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Beauty

May 04, 2023

For other uses, see Beauty (disambiguation).

Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that makes these objects pleasurable to perceive. Such objects include landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, one of the major branches of philosophy. As a positive aesthetic value, it is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart.

Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God, which was heralded in its design.[1]

One difficulty in understanding beauty is because it has both objective and subjective aspects: it is seen as a property of things but also as depending on the emotional response of observers. Because of its subjective side, beauty is said to be "in the eye of the beholder".[2] It has been argued that the ability on the side of the subject needed to perceive and judge beauty, sometimes referred to as the "sense of taste", can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run. This would suggest that the standards of validity of judgments of beauty are intersubjective, i.e. dependent on a group of judges, rather than fully subjective or fully objective.

Conceptions of beauty aim to capture what is essential to all beautiful things. Classical conceptions define beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts: the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole. Hedonist conceptions see a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause disinterested pleasure. Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their value, of a loving attitude towards them or of their function.

Overview

Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, one of the major branches of philosophy.[3][4] Beauty is usually categorized as an aesthetic property besides other properties, like grace, elegance or the sublime.[5][6][7] As a positive aesthetic value, beauty is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart. Beauty is often listed as one of the three fundamental concepts of human understanding besides truth and goodness.[5][8][6]

Objectivists or realists see beauty as an objective or mind-independent feature of beautiful things, which is denied by subjectivists.[3][9] The source of this debate is that judgments of beauty seem to be based on subjective grounds, namely our feelings, while claiming universal correctness at the same time.[10] This tension is sometimes referred to as the "antinomy of taste".[4] Adherents of both sides have suggested that a certain faculty, commonly called a sense of taste, is necessary for making reliable judgments about beauty.[3][10] David Hume, for example, suggests that this faculty can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run.[3][9]

Beauty is mainly discussed in relation to concrete objects accessible to sensory perception. It has been suggested that the beauty of a thing supervenes on the sensory features of this thing.[10] It has also been proposed that abstract objects like stories or mathematical proofs can be beautiful.[11] Beauty plays a central role in works of art and nature.[12][10]

An influential distinction among beautiful things, according to Immanuel Kant, is that between dependent and free beauty. A thing has dependent beauty if its beauty depends on the conception or function of this thing, unlike free or absolute beauty.[10] Examples of dependent beauty include an ox which is beautiful as an ox but not beautiful as a horse[3] or a photograph which is beautiful, because it depicts a beautiful building but that lacks beauty generally speaking because of its low quality.[9]

Objectivism and subjectivism

Further information: objectivity and subjectivity

Judgments of beauty seem to occupy an intermediary position between objective judgments, e.g. concerning the mass and shape of a grapefruit, and subjective likes, e.g. concerning whether the grapefruit tastes good.[13][10][9] Judgments of beauty differ from the former because they are based on subjective feelings rather than objective perception. But they also differ from the latter because they lay claim on universal correctness.[10] This tension is also reflected in common language. On the one hand, we talk about beauty as an objective feature of the world that is ascribed, for example, to landscapes, paintings or humans.[14] The subjective side, on the other hand, is expressed in sayings like "beauty is in the eye of the beholder".[3]

These two positions are often referred to as objectivism (or realism) and subjectivism.[3] Objectivism is the traditional view, while subjectivism developed more recently in western philosophy. Objectivists hold that beauty is a mind-independent feature of things. On this account, the beauty of a landscape is independent of who perceives it or whether it is perceived at all.[3][9] Disagreements may be explained by an inability to perceive this feature, sometimes referred to as a "lack of taste".[15] Subjectivism, on the other hand, denies the mind-independent existence of beauty.[5][3][9] Influential for the development of this position was John Locke's distinction between primary qualities, which the object has independent of the observer, and secondary qualities, which constitute powers in the object to produce certain ideas in the observer.[3][16][5] When applied to beauty, there is still a sense in which it depends on the object and its powers.[9] But this account makes the possibility of genuine disagreements about claims of beauty implausible, since the same object may produce very different ideas in distinct observers. The notion of "taste" can still be used to explain why different people disagree about what is beautiful, but there is no objectively right or wrong taste, there are just different tastes.[3]

The problem with both the objectivist and the subjectivist position in their extreme form is that each has to deny some intuitions about beauty. This issue is sometimes discussed under the label "antinomy of taste".[3][4] It has prompted various philosophers to seek a unified theory that can take all these intuitions into account. One promising route to solve this problem is to move from subjective to intersubjective theories, which hold that the standards of validity of judgments of taste are intersubjective or dependent on a group of judges rather than objective. This approach tries to explain how genuine disagreement about beauty is possible despite the fact that beauty is a mind-dependent property, dependent not on an individual but a group.[3][4] A closely related theory sees beauty as a secondary or response-dependent property.[9] On one such account, an object is beautiful "if it causes pleasure by virtue of its aesthetic properties".[5] The problem that different people respond differently can be addressed by combining response-dependence theories with so-called ideal-observer theories: it only matters how an ideal observer would respond.[10] There is no general agreement on how "ideal observers" are to be defined, but it is usually assumed that they are experienced judges of beauty with a fully developed sense of taste. This suggests an indirect way of solving the antinomy of taste: instead of looking for necessary and sufficient conditions of beauty itself, one can learn to identify the qualities of good critics and rely on their judgments.[3] This approach only works if unanimity among experts was ensured. But even experienced judges may disagree in their judgments, which threatens to undermine ideal-observer theories.[3][9]

Conceptions

Various conceptions of the essential features of beautiful things have been proposed but there is no consensus as to which is the right one.

Classical

The "classical conception"[further explanation needed] defines beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts: the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole.[3][5][9] On this account, which found its most explicit articulation in the Italian Renaissance, the beauty of a human body, for example, depends, among other things, on the right proportion of the different parts of the body and on the overall symmetry.[3] One problem with this conception is that it is difficult to give a general and detailed description of what is meant by "harmony between parts" and raises the suspicion that defining beauty through harmony results in exchanging one unclear term for another one.[3] Some attempts have been made to dissolve this suspicion by searching for laws of beauty, like the golden ratio.

18th century philosopher Alexander Baumgarten, for example, saw laws of beauty in analogy with laws of nature and believed that they could be discovered through empirical research.[5] As of 2003, these attempts have failed to find a general definition of beauty and several authors take the opposite claim that such laws cannot be formulated, as part of their definition of beauty.[10]

Hedonism

Main article: Hedonism

A very common element in many conceptions of beauty is its relation to pleasure.[11][5] Hedonism makes this relation part of the definition of beauty by holding that there is a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause pleasure or that the experience of beauty is always accompanied by pleasure.[12] This account is sometimes labeled as "aesthetic hedonism" in order to distinguish it from other forms of hedonism.[17][18] An influential articulation of this position comes from Thomas Aquinas, who treats beauty as "that which pleases in the very apprehension of it".[19] Immanuel Kant explains this pleasure through a harmonious interplay between the faculties of understanding and imagination.[11] A further question for hedonists is how to explain the relation between beauty and pleasure. This problem is akin to the Euthyphro dilemma: is something beautiful because we enjoy it or do we enjoy it because it is beautiful?[5] Identity theorists solve this problem by denying that there is a difference between beauty and pleasure: they identify beauty, or the appearance of it, with the experience of aesthetic pleasure.[11]

Hedonists usually restrict and specify the notion of pleasure in various ways in order to avoid obvious counterexamples. One important distinction in this context is the difference between pure and mixed pleasure.[11] Pure pleasure excludes any form of pain or unpleasant feeling while the experience of mixed pleasure can include unpleasant elements.[20] But beauty can involve mixed pleasure, for example, in the case of a beautifully tragic story, which is why mixed pleasure is usually allowed in hedonist conceptions of beauty.[11]

Another problem faced by hedonist theories is that we take pleasure from many things that are not beautiful. One way to address this issue is to associate beauty with a special type of pleasure: aesthetic or disinterested pleasure.[3][4][7] A pleasure is disinterested if it is indifferent to the existence of the beautiful object or if it did not arise owing to an antecedent desire through means-end reasoning.[21][11] For example, the joy of looking at a beautiful landscape would still be valuable if it turned out that this experience was an illusion, which would not be true if this joy was due to seeing the landscape as a valuable real estate opportunity.[3] Opponents of hedonism usually concede that many experiences of beauty are pleasurable but deny that this is true for all cases.[12] For example, a cold jaded critic may still be a good judge of beauty because of her years of experience but lack the joy that initially accompanied her work.[11] One way to avoid this objection is to allow responses to beautiful things to lack pleasure while insisting that all beautiful things merit pleasure, that aesthetic pleasure is the only appropriate response to them.[12]

Others

G. E. Moore explained beauty in regard to intrinsic value as "that of which the admiring contemplation is good in itself".[21][5] This definition connects beauty to experience while managing to avoid some of the problems usually associated with subjectivist positions since it allows that things may be beautiful even if they are never experienced.[21]

Another subjectivist theory of beauty comes from George Santayana, who suggested that we project pleasure onto the things we call "beautiful". So in a process akin to a category mistake, one treats one's subjective pleasure as an objective property of the beautiful thing.[11][3][5] Other conceptions include defining beauty in terms of a loving or longing attitude towards the beautiful object or in terms of its usefulness or function.[3][22] In 1871, functionalist Charles Darwin explained beauty as result of accumulative sexual selection in "The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex".[5]

In philosophy

Greco-Roman tradition

The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English-language words "beauty" or "beautiful" was κάλλος, kallos, and the adjective was καλός, kalos. However, kalos may and is also translated as "good" or "of fine quality" and thus has a broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty. Similarly, kallos was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears an erotic connotation.[23] The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios,[24] an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour".[25] Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age".[25] Another classical term in use to describe beauty was pulchrum (Latin).[26]

Beauty for ancient thinkers existed both in form, which is the material world as it is, and as embodied in the spirit, which is the world of mental formations.[27] Greek mythology mentions Helen of Troy as the most beautiful woman.[28][29][30][31][32] Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion.

Pre-Socratic

In one fragment of Heraclitus's writings (Fragment 106) he mentions beauty, this reads: "To God all things are beautiful, good, right..."[33] The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras, who conceived of beauty as useful for a moral education of the soul.[34] He wrote of how people experience pleasure when aware of a certain type of formal situation present in reality, perceivable by sight or through the ear[35] and discovered the underlying mathematical ratios in the harmonic scales in music.[34] The Pythagoreans conceived of the presence of beauty in universal terms, which is, as existing in a cosmological state, they observed beauty in the heavens.[27] They saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive.[36]

Classical period

The classical concept of beauty is one that exhibits perfect proportion (Wolfflin).[37] In this context, the concept belonged often within the discipline of mathematics.[26] An idea of spiritual beauty emerged during the classical period,[27] beauty was something embodying divine goodness, while the demonstration of behaviour which might be classified as beautiful, from an inner state of morality which is aligned to the good.[38]

The writing of Xenophon shows a conversation between Socrates and Aristippus. Socrates discerned differences in the conception of the beautiful, for example, in inanimate objects, the effectiveness of execution of design was a deciding factor on the perception of beauty in something.[27] By the account of Xenophon, Socrates found beauty congruent with that to which was defined as the morally good, in short, he thought beauty coincident with the good.[39]

Beauty is a subject of Plato in his work Symposium.[34] In the work, the high priestess Diotima describes how beauty moves out from a core singular appreciation of the body to outer appreciations via loved ones, to the world in its state of culture and society (Wright).[35] In other words, Diotoma gives to Socrates an explanation of how love should begin with erotic attachment, and end with the transcending of the physical to an appreciation of beauty as a thing in itself. The ascent of love begins with one's own body, then secondarily, in appreciating beauty in another's body, thirdly beauty in the soul, which cognates to beauty in the mind in the modern sense, fourthly beauty in institutions, laws and activities, fifthly beauty in knowledge, the sciences, and finally to lastly love beauty itself, which translates to the original Greek language term as auto to kalon.[40] In the final state, auto to kalon and truth are united as one.[41] There is the sense in the text, concerning love and beauty they both co-exist but are still independent or, in other words, mutually exclusive, since love does not have beauty since it seeks beauty.[42] The work toward the end provides a description of beauty in a negative sense.[42]

Plato also discusses beauty in his work Phaedrus,[41] and identifies Alcibiades as beautiful in Parmenides.[43] He considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas.[44] Platonic thought synthesized beauty with the divine.[35] Scruton (cited: Konstan) states Plato states of the idea of beauty, of it (the idea), being something inviting desirousness (c.f seducing), and, promotes an intellectual renunciation (c.f. denouncing) of desire.[45] For Alexander Nehamas, it is only the locating of desire to which the sense of beauty exists, in the considerations of Plato.[46]

Aristotle defines beauty in Metaphysics as having order, symmetry and definiteness which the mathematical sciences exhibit to a special degree.[37] He saw a relationship between the beautiful (to kalon) and virtue, arguing that "Virtue aims at the beautiful."[47]

Roman

In De Natura Deorum Cicero wrote: "the splendour and beauty of creation", in respect to this, and all the facets of reality resulting from creation, he postulated these to be a reason to see the existence of a God as creator.[48]

Western Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, Catholic philosophers like Thomas Aquinas included beauty among the transcendental attributes of being.[49] In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas described the three conditions of beauty as: integritas (wholeness), consonantia (harmony and proportion), and claritas (a radiance and clarity that makes the form of a thing apparent to the mind).[50]

In the Gothic Architecture of the High and Late Middle Ages, light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God, which was heralded in design.[1] Examples are the stained glass of Gothic Cathedrals including Notre-Dame de Paris and Chartres Cathedral.[51]

St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked."[52]

Renaissance

Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers' tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty and female beauty in western civilization as seen, for example, in the Winged Victory of Samothrace. During the Gothic era, the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product of rational order and harmonious proportions. Renaissance artists and architects (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "Lives of Artists") criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism, in the 19th century. Vasari aligned himself to the classical notion and thought of beauty as defined as arising from proportion and order.[38]

Age of Reason

 
The Birth of Venus (c. 1485) by Sandro Botticelli.[53] The goddess Venus (Aphrodite) is the classical personification of beauty.

The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject. For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is "unity in variety and variety in unity".[54] He wrote that beauty was neither purely subjective nor purely objective—it could be understood not as "any Quality suppos'd to be in the Object, which should of itself be beautiful, without relation to any Mind which perceives it: For Beauty, like other Names of sensible Ideas, properly denotes the Perception of some mind; ... however we generally imagine that there is something in the Object just like our Perception."[55]

Immanuel Kant believed that there could be no "universal criterion of the beautiful" and that the experience of beauty is subjective, but that an object is judged to be beautiful when it seems to display "purposiveness"; that is, when its form is perceived to have the character of a thing designed according to some principle and fitted for a purpose.[56] He distinguished "free beauty" from "merely dependent beauty", explaining that "the first presupposes no concept of what the object ought to be; the second does presuppose such a concept and the perfection of the object in accordance therewith."[57] By this definition, free beauty is found in seashells and wordless music; dependent beauty in buildings and the human body.[57]

The Romantic poets, too, became highly concerned with the nature of beauty, with John Keats arguing in Ode on a Grecian Urn that:

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, —that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

Western 19th and 20th century

In the Romantic period, Edmund Burke postulated a difference between beauty in its classical meaning and the sublime.[58] The concept of the sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic art and architecture, though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty, as sublime.[59]

The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in postmodernism's anti-aesthetics.[60] This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty.[61]

In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers have returned to beauty as an important value. American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to reaffirm the status of beauty as an important philosophical concept.[62][63] He rejected the subjectivism of Kant and sought to identify the properties inherent in an object that make it beautiful. He called qualities such as vividness, boldness, and subtlety "properties of qualitative degree" (PQDs) and stated that a PQD makes an object beautiful if it is not—and does not create the appearance of—"a property of deficiency, lack, or defect"; and if the PQD is strongly present in the object.[64]

Elaine Scarry argues that beauty is related to justice.[65]

Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure.[66][67] Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing.[68][69][70] Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex.[71][72] This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field.[73]

Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty: A History of a Western Idea (2004)[74] and On Ugliness (2007).[75] The narrator of his novel The Name of the Rose follows Aquinas in declaring: "three things concur in creating beauty: first of all integrity or perfection, and for this reason, we consider ugly all incomplete things; then proper proportion or consonance; and finally clarity and light", before going on to say "the sight of the beautiful implies peace".[76][77]

Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy has traditionally not made a separate discipline of the philosophy of beauty.[78] Confucius identified beauty with goodness, and considered a virtuous personality to be the greatest of beauties: In his philosophy, "a neighborhood with a ren man in it is a beautiful neighborhood."[79] Confucius's student Zeng Shen expressed a similar idea: "few men could see the beauty in some one whom they dislike."[79] Mencius considered "complete truthfulness" to be beauty.[80] Zhu Xi said: "When one has strenuously implemented goodness until it is filled to completion and has accumulated truth, then the beauty will reside within it and will not depend on externals."[80]

As an attribute to humans

Main articles: Physical attractiveness and Feminine beauty ideal
 
The bust of Nefertiti, 14th century BC

The word "beauty" is often[how often?] used as a countable noun to describe a beautiful woman.[81][82]

The characterization of a person as "beautiful", whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often[how often?] based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.[citation needed]

Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty.[83][84] However, humans who are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history.[citation needed]

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness".[85][86][87][88][89] When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images.[90] Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer-generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces.[91] It is argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous that sexual creatures are attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features, because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects.[85][92][93][94]

Since the 1970's there has been increasing evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy, and is probably innate,[95][96][86][97][98] and that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and cultures.[99][100]

A feature of beautiful women which has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70. As of 2004, physiologists had shown that women with hourglass figures were more fertile than other women because of higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates.[101][102] However, in 2008 other commentators have suggested that this preference may not be universal. For instance, in some non-Western cultures in which women have to do work such as finding food, men tend to have preferences for higher waist-hip ratios.[103][104][105]

Exposure to the thin ideal in mass media, such as fashion magazines, directly correlates with body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and the development of eating disorders among female viewers.[106][107] Further, the widening gap between individual body sizes and societal ideals continues to breed anxiety among young girls as they grow, highlighting the dangerous nature of beauty standards in society.[108]

Western concept

Beauty standards are rooted in cultural norms crafted by societies and media over centuries. As of 2018, it has been argued that the predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric concept of beauty, which assigns inferiority to women of color.[109] Thus, societies and cultures across the globe struggle to diminish the longstanding internalized racism.[110]

Eurocentric standards for men include tallness, leanness, and muscularity, which have been idolized through American media, such as in Hollywood films and magazine covers.[111]

The prevailing Eurocentric concept of beauty has varying effects on different cultures. Primarily, adherence to this standard among African American women has bred a lack of positive reification of African beauty, and philosopher Cornel West elaborates that, "much of black self-hatred and self-contempt has to do with the refusal of many black Americans to love their own black bodies-especially their black noses, hips, lips, and hair."[112] These insecurities can be traced back to global idealization of women with light skin, green or blue eyes, and long straight or wavy hair in magazines and media that starkly contrast with the natural features of African women.[113]

Much criticism has been directed at models of beauty which depend solely upon Western ideals of beauty as seen for example in the Barbie model franchise. Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model of beauty and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman, leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will become anorexic.[114]

As of 1998, these criticisms, the lack of diversity in such franchises as the Barbie model of beauty in Western culture, had led to a dialogue to create non-exclusive models of Western ideals in body type and beauty.[115] Mattel responded to these criticisms. Starting in 1980, it produced Hispanic dolls, and later came models from across the globe. For example, in 2007, it introduced "Cinco de Mayo Barbie" wearing a ruffled red, white, and green dress (echoing the Mexican flag). Hispanic magazine reports that:

[O]ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie's history came when she embraced multi-culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes, hair colors and skin tones to more closely resemble the girls who idolized her. Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie, Spanish Barbie, Peruvian Barbie, Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie. She also has had close Hispanic friends, such as Teresa.[116]

Black concept

In the 1960s the black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel the notion of a Eurocentric concept of beauty.[117]

Asian concept

 
An Indian woman in her traditional attire

In East Asian cultures, familial pressures and cultural norms shape beauty ideals; a 2017 experimental study concluded that expecting that men in Asian culture did not like women who look "fragile" was impacting Asian American women's lifestyle, eating, and appearance choices.[118][119] In addition to the "male gaze", media portrayals of Asian women as petite and the portrayal of beautiful women in American media as fair complexioned and slim-figured have induced anxiety and depressive symptoms among Asian American women who do not fit either of these beauty ideals.[118][119] Further, the high status associated with fairer skin can be attributed to Asian societal history, as upper-class people hired workers to perform outdoor, manual labor, cultivating a visual divide over time between lighter complexioned, wealthier families and sun tanned, darker laborers.[119] This along with the Eurocentric beauty ideals embedded in Asian culture has made skin lightening creams, rhinoplasty, and blepharoplasty (an eyelid surgery meant to give Asians a more European, "double-eyelid" appearance) commonplace among Asian women, illuminating the insecurity that results from cultural beauty standards.[119]

In Japan, the concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen'. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. A multibillion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for this reason.[citation needed]

Effects on society

Researchers have found that good-looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance.[120] Some studies using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive "defendants" are less likely to be convicted—and if convicted are likely to receive lighter sentences—than less attractive ones (although the opposite effect was observed when the alleged crime was swindling, perhaps because jurors perceived the defendant's attractiveness as facilitating the crime).[121] Studies among teens and young adults, such as those of psychiatrist and self-help author Eva Ritvo show that skin conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and opportunity.[122]

How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary-looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good-looking.[123] In the market for loans, the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals, although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market, women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not matter much.[124] The impact of physical attractiveness on earnings varies across races, with the largest beauty wage gap among black women and black men.[125]

Conversely, being very unattractive increases the individual's propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.[126]

Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism.[127]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Richard O. Prum (2018). The Evolution of Beauty: How Darwin's Forgotten Theory of Mate Choice Shapes the Animal World - and Us. Anchor. ISBN 978-0345804570.
  • Liebelt, C. (2022), Beauty: What Makes Us Dream, What Haunts Us. Feminist Anthropology. https://doi.org/10.1002/fea2.12076

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beauty.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Beauty.
 
Look up beauty or pretty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Sartwell, Crispin. "Beauty". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Beauty at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
  • BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty (requires RealAudio)
  • Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
  • beautycheck.de/english Regensburg University – Characteristics of beautiful faces
  • Eli Siegel's "Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?"
  • Art and love in Renaissance Italy , Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 11, 2008-Feb. 16, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (see Belle: Picturing Beautiful Women; pages 246–254).
  • Plato - Symposium in S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, C. D. C. Reeve (ed.)

May 04, 2023
beauty, other, uses, disambiguation, commonly, described, feature, objects, that, makes, these, objects, pleasurable, perceive, such, objects, include, landscapes, sunsets, humans, works, together, with, taste, main, subject, aesthetics, major, branches, philo. For other uses see Beauty disambiguation Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that makes these objects pleasurable to perceive Such objects include landscapes sunsets humans and works of art Beauty together with art and taste is the main subject of aesthetics one of the major branches of philosophy As a positive aesthetic value it is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de Paris In Gothic architecture light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God which was heralded in its design 1 One difficulty in understanding beauty is because it has both objective and subjective aspects it is seen as a property of things but also as depending on the emotional response of observers Because of its subjective side beauty is said to be in the eye of the beholder 2 It has been argued that the ability on the side of the subject needed to perceive and judge beauty sometimes referred to as the sense of taste can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run This would suggest that the standards of validity of judgments of beauty are intersubjective i e dependent on a group of judges rather than fully subjective or fully objective Conceptions of beauty aim to capture what is essential to all beautiful things Classical conceptions define beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole Hedonist conceptions see a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty e g that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause disinterested pleasure Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their value of a loving attitude towards them or of their function Contents 1 Overview 2 Objectivism and subjectivism 3 Conceptions 3 1 Classical 3 2 Hedonism 3 3 Others 4 In philosophy 4 1 Greco Roman tradition 4 1 1 Pre Socratic 4 1 2 Classical period 4 1 3 Roman 4 2 Western Middle Ages 4 3 Renaissance 4 4 Age of Reason 4 5 Western 19th and 20th century 4 6 Chinese philosophy 5 As an attribute to humans 5 1 Western concept 5 2 Black concept 5 3 Asian concept 6 Effects on society 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksOverviewBeauty together with art and taste is the main subject of aesthetics one of the major branches of philosophy 3 4 Beauty is usually categorized as an aesthetic property besides other properties like grace elegance or the sublime 5 6 7 As a positive aesthetic value beauty is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart Beauty is often listed as one of the three fundamental concepts of human understanding besides truth and goodness 5 8 6 Objectivists or realists see beauty as an objective or mind independent feature of beautiful things which is denied by subjectivists 3 9 The source of this debate is that judgments of beauty seem to be based on subjective grounds namely our feelings while claiming universal correctness at the same time 10 This tension is sometimes referred to as the antinomy of taste 4 Adherents of both sides have suggested that a certain faculty commonly called a sense of taste is necessary for making reliable judgments about beauty 3 10 David Hume for example suggests that this faculty can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run 3 9 Beauty is mainly discussed in relation to concrete objects accessible to sensory perception It has been suggested that the beauty of a thing supervenes on the sensory features of this thing 10 It has also been proposed that abstract objects like stories or mathematical proofs can be beautiful 11 Beauty plays a central role in works of art and nature 12 10 An influential distinction among beautiful things according to Immanuel Kant is that between dependent and free beauty A thing has dependent beauty if its beauty depends on the conception or function of this thing unlike free or absolute beauty 10 Examples of dependent beauty include an ox which is beautiful as an ox but not beautiful as a horse 3 or a photograph which is beautiful because it depicts a beautiful building but that lacks beauty generally speaking because of its low quality 9 Objectivism and subjectivismFurther information objectivity and subjectivity Judgments of beauty seem to occupy an intermediary position between objective judgments e g concerning the mass and shape of a grapefruit and subjective likes e g concerning whether the grapefruit tastes good 13 10 9 Judgments of beauty differ from the former because they are based on subjective feelings rather than objective perception But they also differ from the latter because they lay claim on universal correctness 10 This tension is also reflected in common language On the one hand we talk about beauty as an objective feature of the world that is ascribed for example to landscapes paintings or humans 14 The subjective side on the other hand is expressed in sayings like beauty is in the eye of the beholder 3 These two positions are often referred to as objectivism or realism and subjectivism 3 Objectivism is the traditional view while subjectivism developed more recently in western philosophy Objectivists hold that beauty is a mind independent feature of things On this account the beauty of a landscape is independent of who perceives it or whether it is perceived at all 3 9 Disagreements may be explained by an inability to perceive this feature sometimes referred to as a lack of taste 15 Subjectivism on the other hand denies the mind independent existence of beauty 5 3 9 Influential for the development of this position was John Locke s distinction between primary qualities which the object has independent of the observer and secondary qualities which constitute powers in the object to produce certain ideas in the observer 3 16 5 When applied to beauty there is still a sense in which it depends on the object and its powers 9 But this account makes the possibility of genuine disagreements about claims of beauty implausible since the same object may produce very different ideas in distinct observers The notion of taste can still be used to explain why different people disagree about what is beautiful but there is no objectively right or wrong taste there are just different tastes 3 The problem with both the objectivist and the subjectivist position in their extreme form is that each has to deny some intuitions about beauty This issue is sometimes discussed under the label antinomy of taste 3 4 It has prompted various philosophers to seek a unified theory that can take all these intuitions into account One promising route to solve this problem is to move from subjective to intersubjective theories which hold that the standards of validity of judgments of taste are intersubjective or dependent on a group of judges rather than objective This approach tries to explain how genuine disagreement about beauty is possible despite the fact that beauty is a mind dependent property dependent not on an individual but a group 3 4 A closely related theory sees beauty as a secondary or response dependent property 9 On one such account an object is beautiful if it causes pleasure by virtue of its aesthetic properties 5 The problem that different people respond differently can be addressed by combining response dependence theories with so called ideal observer theories it only matters how an ideal observer would respond 10 There is no general agreement on how ideal observers are to be defined but it is usually assumed that they are experienced judges of beauty with a fully developed sense of taste This suggests an indirect way of solving the antinomy of taste instead of looking for necessary and sufficient conditions of beauty itself one can learn to identify the qualities of good critics and rely on their judgments 3 This approach only works if unanimity among experts was ensured But even experienced judges may disagree in their judgments which threatens to undermine ideal observer theories 3 9 ConceptionsVarious conceptions of the essential features of beautiful things have been proposed but there is no consensus as to which is the right one Classical The classical conception further explanation needed defines beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole 3 5 9 On this account which found its most explicit articulation in the Italian Renaissance the beauty of a human body for example depends among other things on the right proportion of the different parts of the body and on the overall symmetry 3 One problem with this conception is that it is difficult to give a general and detailed description of what is meant by harmony between parts and raises the suspicion that defining beauty through harmony results in exchanging one unclear term for another one 3 Some attempts have been made to dissolve this suspicion by searching for laws of beauty like the golden ratio 18th century philosopher Alexander Baumgarten for example saw laws of beauty in analogy with laws of nature and believed that they could be discovered through empirical research 5 As of 2003 these attempts have failed to find a general definition of beauty and several authors take the opposite claim that such laws cannot be formulated as part of their definition of beauty 10 Hedonism Main article Hedonism A very common element in many conceptions of beauty is its relation to pleasure 11 5 Hedonism makes this relation part of the definition of beauty by holding that there is a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty e g that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause pleasure or that the experience of beauty is always accompanied by pleasure 12 This account is sometimes labeled as aesthetic hedonism in order to distinguish it from other forms of hedonism 17 18 An influential articulation of this position comes from Thomas Aquinas who treats beauty as that which pleases in the very apprehension of it 19 Immanuel Kant explains this pleasure through a harmonious interplay between the faculties of understanding and imagination 11 A further question for hedonists is how to explain the relation between beauty and pleasure This problem is akin to the Euthyphro dilemma is something beautiful because we enjoy it or do we enjoy it because it is beautiful 5 Identity theorists solve this problem by denying that there is a difference between beauty and pleasure they identify beauty or the appearance of it with the experience of aesthetic pleasure 11 Hedonists usually restrict and specify the notion of pleasure in various ways in order to avoid obvious counterexamples One important distinction in this context is the difference between pure and mixed pleasure 11 Pure pleasure excludes any form of pain or unpleasant feeling while the experience of mixed pleasure can include unpleasant elements 20 But beauty can involve mixed pleasure for example in the case of a beautifully tragic story which is why mixed pleasure is usually allowed in hedonist conceptions of beauty 11 Another problem faced by hedonist theories is that we take pleasure from many things that are not beautiful One way to address this issue is to associate beauty with a special type of pleasure aesthetic or disinterested pleasure 3 4 7 A pleasure is disinterested if it is indifferent to the existence of the beautiful object or if it did not arise owing to an antecedent desire through means end reasoning 21 11 For example the joy of looking at a beautiful landscape would still be valuable if it turned out that this experience was an illusion which would not be true if this joy was due to seeing the landscape as a valuable real estate opportunity 3 Opponents of hedonism usually concede that many experiences of beauty are pleasurable but deny that this is true for all cases 12 For example a cold jaded critic may still be a good judge of beauty because of her years of experience but lack the joy that initially accompanied her work 11 One way to avoid this objection is to allow responses to beautiful things to lack pleasure while insisting that all beautiful things merit pleasure that aesthetic pleasure is the only appropriate response to them 12 Others G E Moore explained beauty in regard to intrinsic value as that of which the admiring contemplation is good in itself 21 5 This definition connects beauty to experience while managing to avoid some of the problems usually associated with subjectivist positions since it allows that things may be beautiful even if they are never experienced 21 Another subjectivist theory of beauty comes from George Santayana who suggested that we project pleasure onto the things we call beautiful So in a process akin to a category mistake one treats one s subjective pleasure as an objective property of the beautiful thing 11 3 5 Other conceptions include defining beauty in terms of a loving or longing attitude towards the beautiful object or in terms of its usefulness or function 3 22 In 1871 functionalist Charles Darwin explained beauty as result of accumulative sexual selection in The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex 5 In philosophyGreco Roman tradition The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English language words beauty or beautiful was kallos kallos and the adjective was kalos kalos However kalos may and is also translated as good or of fine quality and thus has a broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty Similarly kallos was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears an erotic connotation 23 The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡraῖos hōraios 24 an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥra hōra meaning hour In Koine Greek beauty was thus associated with being of one s hour 25 Thus a ripe fruit of its time was considered beautiful whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful In Attic Greek hōraios had many meanings including youthful and ripe old age 25 Another classical term in use to describe beauty was pulchrum Latin 26 Beauty for ancient thinkers existed both in form which is the material world as it is and as embodied in the spirit which is the world of mental formations 27 Greek mythology mentions Helen of Troy as the most beautiful woman 28 29 30 31 32 Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion Pre Socratic In one fragment of Heraclitus s writings Fragment 106 he mentions beauty this reads To God all things are beautiful good right 33 The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre Socratic period such as Pythagoras who conceived of beauty as useful for a moral education of the soul 34 He wrote of how people experience pleasure when aware of a certain type of formal situation present in reality perceivable by sight or through the ear 35 and discovered the underlying mathematical ratios in the harmonic scales in music 34 The Pythagoreans conceived of the presence of beauty in universal terms which is as existing in a cosmological state they observed beauty in the heavens 27 They saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty In particular they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive 36 Classical period The classical concept of beauty is one that exhibits perfect proportion Wolfflin 37 In this context the concept belonged often within the discipline of mathematics 26 An idea of spiritual beauty emerged during the classical period 27 beauty was something embodying divine goodness while the demonstration of behaviour which might be classified as beautiful from an inner state of morality which is aligned to the good 38 The writing of Xenophon shows a conversation between Socrates and Aristippus Socrates discerned differences in the conception of the beautiful for example in inanimate objects the effectiveness of execution of design was a deciding factor on the perception of beauty in something 27 By the account of Xenophon Socrates found beauty congruent with that to which was defined as the morally good in short he thought beauty coincident with the good 39 Beauty is a subject of Plato in his work Symposium 34 In the work the high priestess Diotima describes how beauty moves out from a core singular appreciation of the body to outer appreciations via loved ones to the world in its state of culture and society Wright 35 In other words Diotoma gives to Socrates an explanation of how love should begin with erotic attachment and end with the transcending of the physical to an appreciation of beauty as a thing in itself The ascent of love begins with one s own body then secondarily in appreciating beauty in another s body thirdly beauty in the soul which cognates to beauty in the mind in the modern sense fourthly beauty in institutions laws and activities fifthly beauty in knowledge the sciences and finally to lastly love beauty itself which translates to the original Greek language term as auto to kalon 40 In the final state auto to kalon and truth are united as one 41 There is the sense in the text concerning love and beauty they both co exist but are still independent or in other words mutually exclusive since love does not have beauty since it seeks beauty 42 The work toward the end provides a description of beauty in a negative sense 42 Plato also discusses beauty in his work Phaedrus 41 and identifies Alcibiades as beautiful in Parmenides 43 He considered beauty to be the Idea Form above all other Ideas 44 Platonic thought synthesized beauty with the divine 35 Scruton cited Konstan states Plato states of the idea of beauty of it the idea being something inviting desirousness c f seducing and promotes an intellectual renunciation c f denouncing of desire 45 For Alexander Nehamas it is only the locating of desire to which the sense of beauty exists in the considerations of Plato 46 Aristotle defines beauty in Metaphysics as having order symmetry and definiteness which the mathematical sciences exhibit to a special degree 37 He saw a relationship between the beautiful to kalon and virtue arguing that Virtue aims at the beautiful 47 Roman In De Natura Deorum Cicero wrote the splendour and beauty of creation in respect to this and all the facets of reality resulting from creation he postulated these to be a reason to see the existence of a God as creator 48 Western Middle Ages In the Middle Ages Catholic philosophers like Thomas Aquinas included beauty among the transcendental attributes of being 49 In his Summa Theologica Aquinas described the three conditions of beauty as integritas wholeness consonantia harmony and proportion and claritas a radiance and clarity that makes the form of a thing apparent to the mind 50 In the Gothic Architecture of the High and Late Middle Ages light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God which was heralded in design 1 Examples are the stained glass of Gothic Cathedrals including Notre Dame de Paris and Chartres Cathedral 51 St Augustine said of beauty Beauty is indeed a good gift of God but that the good may not think it a great good God dispenses it even to the wicked 52 Renaissance Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe leading to a re adoption of what became known as a classical ideal In terms of female human beauty a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a classical beauty or said to possess a classical beauty whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty and female beauty in western civilization as seen for example in the Winged Victory of Samothrace During the Gothic era the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful Later Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view and considered beauty to be the product of rational order and harmonious proportions Renaissance artists and architects such as Giorgio Vasari in his Lives of Artists criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism in the 19th century Vasari aligned himself to the classical notion and thought of beauty as defined as arising from proportion and order 38 Age of Reason The Birth of Venus c 1485 by Sandro Botticelli 53 The goddess Venus Aphrodite is the classical personification of beauty The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject For example Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is unity in variety and variety in unity 54 He wrote that beauty was neither purely subjective nor purely objective it could be understood not as any Quality suppos d to be in the Object which should of itself be beautiful without relation to any Mind which perceives it For Beauty like other Names of sensible Ideas properly denotes the Perception of some mind however we generally imagine that there is something in the Object just like our Perception 55 Immanuel Kant believed that there could be no universal criterion of the beautiful and that the experience of beauty is subjective but that an object is judged to be beautiful when it seems to display purposiveness that is when its form is perceived to have the character of a thing designed according to some principle and fitted for a purpose 56 He distinguished free beauty from merely dependent beauty explaining that the first presupposes no concept of what the object ought to be the second does presuppose such a concept and the perfection of the object in accordance therewith 57 By this definition free beauty is found in seashells and wordless music dependent beauty in buildings and the human body 57 The Romantic poets too became highly concerned with the nature of beauty with John Keats arguing in Ode on a Grecian Urn that Beauty is truth truth beauty that is all Ye know on earth and all ye need to know Western 19th and 20th century In the Romantic period Edmund Burke postulated a difference between beauty in its classical meaning and the sublime 58 The concept of the sublime as explicated by Burke and Kant suggested viewing Gothic art and architecture though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty as sublime 59 The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike culminating in postmodernism s anti aesthetics 60 This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism s main influences Friedrich Nietzsche who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty 61 In the aftermath of postmodernism s rejection of beauty thinkers have returned to beauty as an important value American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to reaffirm the status of beauty as an important philosophical concept 62 63 He rejected the subjectivism of Kant and sought to identify the properties inherent in an object that make it beautiful He called qualities such as vividness boldness and subtlety properties of qualitative degree PQDs and stated that a PQD makes an object beautiful if it is not and does not create the appearance of a property of deficiency lack or defect and if the PQD is strongly present in the object 64 Elaine Scarry argues that beauty is related to justice 65 Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure 66 67 Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing 68 69 70 Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex 71 72 This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field 73 Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty A History of a Western Idea 2004 74 and On Ugliness 2007 75 The narrator of his novel The Name of the Rose follows Aquinas in declaring three things concur in creating beauty first of all integrity or perfection and for this reason we consider ugly all incomplete things then proper proportion or consonance and finally clarity and light before going on to say the sight of the beautiful implies peace 76 77 Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy has traditionally not made a separate discipline of the philosophy of beauty 78 Confucius identified beauty with goodness and considered a virtuous personality to be the greatest of beauties In his philosophy a neighborhood with a ren man in it is a beautiful neighborhood 79 Confucius s student Zeng Shen expressed a similar idea few men could see the beauty in some one whom they dislike 79 Mencius considered complete truthfulness to be beauty 80 Zhu Xi said When one has strenuously implemented goodness until it is filled to completion and has accumulated truth then the beauty will reside within it and will not depend on externals 80 As an attribute to humansMain articles Physical attractiveness and Feminine beauty ideal The bust of Nefertiti 14th century BC The word beauty is often how often used as a countable noun to describe a beautiful woman 81 82 The characterization of a person as beautiful whether on an individual basis or by community consensus is often how often based on some combination of inner beauty which includes psychological factors such as personality intelligence grace politeness charisma integrity congruence and elegance and outer beauty i e physical attractiveness which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis citation needed Standards of beauty have changed over time based on changing cultural values Historically paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty 83 84 However humans who are relatively young with smooth skin well proportioned bodies and regular features have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history citation needed A strong indicator of physical beauty is averageness 85 86 87 88 89 When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image they become progressively closer to the ideal image and are perceived as more attractive This was first noticed in 1883 when Francis Galton overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each When doing this he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images 90 Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces 91 It is argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous that sexual creatures are attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects 85 92 93 94 Since the 1970 s there has been increasing evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy and is probably innate 95 96 86 97 98 and that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and cultures 99 100 A feature of beautiful women which has been explored by researchers is a waist hip ratio of approximately 0 70 As of 2004 physiologists had shown that women with hourglass figures were more fertile than other women because of higher levels of certain female hormones a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates 101 102 However in 2008 other commentators have suggested that this preference may not be universal For instance in some non Western cultures in which women have to do work such as finding food men tend to have preferences for higher waist hip ratios 103 104 105 Exposure to the thin ideal in mass media such as fashion magazines directly correlates with body dissatisfaction low self esteem and the development of eating disorders among female viewers 106 107 Further the widening gap between individual body sizes and societal ideals continues to breed anxiety among young girls as they grow highlighting the dangerous nature of beauty standards in society 108 Western concept Beauty standards are rooted in cultural norms crafted by societies and media over centuries As of 2018 it has been argued that the predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric concept of beauty which assigns inferiority to women of color 109 Thus societies and cultures across the globe struggle to diminish the longstanding internalized racism 110 Eurocentric standards for men include tallness leanness and muscularity which have been idolized through American media such as in Hollywood films and magazine covers 111 The prevailing Eurocentric concept of beauty has varying effects on different cultures Primarily adherence to this standard among African American women has bred a lack of positive reification of African beauty and philosopher Cornel West elaborates that much of black self hatred and self contempt has to do with the refusal of many black Americans to love their own black bodies especially their black noses hips lips and hair 112 These insecurities can be traced back to global idealization of women with light skin green or blue eyes and long straight or wavy hair in magazines and media that starkly contrast with the natural features of African women 113 Much criticism has been directed at models of beauty which depend solely upon Western ideals of beauty as seen for example in the Barbie model franchise Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model of beauty and will attempt to emulate her One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will become anorexic 114 As of 1998 these criticisms the lack of diversity in such franchises as the Barbie model of beauty in Western culture had led to a dialogue to create non exclusive models of Western ideals in body type and beauty 115 Mattel responded to these criticisms Starting in 1980 it produced Hispanic dolls and later came models from across the globe For example in 2007 it introduced Cinco de Mayo Barbie wearing a ruffled red white and green dress echoing the Mexican flag Hispanic magazine reports that O ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie s history came when she embraced multi culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes hair colors and skin tones to more closely resemble the girls who idolized her Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie Spanish Barbie Peruvian Barbie Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie She also has had close Hispanic friends such as Teresa 116 Black concept This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it November 2022 In the 1960s the black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel the notion of a Eurocentric concept of beauty 117 Asian concept An Indian woman in her traditional attire In East Asian cultures familial pressures and cultural norms shape beauty ideals a 2017 experimental study concluded that expecting that men in Asian culture did not like women who look fragile was impacting Asian American women s lifestyle eating and appearance choices 118 119 In addition to the male gaze media portrayals of Asian women as petite and the portrayal of beautiful women in American media as fair complexioned and slim figured have induced anxiety and depressive symptoms among Asian American women who do not fit either of these beauty ideals 118 119 Further the high status associated with fairer skin can be attributed to Asian societal history as upper class people hired workers to perform outdoor manual labor cultivating a visual divide over time between lighter complexioned wealthier families and sun tanned darker laborers 119 This along with the Eurocentric beauty ideals embedded in Asian culture has made skin lightening creams rhinoplasty and blepharoplasty an eyelid surgery meant to give Asians a more European double eyelid appearance commonplace among Asian women illuminating the insecurity that results from cultural beauty standards 119 In Japan the concept of beauty in men is known as bishōnen Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols A multibillion dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for this reason citation needed Effects on societyResearchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance 120 Some studies using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive defendants are less likely to be convicted and if convicted are likely to receive lighter sentences than less attractive ones although the opposite effect was observed when the alleged crime was swindling perhaps because jurors perceived the defendant s attractiveness as facilitating the crime 121 Studies among teens and young adults such as those of psychiatrist and self help author Eva Ritvo show that skin conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and opportunity 122 How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good looking 123 In the market for loans the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals although they are less likely to default In the marriage market women s looks are at a premium but men s looks do not matter much 124 The impact of physical attractiveness on earnings varies across races with the largest beauty wage gap among black women and black men 125 Conversely being very unattractive increases the individual s propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs 126 Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism 127 See alsoAdornment Aesthetics Beauty pageant Body modification Feminine beauty ideal Glamour presentation Masculine beauty ideal Mathematical beauty Processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure Unattractiveness CosmeticsReferences a b Stegers Rudolf 2008 Sacred Buildings A Design Manual Berlin De Gruyter p 60 ISBN 3764382767 Gary Martin 2007 Beauty 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Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10 536 doi 10 3389 fnhum 2016 00536 PMC 5095118 PMID 27867350 Brielmann Aenne A Pelli Denis G May 2017 Beauty Requires Thought Current Biology 27 10 1506 1513 e3 doi 10 1016 j cub 2017 04 018 PMC 6778408 PMID 28502660 Kawabata Hideaki Zeki Semir April 2004 Neural Correlates of Beauty Journal of Neurophysiology 91 4 1699 1705 doi 10 1152 jn 00696 2003 PMID 15010496 Ishizu Tomohiro Zeki Semir July 6 2011 Toward A Brain Based Theory of Beauty PLOS ONE 6 7 e21852 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 621852I doi 10 1371 journal pone 0021852 PMC 3130765 PMID 21755004 Conway Bevil R Rehding Alexander March 19 2013 Neuroaesthetics and the Trouble with Beauty PLOS Biology 11 3 e1001504 doi 10 1371 journal pbio 1001504 PMC 3601993 PMID 23526878 Eco Umberto 2004 On Beauty A historyof a western idea London Secker amp Warburg ISBN 978 0436205170 non primary source needed Eco Umberto 2007 On Ugliness London Harvill Secker ISBN 9781846551222 non primary source needed Eco Umberto 1980 The Name of the Rose London Vintage p 65 ISBN 9780099466031 Fasolini Diego 2006 The Intrusion of Laughter into the Abbey of Umberto Eco s The Name of the Rose The Christian paradox of Joy Mingling with Sorrow Romance Notes 46 2 119 129 JSTOR 43801801 The Chinese Text Studies in Comparative Literature 1986 Cocos Keeling Islands Chinese University Press p 119 ISBN 962201318X a b Chang Chi yun 2013 Confucianism A Modern Interpretation 2012 Edition Singapore World Scientific Publishing Company p 213 ISBN 9814439894 a b Tang Yijie 2015 Confucianism Buddhism Daoism Christianity and Chinese Culture Springer Berlin Heidelberg p 242 ISBN 3662455331 Beauty Definition of Beauty by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico com Lexico Dictionaries English Archived from the original on August 9 2020 Retrieved August 1 2020 BEAUTY noun American English definition and synonyms Macmillan Dictionary Macmillan Dictionary Archived from the original on July 9 2017 Retrieved August 1 2020 Artists Types of Beauty Archived 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of female faces Psychonomic Bulletin amp Review Springer Science and Business Media LLC 11 3 482 487 doi 10 3758 bf03196599 ISSN 1069 9384 PMID 15376799 S2CID 25389002 The Beauty of Averageness Langlois Social Development Lab Archived from the original on February 4 2015 Retrieved May 1 2018 Galton Francis 1879 Composite Portraits Made by Combining Those of Many Different Persons Into a Single Resultant Figure The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland JSTOR 8 132 144 doi 10 2307 2841021 ISSN 0959 5295 JSTOR 2841021 Archived from the original on July 26 2020 Retrieved June 14 2020 Langlois Judith H Roggman Lori A Musselman Lisa 1994 What Is Average and What Is Not Average About Attractive Faces Psychological Science SAGE Publications 5 4 214 220 doi 10 1111 j 1467 9280 1994 tb00503 x ISSN 0956 7976 S2CID 145147905 Koeslag Johan H 1990 Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species promotes stasis and stabilizes social behaviour Journal of Theoretical 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cognitive explanation Developmental Psychology American Psychological Association APA 35 3 848 855 doi 10 1037 0012 1649 35 3 848 ISSN 1939 0599 PMID 10380874 Langlois Judith H Ritter Jean M Roggman Lori A Vaughn Lesley S 1991 Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces Developmental Psychology American Psychological Association APA 27 1 79 84 doi 10 1037 0012 1649 27 1 79 ISSN 1939 0599 Apicella Coren L Little Anthony C Marlowe Frank W 2007 Facial Averageness and Attractiveness in an Isolated Population of Hunter Gatherers Perception SAGE Publications 36 12 1813 1820 doi 10 1068 p5601 ISSN 0301 0066 PMID 18283931 S2CID 37353815 Rhodes Gillian 2006 The Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Beauty Annual Review of Psychology Annual Reviews 57 1 199 226 doi 10 1146 annurev psych 57 102904 190208 ISSN 0066 4308 PMID 16318594 Hourglass figure fertility link BBC News May 4 2004 Archived from the original on October 11 2011 Retrieved July 1 2018 Bhattacharya Shaoni May 5 2004 Barbie shaped women more fertile New Scientist Archived from the original on July 10 2018 Retrieved July 1 2018 Best Female Figure Not an Hourglass Live Science December 3 2008 Archived from the original on July 10 2018 Retrieved July 1 2018 Locke Susannah June 22 2014 Did evolution really make men prefer women with hourglass figures Vox Archived from the original on July 10 2018 Retrieved July 1 2018 Begley Sharon Hourglass Figures We Take It All Back Sharon Begley Archived from the original on July 10 2018 Retrieved July 1 2018 Media amp Eating Disorders National Eating Disorders Association October 5 2017 Archived from the original on December 2 2018 Retrieved November 27 2018 Model s link to teenage anorexia BBC News May 30 2000 Archived from the original on April 13 2020 Retrieved October 25 2009 Jade Deanne National Centre for Eating Disorders The Media amp Eating Disorders National Centre for Eating Disorders Archived from the original on December 24 2018 Retrieved November 27 2018 Harper Kathryn Choma Becky L October 5 2018 Internalised White Ideal Skin Tone Surveillance and Hair Surveillance Predict Skin and Hair Dissatisfaction and Skin Bleaching among African American and Indian Women Sex Roles 80 11 12 735 744 doi 10 1007 s11199 018 0966 9 ISSN 0360 0025 S2CID 150156045 Weedon Chris December 6 2007 Key Issues in Postcolonial Feminism A Western Perspective Gender Forum Electronic Journal The New And Impossible Standards of Male Beauty Paging Dr NerdLove January 26 2015 Archived from the original on December 29 2018 Retrieved November 27 2018 West Cornel 1994 Race Matters Vintage Books ISBN 978 0 679 74986 8 page needed Patton Tracey Owens July 2006 Hey Girl Am I More than My Hair African American Women and Their Struggles with Beauty Body Image and Hair NWSA Journal 18 2 24 51 JSTOR 4317206 Project MUSE 199496 ProQuest 233235409 Dittmar Helga Halliwell Emma Ive Suzanne March 2006 Does Barbie make girls want to be thin The effect of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of 5 to 8 year old girls Developmental Psychology 42 2 283 292 doi 10 1037 0012 1649 42 2 283 PMID 16569167 Marco Tosa 1998 Barbie Four Decades of Fashion Fantasy and Fun H N Abrams ISBN 978 0 8109 4008 6 page needed A Barbie for Everyone Hispanic 22 1 February March 2009 DoCarmo Stephen Notes on the Black Cultural Movement Bucks County Community College Archived from the original on April 8 2005 Retrieved November 27 2007 a b Wong Stephanie N Keum Brian TaeHyuk Caffarel Daniel Srinivasan Ranjana Morshedian Negar Capodilupo Christina M Brewster Melanie E December 2017 Exploring the conceptualization of body image for Asian American women Asian American Journal of Psychology 8 4 296 307 doi 10 1037 aap0000077 S2CID 151560804 a b c d Le C N June 4 2014 The Homogenization of Asian Beauty The Society Pages Archived from the original on December 2 2018 Retrieved December 1 2018 self published source Begley Sharon July 14 2009 The Link Between Beauty and Grades Newsweek Archived from the original on April 20 2010 Retrieved May 31 2010 Amina A Memon Aldert Vrij Ray Bull October 31 2003 Psychology and Law Truthfulness Accuracy and Credibility John Wiley amp Sons pp 46 47 ISBN 978 0 470 86835 5 Image survey reveals perception is reality when it comes to teenagers Press release multivu prnewswire com Archived from the original on July 10 2012 Lorenz K 2005 Do pretty people earn more CNN News Time Warner Cable News Network Archived from the original on October 12 2015 Retrieved January 31 2007 Daniel Hamermesh Stephen J Dubner January 30 2014 Reasons to not be ugly full transcript Freakonomics Archived from the original on March 1 2014 Retrieved March 4 2014 Monk Ellis P Esposito Michael H Lee Hedwig July 1 2021 Beholding Inequality Race Gender and Returns to Physical Attractiveness in the United States American Journal of Sociology 127 1 194 241 doi 10 1086 715141 S2CID 235473652 Erdal Tekin Stephen J Dubner January 30 2014 Reasons to not be ugly full transcript Freakonomics Archived from the original on March 1 2014 Retrieved March 4 2014 Leo Gough June 29 2011 C Northcote Parkinson s Parkinson s Law A modern day interpretation of a management classic Infinite Ideas p 36 ISBN 978 1 908189 71 4 Further readingRichard O Prum 2018 The Evolution of Beauty How Darwin s Forgotten Theory of Mate Choice Shapes the Animal World and Us Anchor ISBN 978 0345804570 Liebelt C 2022 Beauty What Makes Us Dream What Haunts Us Feminist Anthropology https doi org 10 1002 fea2 12076External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beauty Wikiquote has quotations related to Beauty Look up beauty or pretty in Wiktionary the free dictionary Sartwell Crispin Beauty In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Beauty at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project BBC Radio 4 s In Our Time programme on Beauty requires RealAudio Dictionary of the History of Ideas Theories of Beauty to the Mid Nineteenth Century beautycheck de english Regensburg University Characteristics of beautiful faces Eli Siegel s Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites Art and love in Renaissance Italy Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov 11 2008 Feb 16 2009 Metropolitan Museum of Art New York see Belle Picturing Beautiful Women pages 246 254 Plato Symposium in S Marc Cohen Patricia Curd C D C Reeve ed Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Beauty amp oldid 1151660107, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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