thus Spake Lord Mahavir Chennai Sri Ramakrishna Math ISBN 81 7120 825 8 Michaels Axel 2004 Hinduism Past and Present New York Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 08953 1 Potter Karl H ed 1970 2019 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers Vol 1 25 Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Ongoing monographic series project a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a CS1 maint postscript link Radhakrishnan S 1929 Indian Philosophy Volume 1 Muirhead library of philosophy 2nd ed London George Allen and Unwin Radhakrishnan S Moore CA 1967 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Princeton ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Stevenson Leslie 2004 Ten theories of human nature Oxford University Press 4th edition Hiriyanna M 1995 Essentials of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidas ISBN 978 81 208 1304 5 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indian philosophy Wikiquote has quotations related to Indian philosophy Surendranath Dasgupta A History of Indian Philosophy HTML vol 1 vol 2 vol 3 vol 4 vol 5 ebook at Wisdomlib org Surendranath Dasgupta Indian Idealism at archive org A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of University College London London Philosophy Study Guide Indian Philosophy Articles at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Indian Psychology Institute The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive org Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive org Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 2 Volumes at archive org History of Philosophy Eastern and Western Edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 2 Volumes at archive org Indian Schools of Philosophy and Theology Jiva Institute Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indian philosophy amp oldid 1125339160, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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