Quranism

Quranism (Arabic: القرآنية, romanized: al-Qurʾāniyya) is an Islamic movement that holds the belief that the Quran is the only valid source of religious belief, guidance and law in Islam. Quranists believe that the Quran is clear, complete, and that it can be fully understood without recourse to the hadith and sunnah. Therefore, they use the Quran itself to interpret the Quran, an exegetical principle known as tafsir al-Qur'an bi al-Qur'an.

In matters of faith, jurisprudence, and legislation, Quranists differ from Sunnis, who consider the hadith, scholarly opinions, opinions attributed to the sahaba, ijma and qiyas, and Islam's legislative authority in matters of law and creed in addition to the Quran.^[1][2] Each hadith-espousing sect of Islam has its own distinct collection of hadith upon which its followers rely, the differences in which are rejected by other sects despite these collections overlapping for the most part,^[3] while the Quranists, who criticise the hadiths, reject all of the differing collections of hadith and have none of their own.^[4][5][6] Unlike Hadith followers who believe that obedience to the Islamic prophet Muhammad means obedience to hadiths, Quranists believe that obedience to Muhammad means obedience to the Qur'an.^[7][8] This methodological difference has led to considerable divergence between Quranists, and both Sunnis and Shias (the two largest sects in Islam) in matters of theology and law as well as the understanding of the Quran.^[4][9]

Quranists date their beliefs back to the time of Muhammad, who they claim prohibited the writing of hadiths. As they believe that hadith, while not being reliable sources of religion, can be used as a reference to get an idea on historical events, they point out several narrations about early Islam to support their beliefs, including those attributed to caliph Umar (r. 634–644) and during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. Notable figures who have promulgated Quranist beliefs include Chiragh Ali, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi, Ahmed Subhy Mansour, Maitatsine, Mohamed Talbi, Kassim Ahmad, Rashad Khalifa, Yaşar Nuri Öztürk, Edip Yuksel, and Hassan al-Maliki. There has been significant Quranist organisations in countries such as India, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Tunisia, and the United States. In the 21st century, Quranist rejection of the hadith has gained traction among modernist Muslims who want to throw out any hadith that they believe contradicts the Qur'an.

Terminology

"Quranists" (Arabic: القرآنية, romanized: al-Qurʾāniyya)^[10] are also referred to as "reformists" or "progressive Muslims" as well as "Quraniyoon" (those who ascribe to the Quran alone).^[11]

Doctrine

Quranists believe that the Quran is clear, complete, and that it can be fully understood without recourse to the hadith and sunnah.^[12] Therefore, they use the Quran itself to interpret the Quran:^[13]

[A] literal and holistic analysis of the text from a contemporary perspective and applying the exegetical principle of tafsir al-qur'an bi al-qur'an (explaining the Qur'an with the Qur'an) and the jurisprudential principle al-asl fi al-kalam al-haqiqah (the fundamental rule of speech is literalness), without refracting that Qur'anic usage through the lens of history and tradition.^[14]

This methodology differs from tafsir bi'r-riwāyah, which is the method of commenting on the Quran using traditional sources, and tafsir al-Qur'an bi-l-Kitab, which refers to interpreting the Qur'an with/through the Bible, generally referred to in quranic studies as the Tawrat and the Injil.^[15][16][17]

In the centuries following Muhammad's death, Quranists did not believe in naskh.^[18] The Kufan scholar Dirar ibn Amr's Quranist belief led him to deny in the Dajjal, Punishment of the Grave, and Shafa'a in the 8th century.^[19] The Egyptian scholar Muhammad Abu Zayd's Quranist commentaries led him to reject the belief in the Isra and Mi'raj in the early 20th century. In his rationalist Quran commentary published in 1930, which uses the Quran itself to interpret the Quran, he claimed that verse 17:1 was an allusion to the Hijrah and not Isra and Mi'raj.^[20][21]

Syed Ahmad Khan argued that, while the Quran remained socially relevant, reliance on hadith limits the vast potential of the Quran to a particular cultural and historical situation.^[22]

The extent to which Quranists reject the authority of the Hadith and Sunnah varies,^[23] but the more established groups have thoroughly criticised the authority of the Hadith and reject it for many reasons. The most common view being the Quranists who say that Hadith is not mentioned in the Quran as a source of Islamic theology and practice, was not recorded in written form until a century after the death of Muhammad,^[24] and contain internal errors and contradictions as well as contradictions with the Quran.^[12][23] For Sunni Muslims, the sunnah", i.e the sunnah (the way) of the prophet, is one of the two primary sources of Islamic law, and while the Quran has verses enjoining Muslims to obey the Messenger, the Quran never talks about "sunnah" in connection with Muhammad or other prophets. The term sunnah appears several times, including in the phrase sunnat Allah (way of God),^[25] but not sunnat al-nabi (way of the prophet) – the phrase customarily used by proponents of hadith.^[26]

The concept of tahrif has also been advocated by Quran alone Muslims such as Rashad Khalifa, who believed that previous revelations of God, such as the Bible, contained contradictions due to human interference.^[27] Instead, he believed that the beliefs and practices of Islam should be based on the Quran alone.

Differences with traditional Islam

Quranists believe that the Quran is the sole source of religious law and guidance in Islam and reject the authority of sources outside of the Quran like hadith and sunnah. Quranists suggest that vast majority of hadith literature are forged and that the Quran criticizes the hadith both in technical sense and general sense.^{[28][12][23][29][30][4]} Quranists claim that the Sunnis and Shias have distorted the meaning of the verses to support their agenda,^[31] especially in verses about women and war.^[32][33] Due to these differences in theology, there are differences between traditional Islamic and Quranist practices.

Shahada (creed)

The shahada accepted by a number of Quranists is la ilaha illa'llah ("There is nothing worthy of worship except God").^[34][35] However, a number of Quranists also consider the Quranic verse 2:131 as the proper shahada, based on the command to “Submit”, and the response, “I submit to the Lord of the worlds.”

Salah (prayer)

Among Quranists, different views can be found in ritual prayer (salah). Some Quranists pray five times a day, like in traditional Islam, while others pray two or three times a day.^{[36][37][38][39]} The practice of praying five times daily does not appear in the Quran, but the practice originated in hadiths about Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj. Some Quranists believe that it is sufficient to pray two or three times daily because Quran 11:114 says "Establish prayer ˹O Prophet˺ at both ends of the day and in the early part of the night."

A minority of Quranists see the Arabic word ṣalāt as a spiritual contact or a spiritual devotion to God through the observance of the Quran and worship to God, and therefore not as a standard ritual to be performed.

The blessings for Muhammad and Abraham, which are part of the traditional ritual, are not practiced by most Quranists in the call to prayer and in the prayer itself, arguing that the Quran mentions prayers are only for God, and the Quran tells believers to make no distinction between any messenger.^[40]

There are other minor differences: for Quranists, menstruation does not constitute an obstacle to prayer,^[41] men and women are allowed to pray together in a mosque and that there is no catching up later once a prayer is missed.^[42]

Wudu (ablution)

The ablution in prayer (wudu) only includes washing the face, hands up to the elbows and stroking the head and feet, since only these steps are mentioned in the Quran 5:6.^[35]

Zakat (alms tax)

In traditional Islam, giving zakat is a religious duty and amounts to 2.5 percent of the annual income. The Quranists give zakat based on the Quranic verses. In the opinion of many Quranists, zakat must be paid, but the Quran does not specify a percentage because it does not appear explicitly in the Quran.^[43] Other Quranists are in agreement with the 2.5 percent, but do not give the zakat annually, but from every money they earn.^[44] There is, in addition to the traditional idea of zakat, also an alternative idea that zakat itself does not mean to give charity alone, but to purify your character through righteous works, which includes the giving of charity.

Sawm (fasting)

The majority of Quranists fast for all of Ramadan, but do not see the last day of Ramadan as a holy day.^[44][45]

Hajj (pilgrimage)

Extra-Quranic traditions in the hajj, such as kissing or hugging the black stone and the symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing stones are rejected and seen as shirk by Quranists.^[46][47]

Ridda (apostasy)

According to Sunni hadith, a Muslim who leaves his religion should be killed.^[48] However, since Quranists do not accept hadith and no command to kill apostates can be found in the Quran, they reject this procedure. In addition, 2:256,^[49] which states that "there shall be no compulsion/pressure in religion", is taken into account and everyone is allowed to freely decide on their religion.^[50][51][45]

Polygamy

Some Quranist movements allow polygamy only on the condition of the adoption of orphans who have mothers and do not want to lose them, as the concerning verse 4:3 set the condition after the 'Battle of Uhud' where many of the male companions martyred; but other Quranist movements argue that although it is not explicitly banned, polygamy is a thing of the past because the regulations which are contained in the Quran are very strict and they have been fulfilled by almost nobody on Earth, therefore polygamy cannot be practiced anymore. In the extremely rare case in which it may be practiced, there is a strict limit on the number of wives, which is four.^[52][53][45]

Military Jihad

Most Quranist movements interpret the "holy war" as a solely defensive war, because according to them that is the only type of war allowed in the Quran. A war is only "holy" when Muslims are threatened on their own lands. Therefore, unlike the Sunnis and Salafi-Jihadis, for the Quranists "holy war" does not refer to an offensive war against non-Muslim countries or communities in any circumstances.^[52][53][45]

Food

Quranists can eat food which is prepared by Christians and Jews as stated in the Quran,^[54] but some Quranists believe that animals which are raised by Christians and Jews should still be blessed before they are eaten. According to Quranists, the Quran forbids the inflicting of pain on the animal during its slaughter, thus for them, the techniques of slaughtering animals in the Western world are illegitimate. Unlike Sunnis, Quranists can eat food with both of their hands, even with their left hands because the Quran does not forbid it.^[52][53][45]

Dress code

Clothing does not play a key role in Quranism. All Quranist movements agree that Islam has no sets of traditional clothing, except the rules described in the Quran. Therefore, beards and the hijab are not necessary.^[52][53][45]

Hadith

Quranists reject hadith altogether. Some Quranists believe that hadith – while not being reliable sources of religion – can be used as a reference to get an idea on historical events. They argue that there is no harm in using hadith to get a common idea on the history as long as they are not taken as historical facts. According to them, a hadith narration about history can be true or can be false, but a hadith narration adding rulings to religion is always completely false.^[55] They believe that the trustworthiness of the narrator is not enough to give credibility to the hadith as it is stated in the Quran that Muhammad himself could not recognize who was a genuine believer and who was a hypocrite.^[56] Moreover, Quranists quote Sahih Muslim 3004^[57] to argue Muhammad forbid any hadith beside the Quran.

Tafsir

Although there are Quranist tafsir works, for the most part Quranists do not have tafsir and do not think that it is needed. They believe the Quran does not give anyone the authority to interpret because, as stated in Quran, Allah sends guidance individually.^[53][52][45]

Other

The following aspects can be cited as further examples which, compared to traditional Islam, are rejected by Quranists or regarded as irrelevant:^[52][53][45]

• Quranists see circumcision as irrelevant; circumcision is not mentioned in the Quran.
• Quranists see Eid al-Fitr (festival of breaking the fast) and Eid al-Adha (Islamic festival of sacrifice) as merely cultural holidays, not holy.
• Quranists do not consider the headscarf (hijab) for women to be obligatory.
• Quranists believe cremation is permissible in Islam as there is no prohibition in the Qur'an against cremation, and that burial is not the only Islamic method that is approved by God.
• Quranists are strictly against torture.
• Quranists are strictly against stoning to death of adulterers or homosexuals because stoning is not mentioned in the Quran.
• Quranists are against the prohibition of music, singing, drawing, making sculpture and statues. This includes drawings of prophets.
• Quranists are against the prohibition for a man to wear gold or silk, to shave his beard, etc.
• Quranists do not consider dogs unclean or to be avoided.
• Quranists do not believe in the Mahdi or the Dajjal, as they are not mentioned in the Quran.

History

Early Islam

 

Sura al-Baqarah, verses 282–286, from an early Quranic manuscript written on vellum (mid-late 7th century CE)

Quranists date their beliefs back to the time of Muhammad, who they claim prohibited the writing of hadiths.^[58][59][60] As they believe that hadith, while not being reliable sources of religion, can be used as a reference to get an idea on historical events, they point out several narrations about early Islam to support their beliefs. According to one of these narrations, Muhammad's companion and the second caliph Umar (r. 634–644) also prohibited the writing of hadith and destroyed existing collections during his reign.^[60] Similar reports claim when Umar appointed a governor to Kufa, he told him: "You will be coming to the people of a town for whom the buzzing of the Qur'an is as the buzzing of bees. Therefore, do not distract them with the Hadiths, and thus engage them. Bare the Qur'an and spare the Hadith from God's messenger!".^[60]

The centrality of the Quran in the religious life of the Kufans that Umar described was quickly changing, however. A few decades later, a letter was sent to the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. 685–705) regarding the Kufans: "They abandoned the judgement of their Lord and took hadiths for their religion; and they claim that they have obtained knowledge other than from the Koran . . . They believed in a book which was not from God, written by the hands of men; they then attributed it to the Messenger of God."^[61]

In the following years, the taboo against the writing and following of hadiths had receded to such an extent that the Umayyad caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720) ordered the first official collection of Hadith. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, were among those who wrote Hadiths at Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's behest.^[24]

Despite the trend towards hadiths, the questioning of their authority continued during the Abbasid dynasty and existed during the time of al-Shafi'i, when a group known as ahl al-kalam argued that the prophetic example of Muhammad "is found in following the Quran alone", rather than Hadith.^[62][63] The majority of Hadith, according to them, was mere guesswork, conjecture, and bid'a, while the book of God was complete and perfect, and did not require the Hadith to supplement or complement it.^[64]

There were prominent scholars who rejected traditional ahadith like Dirar ibn Amr. He wrote a book titled The Contradiction Within Hadith. However, the tide had changed from the earlier centuries to such an extent that Dirar was beaten up and had to remain in hiding until his death.^[65] Like Dirar ibn Amr, the scholar Abu Bakr al-Asamm also had little use for hadiths.^[66]

19th century

In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahl-i Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the Ahl-i Hadith whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on Hadith.^[67] Many Ahl-i Quran adherents from South Asia were formerly adherents of Ahle Hadith but found themselves incapable of accepting certain hadiths.^[67] Abdullah Chakralawi, Khwaja Ahmad Din Amritsari, Chiragh Ali, and Aslam Jairajpuri were among the people who promulgated Quranist beliefs in India at the time.^[67]

20th century

In Egypt during the early 20th century, the ideas of Quranists like Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi grew out of the reformist ideas of Muhammad Abduh, specifically a rejection of taqlid and an emphasis on the Quran.^[68][67] Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi of Egypt "held that nothing of the Hadith was recorded until after enough time had elapsed to allow the infiltration of numerous absurd or corrupt traditions."^[69] Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi wrote an article titled al-Islam Huwa ul-Qur'an Wahdahu ('Islam is the Qur'an Alone) that appeared in the Egyptian journal Al-Manar, which argues that the Quran is sufficient as guidance:^[70]

What is obligatory for man does not go beyond God's Book. If anything other than the Qur'an had been necessary for religion, the Prophet would have commanded its registration in writing, and God would have guaranteed its preservation.

— Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi

Like some of their counterparts in Egypt such as Muhammad Abu Zayd and Ahmed Subhy Mansour, some reformist scholars in Iran who adopted Quranist beliefs came from traditional institutions of higher learning. Shaykh Hadi Najmabadi, Mirza Rida Quli Shari'at-Sanglaji, Mohammad Sadeqi Tehrani, and Ayatollah Borqei were educated in traditional Shia universities in Najaf and Qom. However, they believed that some beliefs and practices that were taught in these universities, such as the veneration of Imamzadeh and a belief in Raj'a, were irrational and superstitious and had no basis in the Quran.^[71] And rather than interpreting the Quran through the lens of hadith, they interpreted the Quran with the Quran (tafsir al-qur'an bi al-qur'an). These reformist beliefs provoked criticism from traditional Shia scholars like Ayatollah Khomeini, who attempted to refute the criticisms made by Sanglaji and other reformists in his book Kashf al-Asrar.^[71][72][73] Quran-centered beliefs have also spread among lay Muslims like Iranian American, Ali Behzadnia, who became Deputy Minister of Health and Welfare and acting Minister of Education shortly after the Iranian Revolution. He has criticized the government in Iran for being undemocratic and totally alien to the "Islam of the Quran".^[74]

Quranism also took on a political dimension in the 20th century when Muammar al-Gaddafi declared the Quran to be the constitution of Libya.^[75] Gaddafi asserted the transcendence of the Quran as the sole guide to Islamic governance and the unimpeded ability of every Muslim to read and interpret it. He had begun to attack the religious establishment and several fundamental aspects of Sunni Islam. He denigrated the roles of the ulama, imams, and Islamic jurists and questioned the authenticity of the hadith, and thereby the sunna, as a basis for Islamic law.

Quranism also took on a militant dimension in the 20th century, with the Yan Tatsine movement, founded by Mohammed Marwa, better known by his nickname Maitatsine, which publicly adopted the slogan “Qur’an only” as the foundation of the religion.^[76][77]

Popularity and opposition

 

Diagram showing the branches of Sunnism, Shi'ism, Ibadism, Quranism, Non-denominational Muslims, Ahmadiyya and Sufism.^{[citation needed]}

In the 21st century, Qur'anist rejection of the hadith has gained traction among modernist Muslims who want to throw out any hadith that they believe contradicts the Qur'an. Both modernist Muslims and Qur'anists believe that the problems in the Islamic world come partly from the traditional elements of the hadith and seek to reject those teachings.^[78]

Quranism has been criticised by Sunnis and Shias. The Sunni belief is that "the Quran needs the Sunnah more than the Sunnah needs the Quran".^[79] The Sunni and Shia establishment argues that Islam can not be practised without hadith.

Quranist doctrines have grown throughout the world in the twenty-first century, and supporters have faced opposition. Quranists were labeled as "disbelievers," "animals," "apostates," and "hypocrites" in fatwas issued against them. Many Quranist authors who fear for their lives write anonymously or under a pseudonym.^[80]

Russia

The spread of Quranist beliefs in Russia has provoked the anger of the Sunni establishment. In 2018, the Russian Council of Muftis issued a fatwa against Quranism. Qur'anists responded to the fatwa, denouncing the pro-Hadith beliefs of the council.^[81]

Saudi Arabia

In 2023, in a major departure from Wahhabism, King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud ordered the establishment of an authority in Medina to scrutinise uses of the hadith that are used by preachers and jurists to support teachings and edicts on all aspects of life. According to Khmer Times, the reforms of Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MBS) have been influenced by the Quranist group.^[82]

Previously, in 2018, Saudi Quranist scholar Hassan al-Maliki was arrested and charged with the death penalty for his political views, one of opposition to the more strict Saudi Wahhabi ideology, and for promoting ideas that have been described as "Quranist", "moderate", "tolerant".^{[83][84][85][86]} Other Saudi intellectuals, like Abd al-Rahman al-Ahdal, continue to advocate for the abandonment of hadith and a return to the Quran.^[87]

Sudan

In 2015, Quranist men in Sudan were imprisoned and sentenced to death for recognizing the Quran and rejecting the Hadith. After being arrested for more than five weeks, the men were released on bail.^[88][89]

Turkey

In Turkey, Quranist ideas became particularly noticeable,^[90][91] with portions of the youth either leaving Islam or converting to Quranism.^[92] There has been significant Quranist scholarship in Turkey, with there being even Quranist theology professors in significant universities, including scholars like Yaşar Nuri Öztürk^[93] and Caner Taslaman.^[94]

Quranists have responded to the criticisms of the Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) with arguments and challenged them to a debate.^[95]

Notable organizations

Association Internationale des Musulmans Coraniques (AIMC)

The Association Internationale des Musulmans Coraniques (AIMC), or International Association of Quranic Muslims is a Quranist organisation founded by the Tunisian author, professor, and Islamologist Mohamed Talbi.^[96][97] The organisation aims to promote Quranism and counter the preaching of Salafism and Wahhabism.^[98]

Izgi Amal

Main article: Izgi Amal

İzgi amal (Kazakh: Ізгі амал) is a Quranist organization in Kazakhstan. It has an estimated 70 to 80 thousand members. Its leader, Aslbek Musin, is the son of the former Speaker of the Majlis, Aslan Musin.^[99][100]

The first true Quranist was the Prophet Muhammad, who did not follow anything except the Qur'an. Quranists are not a new direction in this respect.

— Aslbek Musin

Kala Kato

Main article: Kala Kato

Kala Kato is a Quranist movement whose adherents reside mostly northern Nigeria,^[101] with some adherents residing in Niger.^[102] Kala Kato means a "man says" in the Hausa language, in reference to the sayings, or hadiths, posthumously attributed to Muhammad. Kala Kato accept only the Quran as authoritative and believe that anything that is not Kala Allah, which means what "God says" in the Hausa language, is Kala Kato.^[103]

Quran Sunnat Society

The Quran Sunnat Society is a Quranist movement in India. The movement was behind the first ever woman to lead mixed-gender congregational prayers in India.^[104] It maintains an office and headquarters within Kerala.^[105] There is a large community of Quranists in Kerala.^[106] One of its leaders, Jamida Beevi, has also spoken out against India's triple talaq law which is mostly based on the Sunni inspired Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937.^[107] The most prominent predecessor to the Quran Sunnat Society in India was from the views put forth by Ahmed Khan in the 19th century. ^[108]

Tolu-e-Islam

Main article: Tolu-e-Islam (organization)

The movement was initiated by Ghulam Ahmed Pervez.^{[109][110][111][112]} Ghulam Ahmed Pervez did not reject all hadiths; however, he accepted only hadiths that "are in accordance with the Quran or do not stain the character of the Prophet or his companions".^[113] The organization publishes and distributes books, pamphlets, and recordings of Pervez's teachings.^[113] Tolu-e-Islam does not belong to any political party, nor does it belong to any religious group or sect.

United Submitters International

In the United States, at the end of the 20th century, the Egyptian Quranist biochemist Rashad Khalifa, who is known as the discoverer of the Quran code (Code 19), which is a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, developed a theological doctrine that influenced Quranists in many other countries. With the help of computers, he carried out a numerical analysis of the Quran, which according to him clearly proved that it is of divine origin.^[114] The number 19, which is mentioned in chapter 74 of the Quran as being "one of the greatest miracles" played the fundamental role,^[115] which according to Khalifa can be found everywhere in the structure of the Quran.^[116] Some objected to these beliefs and, in 1990, Khalifa was assassinated by someone associated with the Sunni group Jamaat ul-Fuqra.^[117]

The organization "United Submitters International" (USI) founded by Khalifa has its center in Tucson and has published a monthly newsletter with the title "Submitter's Perspective" since 1985.^[118] The movement popularized the phrase: "The Quran, the whole Quran, and nothing but the Quran."^[12] Among those influenced by Khalifa's ideas include Edip Yüksel,^[117] Ahmad Rashad,^[119] and Nigerian High Court Judge, Isa Othman.^[120]

A Turkish (of Kurdish descent) activist, Edip Yüksel, initially campaigned for a Quranist-Islamic revolution in Turkey, which is why he was imprisoned.^[121] Later he met Khalifa and joined the organisation after witnessing the "19 miracle".^[122] In 1989 he had to leave the country because of this and joined the headquarters in Tucson.^[123] Yüksel and two other authors created their own translation of the Quran.^[124] In some points, however, his views differ from those of Khalifa.^[125]

Notable individuals

Individuals with full or partial Quranistic ideas include:

• Kassim Ahmad (1933–2017), Malaysian intellectual, writer, poet and an educator known for his rejection of the authority of hadiths.^[126][127] He was the founder of the Quranic Society of Malaysia.^[128] At the time of his death, he was working on a Malay translation of the Quran.^[129]
• Muammar Gaddafi (1942 – 20 October 2011), Libyan revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He governed Libya as the "Brotherly Leader" of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya until 2011. He ruled according to his own Third International Theory.^[75]
• Gamal al-Banna (1920–2013), Egyptian author and trade unionist.^[130]
• Mustafa İslamoğlu (born 1960), Turkish theologian, poet and writer. He was criticised in Turkey and received threats for his ideas that promoted logic above tradition and denying the authority of hadith,^[131] who he saw to be fabricated.^[132]
• Rashad Khalifa (1935–1990), Egyptian-American biochemist, professor doctor, theologian, computer expert and Islamic reformer. In his book Quran, Hadith and Islam and his English translation of the Quran, Khalifa argued that the Quran alone is the sole source of Islamic belief and practice.^[12] He claimed that the Quran had a code-system based on the number 19 which proved it's divinity.
• Samina Ali (born at an unknown date in the late 20th century), Indian-American author and activist.^[133]
• Hassan al-Maliki (born 1970), a Saudi Arabian writer, Islamic historian and Islamic scholar.^[84][85]
• Ahmed Subhy Mansour (born 1949), Egyptian-American Islamic scholar.^[134][135]
• Chekannur Maulavi (born 1936), Islamic cleric who lived in Edappal in Malappuram district of Kerala, India. He was noted for his controversial and unconventional interpretation of Islam based on the Quran alone.^[136]
• Yaşar Nuri Öztürk (1951–2016), Turkish university professor of Islamic theology, lawyer, columnist and a former member of Turkish parliament.^{[137][138][139][140]} Öztürk died in 2016, due to stomach cancer.^[141]
• Ahmad Rashad (born 1949), American sportscaster (mostly with NBC Sports) and former professional football player. Ahmad Rashad studied the Arabic language and the Quran with his mentor, the late Rashad Khalifa.^[119][142]
• Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi (1881–1920),^[143] Egyptian scholar and physician who focused on criticising hadith as a whole religiously from the Quran as well as based on hadithic pseudo-scientific claims on medicine.^[144][145]
• Mohamed Talbi (1921–2017), Tunisian historian and professor. He was the founder of the Association Internationale des Musulmans Coraniques (AIMC), or International Association of Quranic Muslims.^[146][147]
• Caner Taslaman (born 1968), Turkish academician, Quran expert and writer known for his works on The Big Bang theory and the scientific structure of the Quran.^[148]
• Edip Yüksel (born 1957), Turkish-Kurdish-American philosopher, lawyer, Quranist advocate, author of Nineteen: God's Signature in Nature and Scripture, Manifesto for Islamic Reform and a co-author of Quran: A Reformist Translation. He taught philosophy and logic at Pima Community College and medical ethics and criminal law courses at Brown Mackie College.^[59][149]
• In addition to these names, Quranists assert that naturally Muhammad and his [true] companions were also Quranists.

See also

• Liberalism and progressivism within Islam
• Islamic schools and branches
• Sola scriptura, an analogous doctrine within Christianity
• Karaite Judaism, an analogous movement within Judaism

References

1. John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Ahl al-Hadith". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
2. Dorman, Emre (2021). 101 Soruda Kur'an: Dini Konularda En Çok Merak Edilen Sorular. ASIN 6050616450.
3. "Şia (Şiiler) hadis kitapları hakkında bilgi verir misiniz? Bizim hadis kaynaklarımızla onlarınki çok büyük farklılıklar gösteriyor; neden böyle farklılıklar var?. » Sorularla İslamiyet". Sorularla İslamiyet (in Turkish). 17 February 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
4. "Hadis & Sünnet: Şeytani Bidatler". Teslimolanlar. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
5. Öztürk, Yaşar Nuri (2015). İslam Nasıl Yozlaştırıldı: Vahyin Dininden Sapmalar, Hurafeler, Bid'atlar. ASIN 9756779306.
6. "Appendix 19, Hadith & Sunna: Satanic Innovations". www.masjidtucson.org. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
7. "DeRudKR - Kap. 27: Was bedeutet 'Gehorcht dem Gesandten'?". Alrahman (in German). 6 March 2006.
8. Dr Rashad Khalifa (2001), Quran, Hadith and Islam (in German), Dr. Rashad Khalifa Ph.D., retrieved 12 June 2021
9. Dorman, Emre (2016). Allah'a Öğretilen Din. ASIN 6056621227.
10. "Quranists". Minority Rights Group. November 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
11. Haddad, Yvonne Y.; Smith, Jane I. (3 November 2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–153. ISBN 978-0-19-986264-1. from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
12. Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. 4 (1). John Wiley & Sons: 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x.
13. Jens Zimmermann, Hermeneutics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2015, pg. 90
14. Mahmoud Ayoub, Contemporary Approaches to the Qur'an and Sunnah, International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), 2012, pg. 27
15. Mahmoud Ayoub, Contemporary Approaches to the Qur'an and Sunnah, International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), 2012, pg. 27
16. Yusuf, Badmas 'Lanre (2009). Sayyid Qutb: A Study of His Tafsir. The Other Press. p. 28. ISBN 9789675062278. from the original on 16 March 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
17. McCoy, R. Michael (8 September 2021). Interpreting the Qurʾān with the Bible (Tafsīr al-Qurʾān bi-l-Kitāb). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-46682-1.
18. Daniel W. Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 16–17
19. Josef Van Ess, Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 3, Brill, 2018, pp. 56–58
20. J. J. G. Jansen, The Interpretation of the Koran in Modern Egypt, E.J. Brill, 1980, pp. 87–89
21. Egypt's Quest for Cultural Orientation 2008-03-08 at the Wayback Machine, Mafhoum.com, Accessed May 26, 2020
22. Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.65
23. Voss, Richard Stephen (April 1996). "Identifying Assumptions in the Hadith/Sunnah Debate". Monthly Bulletin of the International Community of Submitters. 12 (4). from the original on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
24. . Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2006.
25. "Quran Smart Search. Searched: sunna". Islamicity. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
26. Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.8
27. https://www.masjidtucson.org/publications/videos/
28. al-Manar 12(1911): 693–99; cited in Juynboll, Authenticity, 30; cited in D.W. Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.120
29. admin. "19.org". 19.org. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
30. "KUR'ANİ-BİLİMSEL-TEOLOJİ, BİLİMSEL-KUR'ANİ-TEOLOJİ VE KUR'ANİ-AHENKSEL-TEOLOJİ – Caner Taslaman" (in Turkish). Retrieved 6 February 2021.
31. Muhammad, A. "True Islam – Misinterpreted Verses". Quran-Islam. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
32. Yüksel, Edip (17 May 2017). "Sectarian Translations". 19.org. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
33. Muhammad, A. "True Islam – Manipulation of 4:34". Quran-Islam. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
34. Sami Bakar: Die Shahadah: Das Glaubensbekenntnis der Ergebenen. Online [21.8.2018].
35. Haddad & Smith: Mission to America. 1993, P. 163.
36. Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Vgl. Ahmad: Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857–1964. 1967, S. 49.
37. "Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan". Teslimolanlar. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
38. Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation. 2007, S. 507.
39. "10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org". quranix.org. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
40. Vgl. Nguyen: United Submitters International. 2007, S. 624.; Haddad und Smith: Mission to America. 1993, S. 162.
41. Kerem Adıgüzel: "Menstruation und Beten im Islam, Fasten während der Menstruation...." [18.7.2018].
42. Haddad und Smith: Muslim Minority Groups in American Islam. 2014, S. 153.; "Die erfundene Religion und der Koran – Kapitel 36 (1): Gebet." [15.5.2020].
43. 'Die erfundene Religion und die Koranische Religion – Kapitel 36 (2): Almosen, Wohltätigkeit." [15.5.2020].
44. Haddad und Smith: Mission to America. 1993, S. 163.
45. Öztürk, Yaşar Nuri (2012). İslam Nasıl Yozlaştırıldı / Vahyin Dininden Sapmalar, Hurafeler, Bid'atlar. Yeni Boyut. ISBN 9789756779309.
46. Joseph Islam: "The Hajj and Umrah According to the Quran." [3.2.2020]
47. "Die erfundene Religion und die Koranische Religion – Kapitel 36 (4): Hadsch (Pilgerfahrt)." [3.2.2020]
48. "Sahih al-Bukhari Book of Fighting for the Cause of Allah (al". amrayn.com. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
49. Coranicum, Corpus. "Corpus Coranicum". corpuscoranicum.de. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
50. "Das Töten von Apostaten – Ein Widerspruch zum Koran." [21.8.2018].
51. Ahmed Mansour: "The False Penalty Of Apostasy (Killing The Apostate)." [21.8.2018].
52. Yüksel, Edip (2017). Türkçe Kuran Çevirilerindeki Hatalar. ASIN 994414309X.
53. Uydurulan Din ve Kuran'daki Din. Istanbul: Kuran Araştırmaları Grubu.
54. "Surah Al-Ma'idah - 5". Quran.com. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
55. A., Muhammad. "The history of hadith – Why and when it was written? Part 1".
56. Quran 63:4, Quran 9:101
57. "Sahih Muslim 3004 - The Book of Zuhd and Softening of Hearts - كتاب الزهد والرقائق - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
58. Usool Al-Hadeeth Islam Future December 2009
59. Musa, Aisha Y. (2008). Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam. Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-230-60535-0.
60. Aisha Y. Musa, Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, pp.25-29
61. Aisha Y. Musa, Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, pp. 37–38
62. Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.15-16
63. excerpted from Abdur Rab, ibid, pp. 199–200.
64. Azami, M. A., Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature, Islamic Book Trust, Kuala Lumpur, 92; cited in Akbarally Meherally, Myths and Realities of Hadith – A Critical Study, (published by Mostmerciful.com Publishers), Burnaby, BC, Canada, 6 2016-03-13 at the Wayback Machine; excerpted from Abdur Rab, ibid, p. 200.
65. Josef Van Ess, Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 3, Brill, 2018, pp. 35–37 and 55–57
66. Josef Van Ess, Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 2, Brill, 2017, pg. 461
67. Brown, Daniel W. (1996). Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–41. ISBN 978-0-52157-077-0.
68. Rein Fernhout, Canonical Texts. Bearers of Absolute Authority. Bible, Koran, Veda, Tipitaka: A Phenomenological Study, Brill Rodopi, 1994, pp. 218–219
69. Sidqi, Muhammad Tawfiq, Al-Islam huwa al-Qur'an wahdahu, al-Manar 9 (1906), 515; cited in Brown, Daniel W. (1996). Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0521570778. from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
70. Musa, Aisha Y., Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008, p.6.
71. Said Amir Arjomand, Authority and Political Culture in Shi'ism, State University of New York Press, 1998, pp. 160–161 and 166–167
72. Pillars, proofs and requirements of the Quran-Sufficiency Theory, along with its criticism 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine, Profdoc.um.ac.ir, Accessed June 22, 2020
73. A Criticism of the “Qura’n-through-Qura’n Interpretation Method” of the Shiite Quraniyan 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine, Pdmag.info, Accessed June 22, 2020
74. Edip Yuksel, Critical Thinkers for Islamic Reform: A Collection of Articles from Contemporary Thinkers on Islam, Brainbow Press, 2009, pp. 188–189
75. Hager (1985). Volksmacht und Islam (in German). p. 85.
76. Loimeier, Roman (31 August 2011). Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-2810-1.
77. Nwankwor, Emeka (9 December 2020). Buharism: Nigeria's Death Knell. FriesenPress. ISBN 978-1-5255-8324-7.
78. "10 Forgotten Sects Of Major Religions". 8 April 2016.
79. Graham, William A. (2006). "Scripture and the Qurʾān". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 5. Leiden: Brill Publishers. p. 165. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00180. ISBN 90-04-14743-8.
80. Musa: Ḥadīth as Scripture. 2008, S. 83.
81. Рустам Батыр, «Совет муфтиев России объявил хадисы виновными в деградации ислама» Подробнее на «БИЗНЕС Online» 2019-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, business-gazeta.ru, Accessed March 4, 2019
82. "Not Wahabi hardliners but Ahle Quran group is behind MBS' bold reforms in Saudi Arabia - Khmer Times". 14 May 2023.
83. AsiaNews.it. "The reform of Islam and the Koranists, persecuted in Saudi Arabia". www.asianews.it. Retrieved 8 January 2022. Today there are Mohamed Sharour and Ferhane El Maliki, who risks being beheaded in Saudi prisons.
84. "Saudi Islamic scholar Dr. Al Malki at risk of execution | MENA Rights Group". www.menarights.org. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
85. "Misconceptions". quranstruelight.com. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
86. Kamel Abderrahmani, The reform of Islam and the Koranists, persecuted in Saudi Arabia 2019-09-16 at the Wayback Machine, asianews.com, Accessed February 15, 2019
87. Saudi writer calls for removal of Hadith books from heritage 2019-12-20 at the Wayback Machine, Middleeastmonitor.com, Accessed May 26, 2020
88. Zeinab Mohammed Salih: „Sudan Threatens Muslims With Death on Charges of Apostasy.“ In: The Guardian [21.1.2020].
89. Zeinab Mohammed Salih, Sudan threatens 25 Muslims with death on charges of apostasy 2020-01-27 at the Wayback Machine, theguardian.com, Accessed February 10, 2019
90. Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur'anists 2013-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, 19.org, Retrieved 6 July 2013.
91. Mustafa Akyol, "Welcome to Islamic Reformation 101", Hurriyet Daily News 1 March 2008, Retrieved 26 January 2013.
92. Öztürk: Modern Döneme Özgü Bir Kur’an Tasavvuru. 2010, S. 24.
93. Mustafa Akyol, Islam without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty, W.W. Norton & Company, 2011, p. 234
94. . 19.org. Archived from the original on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
95. Alper Bilgili, Quran, Hadiths or Both? Where Quranists and Traditional Islam Differs 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine,, patheos.com, Accessed February 10, 2019
96. Rachid Barnat, Tunisie-Islam : Le «musulman coranique» selon Mohamed Talbi 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, kapitalis.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
97. Sadok Belaid, In memorium: Mohamed Talbi (1921–2017) – (Album photos) 2019-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, leaders.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
98. Rachid Barnat, Tunisie-Islam : Le «musulman coranique» selon Mohamed Talbi 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, kapitalis.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
99. Личность и ислам (Начало. Интервью с Аслбеком Мусиным) 2019-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, nm2000.kz, Accessed March 4, 2019
100. Талгат Адилов, Казахстанские кораниты: элита будущего или ответ«Ак Орды» радикальному исламу 2019-07-08 at the Wayback Machine, contur.kz, Accessed March 4, 2019
101. Isa Sa'isu, Kala-Kato: Meet group with yet another perception of Islam 2019-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, dailytrust.com.ng, Accessed February 10, 2019
102. International Religious Freedom Report 2009, state.gov, Accessed February 10, 2019
103. Aminu Alhaji Bala, Qur’anists’ Deviant Da'wah as Reflected in Their Trends of Tafsir in Northern Nigeria 2019-02-12 at the Wayback Machine, saspjournal.com, Accessed February 10, 2019
104. Ziya Us Salam, 'I follow the Quran', frontline.thehindu.com, Accessed February 10, 2019
105. Dhillon, Amrit (30 January 2018). "Muslim woman receives death threats after leading prayers in Kerala". The Guardian. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
106. Khan, Aftab Ahmad (2016). "Islamic Culture and the Modern World 2". Defence Journal. 20 (4): 49.
107. Jiby J Kattakayam, ‘Quran has capacity to reflect and absorb changes in society over time … it did not discriminate between men and women’ 2020-06-10 at the Wayback Machine, timesofindia.indiatimes.com, Accessed February 10, 2019
108. "Quranists, Islam's Outcasts - Fanack.com". from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
109. Aisha Y. Musa, Hadith As Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, 2008, pg. 86
110. Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur'anists 2015-09-04 at the Wayback Machine, Academia.edu, Accessed April 7, 2019
111. Nadeem F. Paracha, The rise and fall of a spiritual rebel 2019-04-07 at the Wayback Machine, Dawn.com, Accessed April 7, 2019
112. Nadeem F. Paracha, Crazy diamonds – V 2019-04-07 at the Wayback Machine, Dawn.com, Accessed April 7, 2019
113. "Bazm-e-Tolu-e-Islam". from the original on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
114. Musa: The Qur’anists. 2010, S. 13.
115. Q 74:30: „Über ihr sind neunzehn.“ Übersetzung von Hartmut Bobzin: Der Koran. 2017.
116. Khan: Nineteen. 2010, S. 112.
117. Historic House: The story behind that building with the words 'Happiness Is Submission to God' 2020-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Tucsonweekly.com, Accessed July 7, 2020
118. "Who are Submitters and what is Submission?". masjidtucson.org. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
119. Murray Olderman, Rashad Made A Name For Himself. . . Twice. 2020-05-15 at the Wayback Machine, The Pittsburgh Press, Accsessed February 16, 2019
120. Muhammad Nur Alkali; Abubakar Kawu Monguno; Ballama Shettima Mustafa (January 2012). Overview of Islamic actors in northern Nigeria (PDF) (Report). Nigeria Research Network. p. 16. (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
121. Musa: The Qur’anists. 2010, S. 18.
122. Musa: Ḥadīth as Scripture. 2008, S. 100.
123. Haddad und Smith: Muslim Minority Groups in American Islam. 2014, S. 153.
124. Edip Yüksel; Layth Saleh al-Shaiban; Martha Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation. Brainbow Press, 2007.
125. Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation. 2007, S. 507.
126. Mariam Mokhtar, Don't let the hardliners get their way 2019-07-12 at the Wayback Machine, freemalaysiatoday.com, Accsessed February 16, 2019
127. Predeep Nambiar, Kassim Ahmad died a ‘beautiful death’, says daughter 2019-07-12 at the Wayback Machine, freemalaysiatoday.com, February 16, 2019
128. Gatut Adisoma, QURANIC SOCIETY OF MALAYSIA ESTABLISHED 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, masjidtuucson.org, Accsessed February 16, 2019
129. Son regrets Kassim Ahmad unable to complete Malay translation of Quran 2017-10-13 at the Wayback Machine, themalayonline.com, Accsessed February 16, 2019
130. A Liberal Brother at Odds With the Muslim Brotherhood 2020-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, Metransparent.com, Accessed June 29, 2020
131. (in Turkish). YouTube. 6 March 2013. Archived from the original on 14 December 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
132. (in Turkish). YouTube. 23 April 2015. Archived from the original on 14 December 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
133. . IMOW. Archived from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2015.
134. "About Us". Ahl-alquran.com. from the original on 31 January 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2010.
135. Oldenburg, Don (13 May 2005). "Muslims' Unheralded Messenger". The Washington Post. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2010.
136. Kumar, Girja (1997). The Book on Trial: Fundamentalism and Censorship in India. New Delhi: Har Anand Publications. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-8-12410-525-2.
137. "Yaşar Nuri Öztürk'ün yaşı ve sevgilisi... - Reha Muhtar – GAZETE VATAN".
138. (in Turkish) Yaşar Nuri Öztürk lost his life. – Ulusal Kanal
139. (Blog), Yurt Gazetesi (Mizah) (Basın Bildirisi) (Kayıt) (2 November 2017). "Gökçek 29 Ekim'de müstafi olmuş: Şimdi ibre Tuna'yı mı Tiryaki'yi mi gösteriyor?".
140. "İBDA-C'nin suikast timi yakalandı". www.hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). 16 November 1999. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
141. Haberleri, ABChaber.com – Güncel son dakika. "İlahiyatçı Yaşar Nuri Öztürk hayatını kaybetti". ABChaber.com – Güncel son dakika haberleri.
142. Ken Shouler, Catching It All 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, cigaraficionado.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
143. Juynboll, G. H. A. (1969). The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt ... Brill Archive. p. 23. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
144. J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.69
145. Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.67
146. Rachid Barnat, Tunisie-Islam : Le «musulman coranique» selon Mohamed Talbi 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, kapitalis.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
147. Sadok Belaid, In memorium: Mohamed Talbi (1921–2017) – (Album photos) 2019-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, leaders.com, Accessed February 16, 2019
148. "Biyografi". from the original on 2 November 2005.
149. Kenney, Jeffrey T.; Moosa, Ebrahim (2013). Islam in the Modern World. Routledge. p. 21.

Further reading

• Aisha Y. Musa, Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008. ISBN 0-230-60535-4.
• Ali Usman Qasmi, Questioning the Authority of the Past: The Ahl al-Qur'an Movements in the Punjab, Oxford University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-195-47348-5.
• Daniel Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-65394-0.