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Charles Darwin

February 19, 2023

For other people named Charles Darwin, see Charles Darwin (disambiguation).

Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS JP[6] (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/[7] DAR-win; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist,[8] widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science.[9] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[10] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.[11][12]

Charles Darwin

FRS FRGS FLS FZS JP
Darwin, c. 1854, when he was preparing On the Origin of Species[1]
Born
Charles Robert Darwin

(1809-02-12)12 February 1809
Shrewsbury, England
Died19 April 1882(1882-04-19) (aged 73)
Down, Kent, England
Resting placeWestminster Abbey
Known for
Spouse
​
(m. 1839)​
Children10
Awards
Scientific career
FieldsNatural history, geology
Institutions
Tertiary education:

Professional institution:

Academic advisors
Influences
Influenced
Author abbrev. (botany)Darwin
Author abbrev. (zoology)Darwin
Signature

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. His studies at the University of Cambridge's Christ's College from 1828 to 1831 encouraged his passion for natural science.[13] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 established Darwin as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's concept of gradual geological change. Publication of his journal of the voyage made Darwin famous as a popular author.[14]

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and, in 1838, devised his theory of natural selection.[15] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[16] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint submission of both their theories to the Linnean Society of London.[17] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[18] In 1871, he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[19][20] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations that gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[18][21] Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

Biography

Early life and education

Further information: Charles Darwin's education and Darwin–Wedgwood family

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount.[22][23] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.[24]

 
A chalk drawing of the seven-year-old Darwin in 1816, with a potted plant, by Ellen Sharples

Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the local Unitarian Church with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus in attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[25]

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the well regarded University of Edinburgh Medical School with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies.[26] He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest.[27]

In Darwin's second year at the university, he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.[28] He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals.[29] Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[30]

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge in January 1828, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. Darwin was unqualified for Cambridge's Tripos exams, and was required instead to join the ordinary degree course.[31] He preferred riding and shooting to studying.[32]

 
Bicentennial portrait by Anthony Smith of Darwin as a student, in the courtyard at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he had rooms[33]

During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment at Christ's College, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was still studying there. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting.[34][35] He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32).[35][36]

Through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow.[34] He met other leading parson-naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley's Evidences of Christianity (1795).[37] In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.[38]

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature.[39] He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.[40][41]

Survey voyage on HMS Beagle

Further information: Second voyage of HMS Beagle
 
The round-the-world voyage of the Beagle, 1831–1836

After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a few days with student friends at Barmouth. He returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with captain Robert FitzRoy, a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.[42][43] Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation.[44] Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.[45]

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts.[18][46] He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family.[47] He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal.[48] Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton collected during a calm spell.[46][49]

 
Darwin (right) on the Beagle's deck at Bahía Blanca in Argentina, with fossils; caricature by Augustus Earle, the initial ship's artist

On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,[II] and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.[50] When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest,[51] but detested the sight of slavery, and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.[52]

The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They stopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He found bony plates like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos. From a jaw and tooth he identified the gigantic Megatherium, then from Cuvier's description thought the armour was from this animal. The finds were shipped to England, and scientists found the fossils of great interest.[53][54] In Patagonia, Darwin came to wrongly believe the territory was devoid of reptiles.[55]

On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories.[56][57] Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches at a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.[58][59]

Three Fuegians on board, who had been seized during the first Beagle voyage then given Christian education in England, were returning with a missionary. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at Tierra del Fuego he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals.[60] He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.[61] A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.[62]

 
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and the extinction of giant mammals; watercolour by the ship's artist Conrad Martens, who replaced Augustus Earle, in Tierra del Fuego

Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.[63][64]

On the geologically new Galápagos Islands, Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.[65][66] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.[67] He found the Aborigines "good-humoured & pleasant", their numbers depleted by European settlement.[68]

FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising.[64] FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account.[69] Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on geology and natural history.[70][71]

In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".[72] When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".[73] He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".[74]

Without telling Darwin, extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to scientific societies, printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and reported in magazines,[75] including The Athenaeum.[76] Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town,[77] and at Ascension Island read of Sedgwick's prediction that Darwin "will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe".[78][79]

Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory

Further information: Inception of Darwin's theory
 
While still a young man, Darwin joined the scientific elite; portrait by George Richmond

On 2 October 1836 Beagle anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised him on finding available naturalists to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work, due to natural history collecting being encouraged throughout the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.[80]

Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium Darwin had identified, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature, as Darwin had initially thought.[54][81] These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.[82]

In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections, and prepare his own research for publication. Questions of how to combine his diary into the Narrative were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted Broderip's advice to make it a separate volume, and Darwin began work on his Journal and Remarks.[83][84]

Darwin's first paper showed that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing he read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.[85]

 
In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his "B" notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first evolutionary tree

Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage,[86] who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted the Malthusianism that underpinned the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,[87] but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species.[72]

Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.[88] The two rheas were distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.[89]

By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", thereby discarding Lamarck's idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms.[90]

Overwork, illness, and marriage

Further information: Health of Charles Darwin

While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £115,000 in 2021.[91] He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.[92] As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.[93]

As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.[94] His Journal was printed and ready for publication by the end of February 1838, as was the first volume of the Narrative, but FitzRoy was still working hard to finish his own volume.[93]

 
Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood

William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[95] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[18][96] Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[97] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.[98]

The strain took a toll, by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.[99]

On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.[100]

Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time".[101] Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.[102]

Malthus and natural selection

Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population. On 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to Augustin de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."[18][103] This would result in the formation of new species.[18][104] As he later wrote in his Autobiography:

In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...[105]

By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",[106] thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".[107] He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.[18]

On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, while expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.[108] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).[2][109]

On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.[110]

Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research

Further information: Development of Darwin's theory
 
Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin

Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",[105] as his "prime hobby".[111] His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.[18] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, in particular, the barnacles.[112]

FitzRoy's long delayed Narrative was published in May 1839. Darwin's Journal and Remarks got good reviews as the third volume, and on 15 August it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".[71][113]

Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.[114] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in Kent in September.[115] On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".[116][117] Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."[118]

 
Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House in Kent was his usual "thinking path"[119]

By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[120] In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.[121][122]

Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.[123] In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.[124]

In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[125] Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.[126]

In eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.[127] In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[128] In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library.[129] He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".[130]

Publication of the theory of natural selection

Further information: Publication of Darwin's theory
 
Darwin aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Joseph Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."[131]

By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence.[132]

Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo.[132]

In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."[132]

Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,[133][134] and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.[135]

There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[136] Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".[137] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.[138]

On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[139] In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[140] In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.[141][III] Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races.[142][IV] He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."[143][IV] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:

As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.[144]

At the end of the book he concluded that:

There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.[145]

The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development. Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.[146]

Responses to publication

Further information: Reactions to On the Origin of Species
 
During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866
 
An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory[147]

The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.[148] Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.[149] The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,[143][IV] but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.[150]

The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" It said this should be left to theologians as being too dangerous for ordinary readers.[151] Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment which Huxley was trying to overthrow.[152]

In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[153] but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.[154]

The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".[155] In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin. Its ideas, including higher criticism, were attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".[156]

Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology.[155][157] The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.[155][158]

Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,[155] aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen.[159] In response to objections that the origin of life was unexplained, Darwin pointed to acceptance of Newton's law even though the cause of gravity was unknown.[160]

Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection.[161] Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[162] That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".[163] By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.[164]

The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.[165] Darwin's theory resonated with various movements at the time[V] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[VI] Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.[147]

Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany

Further information: Orchids to Variation, Descent of Man to Emotions, and Insectivorous Plants to Worms
 
By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life,[166] Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.[167]

Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants.[168] Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism.[169] Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.[170]

Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.[171]

Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.[161] With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial classification, while emphasising that humans are all one species.[172]

 
Letter of enquiry from Charles Darwin to the physiologist John Burdon-Sanderson
 
Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm

His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."[173] His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."[174]

His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.[175] He was the first person to recognize the significance of carnivory in plants.[176] His botanical work[IX] was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century.[177][178]

Death and funeral

See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms
 
The adjoining tombs of the scientists John Herschel and Charles Darwin in the nave of Westminster Abbey, London

In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure"; there has since been scholarly speculation about his life-long health issues.[179][180]

He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me". While she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".[181]

He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral, held on Wednesday 26 April, was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.[182][12]

Legacy

 
In 1881, Darwin was an eminent figure, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect on many fields of science; his portrait by John Collier was commissioned for the Linnean Society of London

As Alfred Russel Wallace put it, Darwin had "wrought a greater revolution in human thought within a quarter of a century than any man of our time – or perhaps any time", having "given us a new conception of the world of life, and a theory which is itself a powerful instrument of research; has shown us how to combine into one consistent whole the facts accumulated by all the separate classes of workers, and has thereby revolutionised the whole study of nature".[183]

Most scientists were now convinced of evolution as descent with modification, though few agreed with Darwin that natural selection "has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification".[184] During "the eclipse of Darwinism" scientists explored alternative mechanisms. Then Ronald Fisher incorporated Mendelian genetics in The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection,[185] leading to population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, which continues to develop.[21] Scientific discoveries have confirmed and validated Darwin's key insights.[183]

Commemoration

Main article: Commemoration of Charles Darwin
Further information: List of things named after Charles Darwin and List of taxa described by Charles Darwin

Geographical features given his name include Darwin Sound[186] and Mount Darwin,[187] both named while he was on the Beagle voyage, and Darwin Harbour, named by his former shipmates on its next voyage, which eventually became the location of Darwin, the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.[188] Darwin's name was given, formally or informally, to numerous plants and animals, including many he had collected on the voyage.[189][190] Some names were given later, for example, tanagers found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947.[191]

 
Statue of Darwin in the Natural History Museum, London

In 1883 Sir Joseph Boehm sculpted a white marble life-size seated statue of Darwin. It was installed at the top of the main staircase in the Central Hall of the Natural History Museum in London, and unveiled on 9 June 1885 by Thomas Huxley in the presence of Edward, Prince of Wales, Bartholomew Sulivan, and Joseph Parslow at the ceremony.[192][193] In 1927 its place was taken by an elephant, and in 1970 it was moved to the North Hall of the museum, then in May 2008 the statue was moved back to its original place, displacing a statue of the Museum's founder Richard Owen.[193][194]

Darwin's children, now eminent, preserved his memory. In 1887 Francis Darwin published Life and Letters with his own reminiscences of his father, an autobiography Darwin had written for his family (edited to spare the sensitivities of Darwin's widow Emma), and correspondence. More volumes of correspondence followed.[195]

 
Unveiling in 1897 of the Darwin Statue at the former Shrewsbury School building where he had studied

The Shrewsbury School building, which Darwin attended as a boy, became the Free Library. A seated statue of Darwin was installed outside it, and unveiled in 1897.[193]

The Linnean Society of London began awards of the Darwin–Wallace Medal in 1908, to mark fifty years from the joint reading on 1 July 1858 of papers by Darwin and Wallace publishing their theory. Further awards were made in 1958 and 2008, since 2010 the medal awards have been annual.[196]

In June 1909, more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world met in Cambridge to commemorate Darwin's centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species, with exhibitions and events.[197][198]

The Darwin Centennial Celebration in 1959, on the centenary of On the Origin of Species and 150 years from Darwin's birth, had major commemorations at the University of Chicago. It featured the evolutionary synthesis, and claims to Darwin's legacy by biologists with differing views. It was marked by Gavin de Beer beginning publication of Darwin's manuscripts including his private notebooks, and a new generation of science historians began investigating the Darwin papers archived at Cambridge, starting the "Darwin Industry".[199]

Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University founded in 1964, is named after the Darwin family.[200] From 2000 to 2017, UK £10 banknotes issued by the Bank of England featured Darwin's portrait printed on the reverse,[201][202] along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle.[203]

In 2009 worldwide events, programmes and publications celebrated the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species.[204][205] Marking his bicentenary, a statue of Darwin as a young man was placed in a courtyard of his alma mater, Christ's College, Cambridge.[33] Darwin Day became an annual celebration. Darwin was further commemorated on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail in 2009 with six "jigsaw" shaped stamps symbolising how his studies of different disciplines formed his new ideas on evolution.[206]

Beagle: In Darwin's wake was a Dutch-Flemish television series from 2009 and 2010 initiated by the VPRO in collaboration with Teleac and Canvas to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Darwin's On the Origin of Species. The series features an 8-month voyage around the world (commenced on 1 September 2009) on board the clipper Stad Amsterdam, which follows the route of the five-year-long voyage of Darwin between 1831 and 1836. Biologist Sarah Darwin (the great-great-granddaughter of Charles Darwin) is one of the recurring shipmates who appear in the series.[207]

Children

Further information: Darwin–Wedgwood family § Charles Darwin
William Erasmus Darwin 27 Dec 1839 – 8 Sept 1914
Anne Elizabeth Darwin 2 Mar 1841 – 23 Apr 1851
Mary Eleanor Darwin 23 Sept 1842– 16 Oct 1842
Henrietta Emma Darwin 25 Sept 1843 – 17 Dec 1927
George Howard Darwin 9 Jul 1845 – 7 Dec 1912
Elizabeth Darwin 8 Jul 1847 – 8 Jun 1926
Francis Darwin 16 Aug 1848 – 19 Sept 1925
Leonard Darwin 15 Jan 1850 – 26 Mar 1943
Horace Darwin 13 May 1851 – 29 Sept 1928
Charles Waring Darwin 6 Dec 1856 – 28 Jun 1858

The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.[13] Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of outcrossing in many species.[208]

 
Emma Darwin with Charles Waring Darwin

Charles Waring Darwin, born in December 1856, was the tenth and last of the children. Emma Darwin was aged 48 at the time of the birth, and the child was mentally subnormal and never learnt to walk or talk. He probably had Down syndrome, which had not then been medically described. The evidence is a photograph by William Erasmus Darwin of the infant and his mother, showing a characteristic head shape, and the family's observations of the child.[209] Charles Waring died of scarlet fever on 28 June 1858,[210] when Darwin wrote in his journal "Poor dear Baby died."[211]

Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society,[212] distinguished as astronomer,[213] botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted.[214] Another son, Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.[215]

Views and opinions

Religious views

Further information: Religious views of Charles Darwin

Darwin's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England.[25] When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman, he did not "in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible".[37] He learned John Herschel's science which, like William Paley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design.[39][40] On board HMS Beagle, Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality.[216] He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,[65] and suggested that the very similar antlions found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.[67]

 
In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died; by then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church[217]

By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history, and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid.[216] In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs similarly came from intensive study and questioning.[108]

The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,[218] and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs.[157] Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil.[219][220]

Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,[221] but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.[217] He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"[222][223] and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".[108][222]

The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.[224]

Human society

Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants.[225]

Taking taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone, whom Darwin long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage.[226] Though commonplace in Britain at the time, Silliman and Bachman noticed the contrast with slave-owning America. Around twenty years later, racism became a feature of British society,[27][227] but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.[228][VII]

Darwin's interaction with Yaghans (Fuegians) such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS Beagle had a profound impact on his view of indigenous peoples. At his arrival in Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of "Fuegian savages".[229] This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.[229] While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of Yaghan detailing 32,000 words.[229] He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history".[230]

He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book The Sexes Throughout Nature.[231]

Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.[232] Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883,[VIII] after Darwin's death, and his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies.[230]

Evolutionary social movements

Further information: Darwinism, Eugenics, and Social Darwinism

Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.

Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faire economics.[233] Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.[234]

Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "survival of the fittest" as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's polygenistic ideas of human development. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.[235] Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.[236]

After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilisation laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute.[VIII]

The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.[237][233]

Works

Further information: Charles Darwin bibliography

Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.[238][239]

Arms

Coat of arms of Charles Darwin
 
Crest
A demi griffin Vert, holding between the claws an escallop Or.
Escutcheon
Argent on a bend Gules between two cotises Vert, three escallops Or.
Motto
CAVE ET AUDE[240]

See also

Notes

I. ^ Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)

II. ^ In the section "Morphology" of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"[241] and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."[242]

III. 1 2 3 In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."[143]

In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to sexual selection: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."[142]

In The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage: "During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."[243] In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."[244]

IV. ^ See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."

V. ^ See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.

VI. ^ Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.[27] Early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." (Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here." (Darwin 1845, pp. 205, 207–208)

In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".[245]

He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"(Darwin 1845, p. 102)

VII. 1 2 Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this movement as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). "the creation of genetic identity". SEHR. Vol. 5, no. Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism. Retrieved 11 November 2008. Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". Genetics. Vol. 154, no. April 2000. pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008.Wilkins, John. . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)

VIII. ^ David Quammen writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a 'horrid bore' – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone". David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.

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External links

  • Works by Charles Darwin in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
  • Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at Internet Archive
  • Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online – Darwin Online; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews
  • Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary
  • Darwin Manuscript Project
  • "Archival material relating to Charles Darwin". UK National Archives.  
  • View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwin at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  • Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital Library
  • Portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, London  
  • Newspaper clippings about Charles Darwin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
  • Charles Darwin in the British horticultural press – Occasional Papers from RHS Lindley Library, volume 3 July 2010
  • Scientific American, 29 April 1882, pp. 256, Obituary of Charles Darwin

February 19, 2023
charles, darwin, other, people, named, disambiguation, charles, robert, darwin, frgs, ɑːr, february, 1809, april, 1882, english, naturalist, geologist, biologist, widely, known, contributions, evolutionary, biology, proposition, that, species, life, have, desc. For other people named Charles Darwin see Charles Darwin disambiguation Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS JP 6 ˈ d ɑːr w ɪ n 7 DAR win 12 February 1809 19 April 1882 was an English naturalist geologist and biologist 8 widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science 9 In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural selection in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding 10 Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey 11 12 Charles DarwinFRS FRGS FLS FZS JPDarwin c 1854 when he was preparing On the Origin of Species 1 BornCharles Robert Darwin 1809 02 12 12 February 1809Shrewsbury EnglandDied19 April 1882 1882 04 19 aged 73 Down Kent EnglandResting placeWestminster AbbeyKnown forThe Voyage of the Beagle On the Origin of Species The Descent of ManSpouseEmma Wedgwood m 1839 wbr Children10AwardsFRS 1839 2 Royal Medal 1853 3 Wollaston Medal 1859 3 Copley Medal 1864 3 Baly Medal 1879 3 Pour le Merite Prussia 1867 3 Doctor of Laws Honorary Cambridge 1877 4 Scientific careerFieldsNatural history geologyInstitutionsTertiary education University of Edinburgh Medical School medicine no degree Christ s College Cambridge Bachelor of Arts 1831 Master of Arts 1836 5 Professional institution Geological Society of LondonAcademic advisorsJohn Stevens Henslow Adam SedgwickInfluencesCharles Lyell Alexander von Humboldt John Herschel Thomas MalthusInfluencedJoseph Dalton Hooker Thomas Henry Huxley Herbert Spencer Ernst HaeckelAuthor abbrev botany DarwinAuthor abbrev zoology DarwinSignatureDarwin s early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh instead he helped to investigate marine invertebrates His studies at the University of Cambridge s Christ s College from 1828 to 1831 encouraged his passion for natural science 13 His five year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 established Darwin as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell s concept of gradual geological change Publication of his journal of the voyage made Darwin famous as a popular author 14 Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 devised his theory of natural selection 15 Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority 16 He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea prompting immediate joint submission of both their theories to the Linnean Society of London 17 Darwin s work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature 18 In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals 1872 His research on plants was published in a series of books and in his final book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Actions of Worms 1881 he examined earthworms and their effect on soil Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species 19 20 By the 1870s the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact However many favoured competing explanations that gave only a minor role to natural selection and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution 18 21 Darwin s scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences explaining the diversity of life Contents 1 Biography 1 1 Early life and education 1 2 Survey voyage on HMS Beagle 1 3 Inception of Darwin s evolutionary theory 1 4 Overwork illness and marriage 1 5 Malthus and natural selection 1 6 Geology books barnacles evolutionary research 1 7 Publication of the theory of natural selection 1 8 Responses to publication 1 9 Descent of Man sexual selection and botany 1 10 Death and funeral 2 Legacy 2 1 Commemoration 3 Children 4 Views and opinions 4 1 Religious views 4 2 Human society 5 Evolutionary social movements 6 Works 7 Arms 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 12 External linksBiographyEarly life and education Further information Charles Darwin s education and Darwin Wedgwood family Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury Shropshire on 12 February 1809 at his family s home The Mount 22 23 He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin nee Wedgwood His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia 1794 a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded 24 A chalk drawing of the seven year old Darwin in 1816 with a potted plant by Ellen Sharples Both families were largely Unitarian though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism Robert Darwin a freethinker had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad s Church Shrewsbury but Charles and his siblings attended the local Unitarian Church with their mother The eight year old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817 That July his mother died From September 1818 he joined his older brother Erasmus in attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder 25 Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire before going to the well regarded University of Edinburgh Medical School with his brother Erasmus in October 1825 Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing so he neglected his studies 26 He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour long sessions from John Edmonstone a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest 27 In Darwin s second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society a student natural history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science 28 He assisted Robert Edmond Grant s investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech One day Grant praised Lamarck s evolutionary ideas Darwin was astonished by Grant s audacity but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals 29 Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson s natural history course which covered geology including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism He learned the classification of plants and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum one of the largest museums in Europe at the time 30 Darwin s neglect of medical studies annoyed his father who sent him to Christ s College Cambridge in January 1828 to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson Darwin was unqualified for Cambridge s Tripos exams and was required instead to join the ordinary degree course 31 He preferred riding and shooting to studying 32 Bicentennial portrait by Anthony Smith of Darwin as a student in the courtyard at Christ s College Cambridge where he had rooms 33 During the first few months of Darwin s enrollment at Christ s College his second cousin William Darwin Fox was still studying there Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting 34 35 He did this zealously and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens Illustrations of British entomology 1829 32 35 36 Through Fox Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow 34 He met other leading parson naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology becoming known to these dons as the man who walks with Henslow When his own exams drew near Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley s Evidences of Christianity 1795 37 In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree 38 Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831 He studied Paley s Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity first published in 1802 which made an argument for divine design in nature explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature 39 He read John Herschel s new book Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy 1831 which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation and Alexander von Humboldt s Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799 1804 Inspired with a burning zeal to contribute Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics In preparation he joined Adam Sedgwick s geology course then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales 40 41 Survey voyage on HMS Beagle Further information Second voyage of HMS Beagle The round the world voyage of the Beagle 1831 1836 After leaving Sedgwick in Wales Darwin spent a few days with student friends at Barmouth He returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable if unfinished naturalist for a self funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with captain Robert FitzRoy a position for a gentleman rather than a mere collector The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America 42 43 Robert Darwin objected to his son s planned two year voyage regarding it as a waste of time but was persuaded by his brother in law Josiah Wedgwood II to agree to and fund his son s participation 44 Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection intending it for a major scientific institution 45 After delays the voyage began on 27 December 1831 it lasted almost five years As FitzRoy had intended Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts 18 46 He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family 47 He had some expertise in geology beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal 48 Despite suffering badly from seasickness Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates starting with plankton collected during a calm spell 46 49 Darwin right on the Beagle s deck at Bahia Blanca in Argentina with fossils caricature by Augustus Earle the initial ship s artist On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell s Principles of Geology which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods II and Darwin saw things Lyell s way theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology 50 When they reached Brazil Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest 51 but detested the sight of slavery and disputed this issue with Fitzroy 52 The survey continued to the south in Patagonia They stopped at Bahia Blanca and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe He found bony plates like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos From a jaw and tooth he identified the gigantic Megatherium then from Cuvier s description thought the armour was from this animal The finds were shipped to England and scientists found the fossils of great interest 53 54 In Patagonia Darwin came to wrongly believe the territory was devoid of reptiles 55 On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils Darwin gained social political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories 56 57 Further south he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches at a series of elevations He read Lyell s second volume and accepted its view of centres of creation of species but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell s ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species 58 59 Three Fuegians on board who had been seized during the first Beagle voyage then given Christian education in England were returning with a missionary Darwin found them friendly and civilised yet at Tierra del Fuego he met miserable degraded savages as different as wild from domesticated animals 60 He remained convinced that despite this diversity all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation Unlike his scientist friends he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals 61 A year on the mission had been abandoned The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives had a wife and had no wish to return to England 62 As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America Darwin theorised about geology and the extinction of giant mammals watercolour by the ship s artist Conrad Martens who replaced Augustus Earle in Tierra del Fuego Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised including mussel beds stranded above high tide High in the Andes he saw seashells and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach He theorised that as the land rose oceanic islands sank and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls 63 64 On the geologically new Galapagos Islands Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older centre of creation and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from but failed to collect them even after eating tortoises taken on board as food 65 66 In Australia the marsupial rat kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work 67 He found the Aborigines good humoured amp pleasant their numbers depleted by European settlement 68 FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos Keeling Islands had formed and the survey supported Darwin s theorising 64 FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages and after reading Darwin s diary he proposed incorporating it into the account 69 Darwin s Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume on geology and natural history 70 71 In Cape Town South Africa Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on that mystery of mysteries the replacement of extinct species by others as a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process 72 When organising his notes as the ship sailed home Darwin wrote that if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct such facts undermine the stability of Species then cautiously added would before undermine 73 He later wrote that such facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species 74 Without telling Darwin extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to scientific societies printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and reported in magazines 75 including The Athenaeum 76 Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town 77 and at Ascension Island read of Sedgwick s prediction that Darwin will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe 78 79 Inception of Darwin s evolutionary theory Further information Inception of Darwin s theory While still a young man Darwin joined the scientific elite portrait by George Richmond On 2 October 1836 Beagle anchored at Falmouth Cornwall Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives He then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow who advised him on finding available naturalists to catalogue Darwin s animal collections and to take on the botanical specimens Darwin s father organised investments enabling his son to be a self funded gentleman scientist and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being feted and seeking experts to describe the collections British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being encouraged throughout the British Empire and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage 80 Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up and coming anatomist Richard Owen who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin Owen s surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium Darwin had identified a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus sized rodent like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon a huge armadillo like creature as Darwin had initially thought 54 81 These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America 82 In mid December Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections and prepare his own research for publication Questions of how to combine his diary into the Narrative were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted Broderip s advice to make it a separate volume and Darwin began work on his Journal and Remarks 83 84 Darwin s first paper showed that the South American landmass was slowly rising and with Lyell s enthusiastic backing he read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837 On the same day he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds gros beaks and finches were in fact twelve separate species of finches On 17 February Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society and Lyell s presidential address presented Owen s findings on Darwin s fossils stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas 85 In mid July 1837 Darwin started his B notebook on Transmutation of Species and on page 36 wrote I think above his first evolutionary tree Early in March Darwin moved to London to be near this work joining Lyell s social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage 86 who described God as a programmer of laws Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau who promoted the Malthusianism that underpinned the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty As a Unitarian she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order 87 but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel s letter praising Lyell s approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species 72 Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galapagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species not just varieties and what Darwin had thought was a wren was in the finch group Darwin had not labelled the finches by island but from the notes of others on the ship including FitzRoy he allocated species to islands 88 The two rheas were distinct species and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards 89 By mid March 1837 barely six months after his return to England Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that one species does change into another to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia which resembled a giant guanaco a llama relative Around mid July he recorded in his B notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations explaining the variations he had observed in Galapagos tortoises mockingbirds and rheas He sketched branching descent and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree in which It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another thereby discarding Lamarck s idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms 90 Overwork illness and marriage Further information Health of Charles Darwin While developing this intensive study of transmutation Darwin became mired in more work Still rewriting his Journal he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections and with Henslow s help obtained a Treasury grant of 1 000 to sponsor this multi volume Zoology of the Voyage of H M S Beagle a sum equivalent to about 115 000 in 2021 91 He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher 92 As the Victorian era began Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal and in August 1837 began correcting printer s proofs 93 As Darwin worked under pressure his health suffered On 20 September he had an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart so his doctors urged him to knock off all work and live in the country for a few weeks After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall Staffordshire but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest His charming intelligent and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood nine months older than Darwin was nursing his invalid aunt His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms inspiring a new amp important theory on their role in soil formation which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837 94 His Journal was printed and ready for publication by the end of February 1838 as was the first volume of the Narrative but FitzRoy was still working hard to finish his own volume 93 Darwin chose to marry his cousin Emma Wedgwood William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society After initially declining the work he accepted the post in March 1838 95 Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and unconventionally people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers 18 96 Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children the family butler neighbours colonists and former shipmates 97 He included mankind in his speculations from the outset and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour 98 The strain took a toll by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems headaches and heart symptoms For the rest of his life he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains vomiting severe boils palpitations trembling and other symptoms particularly during times of stress such as attending meetings or making social visits The cause of Darwin s illness remained unknown and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success 99 On 23 June he took a break and went geologising in Scotland He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel roads cut into the hillsides at three heights He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake 100 Fully recuperated he returned to Shrewsbury in July Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage career and prospects on two scraps of paper one with columns headed Marry and Not Marry Advantages under Marry included constant companion and a friend in old age better than a dog anyhow against points such as less money for books and terrible loss of time 101 Having decided in favour of marriage he discussed it with his father then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July He did not get around to proposing but against his father s advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation 102 Malthus and natural selection Continuing his research in London Darwin s wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus s An Essay on the Principle of Population On 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human population when unchecked goes on doubling itself every twenty five years or increases in a geometrical ratio a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe Darwin was well prepared to compare this to Augustin de Candolle s warring of the species of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable As species always breed beyond available resources favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring while unfavourable variations would be lost He wrote that the final cause of all this wedging must be to sort out proper structure amp adapt it to changes so that One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones 18 103 This would result in the formation of new species 18 104 As he later wrote in his Autobiography In October 1838 that is fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long continued observation of the habits of animals and plants it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved and unfavourable ones to be destroyed The result of this would be the formation of new species Here then I had at last got a theory by which to work 105 By mid December Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected 106 thinking this comparison a beautiful part of my theory 107 He later called his theory natural selection an analogy with what he termed the artificial selection of selective breeding 18 On 11 November he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma once more telling her his ideas She accepted then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences while expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife 108 While he was house hunting in London bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest almost prophetically remarking So don t be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you He found what they called Macaw Cottage because of its gaudy interiors in Gower Street then moved his museum in over Christmas On 24 January 1839 Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society FRS 2 109 On 29 January Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians then immediately caught the train to London and their new home 110 Geology books barnacles evolutionary research Further information Development of Darwin s theory Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son William Erasmus Darwin Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection by which to work 105 as his prime hobby 111 His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory 18 For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections in particular the barnacles 112 FitzRoy s long delayed Narrative was published in May 1839 Darwin s Journal and Remarks got good reviews as the third volume and on 15 August it was published on its own Early in 1842 Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell who noted that his ally denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species 71 113 Darwin s book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work and he then wrote his first pencil sketch of his theory of natural selection 114 To escape the pressures of London the family moved to rural Down House in Kent in September 115 On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker writing with melodramatic humour it is like confessing a murder 116 117 Hooker replied There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots amp also a gradual change of species I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject 118 Darwin s sandwalk at Down House in Kent was his usual thinking path 119 By July Darwin had expanded his sketch into a 230 page Essay to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely 120 In November the anonymously published sensational best seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology but carefully reviewed his own arguments Controversy erupted and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists 121 122 Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846 He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates dating back to his student days with Grant by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures 123 In 1847 Hooker read the Essay and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin s opposition to continuing acts of creation 124 In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health Darwin went in 1849 to Dr James Gully s Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy 125 Then in 1851 his treasured daughter Annie fell ill reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary and after a long series of crises she died 126 In eight years of work on barnacles Darwin s theory helped him to find homologies showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes 127 In 1853 it earned him the Royal Society s Royal Medal and it made his reputation as a biologist 128 In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London gaining postal access to its library 129 He began a major reassessment of his theory of species and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to diversified places in the economy of nature 130 Publication of the theory of natural selection Further information Publication of Darwin s theory Darwin aged 46 in 1855 by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection He wrote to Joseph Hooker about this portrait if I really have as bad an expression as my photograph gives me how I can have one single friend is surprising 131 By the start of 1856 Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species Lyell was intrigued by Darwin s speculations without realising their extent When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species he saw similarities with Darwin s thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence 132 Though Darwin saw no threat on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly and he expanded his plans to a big book on species titled Natural Selection which was to include his note on Man He continued his researches obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo 132 In mid 1857 he added a section heading Theory applied to Races of Man but did not add text on this topic On 5 September 1857 Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas including an abstract of Natural Selection which omitted human origins and sexual selection In December Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins He responded that he would avoid that subject so surrounded with prejudices while encouraging Wallace s theorising and adding that I go much further than you 132 Darwin s book was only partly written when on 18 June 1858 he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection Shocked that he had been forestalled Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell as requested by Wallace 133 134 and although Wallace had not asked for publication Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever and he put matters in the hands of his friends After some discussion with no reliable way of involving Wallace Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection On the evening of 28 June Darwin s baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness and he was too distraught to attend 135 There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries 136 Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that all that was new in them was false and what was true was old 137 Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his big book suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray 138 On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular with the entire stock of 1 250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859 139 In the book Darwin set out one long argument of detailed observations inferences and consideration of anticipated objections 140 In making the case for common descent he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals 141 III Having outlined sexual selection he hinted that it could explain differences between human races 142 IV He avoided explicit discussion of human origins but implied the significance of his work with the sentence Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history 143 IV His theory is simply stated in the introduction As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive and as consequently there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence it follows that any being if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life will have a better chance of surviving and thus be naturally selected From the strong principle of inheritance any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form 144 At the end of the book he concluded that There is grandeur in this view of life with its several powers having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one and that whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been and are being evolved 145 The last word was the only variant of evolved in the first five editions of the book Evolutionism at that time was associated with other concepts most commonly with embryological development Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871 before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species 146 Responses to publication Further information Reactions to On the Origin of Species During the Darwin family s 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866 An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory 147 The book aroused international interest with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 148 Though Darwin s illness kept him away from the public debates he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response commenting on press cuttings reviews articles satires and caricatures and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide 149 The book did not explicitly discuss human origins 143 IV but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made 150 The first review asked If a monkey has become a man what may not a man become It said this should be left to theologians as being too dangerous for ordinary readers 151 Amongst early favourable responses Huxley s reviews swiped at Richard Owen leader of the scientific establishment which Huxley was trying to overthrow 152 In April Owen s review attacked Darwin s friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas angering Darwin 153 but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species but he had not developed the idea 154 The Church of England s response was mixed Darwin s old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God s design with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as just as noble a conception of Deity 155 In 1860 the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin Its ideas including higher criticism were attacked by church authorities as heresy In it Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God s laws so belief in them was atheistic and praised Mr Darwin s masterly volume supporting the grand principle of the self evolving powers of nature 156 Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin who imported and distributed Gray s pamphlet on theistic evolution Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology 155 157 The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce though not opposed to transmutation of species argued against Darwin s explanation and human descent from apes Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin and Thomas Huxley s legendary retort that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion 155 158 Even Darwin s close friends Gray Hooker Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support as did many others particularly younger naturalists Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education 155 aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists Owen s claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the Great Hippocampus Question and discredited Owen 159 In response to objections that the origin of life was unexplained Darwin pointed to acceptance of Newton s law even though the cause of gravity was unknown 160 Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas In 1863 Lyell s Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin Weeks later Huxley s Evidence as to Man s Place in Nature showed that anatomically humans are apes then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection 161 Lobbying brought Darwin Britain s highest scientific honour the Royal Society s Copley Medal awarded on 3 November 1864 162 That day Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential X Club devoted to science pure and free untrammelled by religious dogmas 163 By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred but only a minority supported Darwin s view that the chief mechanism was natural selection 164 The Origin of Species was translated into many languages becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life including the working men who flocked to Huxley s lectures 165 Darwin s theory resonated with various movements at the time V and became a key fixture of popular culture VI Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin s theory in an unthreatening way While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism 147 Descent of Man sexual selection and botany Further information Orchids to Variation Descent of Man to Emotions and Insectivorous Plants to Worms By 1878 an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty two years of his life 166 Darwin s work continued Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory he pressed on with experiments research and writing of his big book He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies 167 Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships making testable predictions As his health declined he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants 168 Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe s idealism 169 Wallace remained supportive though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism 170 Darwin s book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication 1868 was the first part of his planned big book and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity It sold briskly at first despite its size and was translated into many languages He wrote most of a second part on natural selection but it remained unpublished in his lifetime 171 Lyell had already popularised human prehistory and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes 161 With The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871 Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals showing continuity of physical and mental attributes and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock s plumage as well as human evolution of culture differences between sexes and physical and cultural racial classification while emphasising that humans are all one species 172 Letter of enquiry from Charles Darwin to the physiologist John Burdon Sanderson Punch s almanac for 1882 published shortly before Darwin s death depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals one of the first books to feature printed photographs which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals Both books proved very popular and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received remarking that everybody is talking about it without being shocked 173 His conclusion was that man with all his noble qualities with sympathy which feels for the most debased with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature with his god like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system with all these exalted powers Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin 174 His evolution related experiments and investigations led to books on Insectivorous Plants The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom different forms of flowers on plants of the same species and The Power of Movement in Plants He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world including Mary Treat whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work 175 He was the first person to recognize the significance of carnivory in plants 176 His botanical work IX was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H G Wells and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century 177 178 Death and funeral See also Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms The adjoining tombs of the scientists John Herschel and Charles Darwin in the nave of Westminster Abbey London In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called angina pectoris which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart At the time of his death the physicians diagnosed anginal attacks and heart failure there has since been scholarly speculation about his life long health issues 179 180 He died at Down House on 19 April 1882 His last words were to his family telling Emma I am not the least afraid of death Remember what a good wife you have been to me Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me While she rested he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis It s almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you 181 He had expected to be buried in St Mary s churchyard at Downe but at the request of Darwin s colleagues after public and parliamentary petitioning William Spottiswoode President of the Royal Society arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton The funeral held on Wednesday 26 April was attended by thousands of people including family friends scientists philosophers and dignitaries 182 12 Legacy In 1881 Darwin was an eminent figure still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect on many fields of science his portrait by John Collier was commissioned for the Linnean Society of London As Alfred Russel Wallace put it Darwin had wrought a greater revolution in human thought within a quarter of a century than any man of our time or perhaps any time having given us a new conception of the world of life and a theory which is itself a powerful instrument of research has shown us how to combine into one consistent whole the facts accumulated by all the separate classes of workers and has thereby revolutionised the whole study of nature 183 Most scientists were now convinced of evolution as descent with modification though few agreed with Darwin that natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification 184 During the eclipse of Darwinism scientists explored alternative mechanisms Then Ronald Fisher incorporated Mendelian genetics in The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 185 leading to population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis which continues to develop 21 Scientific discoveries have confirmed and validated Darwin s key insights 183 Commemoration Main article Commemoration of Charles Darwin Further information List of things named after Charles Darwin and List of taxa described by Charles Darwin Geographical features given his name include Darwin Sound 186 and Mount Darwin 187 both named while he was on the Beagle voyage and Darwin Harbour named by his former shipmates on its next voyage which eventually became the location of Darwin the capital city of Australia s Northern Territory 188 Darwin s name was given formally or informally to numerous plants and animals including many he had collected on the voyage 189 190 Some names were given later for example tanagers found in the Galapagos Islands became popularly known as Darwin s finches in 1947 191 Statue of Darwin in the Natural History Museum London In 1883 Sir Joseph Boehm sculpted a white marble life size seated statue of Darwin It was installed at the top of the main staircase in the Central Hall of the Natural History Museum in London and unveiled on 9 June 1885 by Thomas Huxley in the presence of Edward Prince of Wales Bartholomew Sulivan and Joseph Parslow at the ceremony 192 193 In 1927 its place was taken by an elephant and in 1970 it was moved to the North Hall of the museum then in May 2008 the statue was moved back to its original place displacing a statue of the Museum s founder Richard Owen 193 194 Darwin s children now eminent preserved his memory In 1887 Francis Darwin published Life and Letters with his own reminiscences of his father an autobiography Darwin had written for his family edited to spare the sensitivities of Darwin s widow Emma and correspondence More volumes of correspondence followed 195 Unveiling in 1897 of the Darwin Statue at the former Shrewsbury School building where he had studied The Shrewsbury School building which Darwin attended as a boy became the Free Library A seated statue of Darwin was installed outside it and unveiled in 1897 193 The Linnean Society of London began awards of the Darwin Wallace Medal in 1908 to mark fifty years from the joint reading on 1 July 1858 of papers by Darwin and Wallace publishing their theory Further awards were made in 1958 and 2008 since 2010 the medal awards have been annual 196 In June 1909 more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world met in Cambridge to commemorate Darwin s centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species with exhibitions and events 197 198 The Darwin Centennial Celebration in 1959 on the centenary of On the Origin of Species and 150 years from Darwin s birth had major commemorations at the University of Chicago It featured the evolutionary synthesis and claims to Darwin s legacy by biologists with differing views It was marked by Gavin de Beer beginning publication of Darwin s manuscripts including his private notebooks and a new generation of science historians began investigating the Darwin papers archived at Cambridge starting the Darwin Industry 199 Darwin College a postgraduate college at Cambridge University founded in 1964 is named after the Darwin family 200 From 2000 to 2017 UK 10 banknotes issued by the Bank of England featured Darwin s portrait printed on the reverse 201 202 along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle 203 In 2009 worldwide events programmes and publications celebrated the bicentenary of Darwin s birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species 204 205 Marking his bicentenary a statue of Darwin as a young man was placed in a courtyard of his alma mater Christ s College Cambridge 33 Darwin Day became an annual celebration Darwin was further commemorated on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail in 2009 with six jigsaw shaped stamps symbolising how his studies of different disciplines formed his new ideas on evolution 206 Beagle In Darwin s wake was a Dutch Flemish television series from 2009 and 2010 initiated by the VPRO in collaboration with Teleac and Canvas to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Darwin s On the Origin of Species The series features an 8 month voyage around the world commenced on 1 September 2009 on board the clipper Stad Amsterdam which follows the route of the five year long voyage of Darwin between 1831 and 1836 Biologist Sarah Darwin the great great granddaughter of Charles Darwin is one of the recurring shipmates who appear in the series 207 ChildrenFurther information Darwin Wedgwood family Charles Darwin William Erasmus Darwin 27 Dec 1839 8 Sept 1914Anne Elizabeth Darwin 2 Mar 1841 23 Apr 1851Mary Eleanor Darwin 23 Sept 1842 16 Oct 1842Henrietta Emma Darwin 25 Sept 1843 17 Dec 1927George Howard Darwin 9 Jul 1845 7 Dec 1912Elizabeth Darwin 8 Jul 1847 8 Jun 1926Francis Darwin 16 Aug 1848 19 Sept 1925Leonard Darwin 15 Jan 1850 26 Mar 1943Horace Darwin 13 May 1851 29 Sept 1928Charles Waring Darwin 6 Dec 1856 28 Jun 1858The Darwins had ten children two died in infancy and Annie s death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children 13 Whenever they fell ill he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin Emma Wedgwood He examined inbreeding in his writings contrasting it with the advantages of outcrossing in many species 208 Emma Darwin with Charles Waring Darwin Charles Waring Darwin born in December 1856 was the tenth and last of the children Emma Darwin was aged 48 at the time of the birth and the child was mentally subnormal and never learnt to walk or talk He probably had Down syndrome which had not then been medically described The evidence is a photograph by William Erasmus Darwin of the infant and his mother showing a characteristic head shape and the family s observations of the child 209 Charles Waring died of scarlet fever on 28 June 1858 210 when Darwin wrote in his journal Poor dear Baby died 211 Of his surviving children George Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society 212 distinguished as astronomer 213 botanist and civil engineer respectively All three were knighted 214 Another son Leonard went on to be a soldier politician economist eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher 215 Views and opinionsReligious views Further information Religious views of Charles Darwin Darwin s family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism while his father and grandfather were freethinkers and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England 25 When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman he did not in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible 37 He learned John Herschel s science which like William Paley s natural theology sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design 39 40 On board HMS Beagle Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality 216 He looked for centres of creation to explain distribution 65 and suggested that the very similar antlions found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand 67 In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died by then his faith in Christianity had dwindled and he had stopped going to church 217 By his return he was critical of the Bible as history and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid 216 In the next few years while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma whose beliefs similarly came from intensive study and questioning 108 The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator s laws which had an overall good effect To Darwin natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design 218 and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs 157 Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil 219 220 Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe John Brodie Innes and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church 221 but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church 217 He considered it absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist 222 223 and though reticent about his religious views in 1879 he wrote that I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God I think that generally an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind 108 222 The Lady Hope Story published in 1915 claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed The claims were repudiated by Darwin s children and have been dismissed as false by historians 224 Human society Darwin s views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants 225 Taking taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone whom Darwin long recalled as a very pleasant and intelligent man reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings and could be as intelligent as people of other races He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage 226 Though commonplace in Britain at the time Silliman and Bachman noticed the contrast with slave owning America Around twenty years later racism became a feature of British society 27 227 but Darwin remained strongly against slavery against ranking the so called races of man as distinct species and against ill treatment of native people 228 VII Darwin s interaction with Yaghans Fuegians such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS Beagle had a profound impact on his view of indigenous peoples At his arrival in Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of Fuegian savages 229 This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail By studying the Yaghans Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans 229 While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of Yaghan detailing 32 000 words 229 He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations and tr ied to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history 230 He thought men s eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book The Sexes Throughout Nature 231 Darwin was intrigued by his half cousin Francis Galton s argument introduced in 1865 that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans In The Descent of Man Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy the noblest part of our nature and factors such as education could be more important When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a caste of those who are naturally gifted Darwin foresaw practical difficulties and thought it the sole feasible yet I fear utopian plan of procedure in improving the human race preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals 232 Francis Galton named this field of study eugenics in 1883 VIII after Darwin s death and his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies 230 Evolutionary social movementsFurther information Darwinism Eugenics and Social Darwinism A caricature of Darwin from Vanity Fair in 1871 Darwin s fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that at times had only an indirect relation to his writings and sometimes went directly against his express comments Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez faire economics 233 Evolution was by then seen as having social implications and Herbert Spencer s 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory 234 Soon after the Origin was published in 1859 critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others including Spencer s survival of the fittest as free market progress and Ernst Haeckel s polygenistic ideas of human development Writers used natural selection to argue for various often contradictory ideologies such as laissez faire dog eat dog capitalism colonialism and imperialism However Darwin s holistic view of nature included dependence of one being on another thus pacifists socialists liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co operation over struggle within a species 235 Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature 236 After the 1880s a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism In Britain most shared Darwin s cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in positive eugenics During the Eclipse of Darwinism a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics Negative eugenics to remove the feebleminded were popular in America Canada and Australia and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilisation laws followed by several other countries Subsequently Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute VIII The term Social Darwinism was used infrequently from around the 1890s but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism Since then it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution 237 233 WorksFurther information Charles Darwin bibliography Darwin was a prolific writer Even without publication of his works on evolution he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms 238 239 ArmsCoat of arms of Charles Darwin Crest A demi griffin Vert holding between the claws an escallop Or Escutcheon Argent on a bend Gules between two cotises Vert three escallops Or Motto CAVE ET AUDE 240 See also Biology portal1991 Darwin Category Cultural depictions of Charles Darwin Creation biographical drama film Creation evolution controversy European and American voyages of scientific exploration History of biology History of evolutionary thought List of coupled cousins List of multiple discoveries Multiple discovery Portraits of Charles Darwin Tinamou egg Universal DarwinismNotesI Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell s ideas and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America FitzRoy s diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches but on return newly married to a very religious lady he recanted these ideas Browne 1995 pp 186 414 II In the section Morphology of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals writing What can be more curious than that the hand of a man formed for grasping that of a mole for digging the leg of the horse the paddle of the porpoise and the wing of the bat should all be constructed on the same pattern and should include the same bones in the same relative positions 241 and in the concluding chapter The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man wing of a bat fin of the porpoise and leg of the horse at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications 242 III 1 2 3 In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches Psychology will be based on a new foundation that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history 143 In Chapter VI Difficulties on Theory he referred to sexual selection I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man which are so strongly marked I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous 142 In The Descent of Man of 1871 Darwin discussed the first passage During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man without any intention of publishing on the subject but rather with the determination not to publish as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views It seemed to me sufficient to indicate in the first edition of my Origin of Species that by this work light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth 243 In a preface to the 1874 second edition he added a reference to the second point it has been said by several critics that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection I invented sexual selection I gave however a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the Origin of Species and I there stated that it was applicable to man 244 IV See for example WILLA volume 4 Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M De Simone Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of intellectual chaos caused by Darwin s Origin of the Species Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation poverty or immigration V See for example the song A lady fair of lineage high from Gilbert and Sullivan s Princess Ida which describes the descent of man but not woman from apes VI Darwin s belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans and had many mental similarities was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826 27 Early in the Beagle voyage Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy s defence and praise of slavery Darwin 1958 p 74 He wrote home about how steadily the general feeling as shown at elections has been rising against Slavery What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character Darwin 1887 p 246 Regarding Fuegians he could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button It seems yet wonderful to me when I think over all his many good qualities that he should have been of the same race and doubtless partaken of the same character with the miserable degraded savages whom we first met here Darwin 1845 pp 205 207 208 In the Descent of Man he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians and Edmonstone s minds to Europeans when arguing against ranking the so called races of man as distinct species 245 He rejected the ill treatment of native people and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men women and children Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war because it is against barbarians Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country Darwin 1845 p 102 VII 1 2 Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance while eugenics movements sought to manage society with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom and on disability and ethnicity in the United States leading to geneticists seeing this movement as impractical pseudoscience A shift from voluntary arrangements to negative eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and racial hygiene Thurtle Phillip 17 December 1996 the creation of genetic identity SEHR Vol 5 no Supplement Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism Retrieved 11 November 2008 Edwards A W F 1 April 2000 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection Genetics Vol 154 no April 2000 pp 1419 1426 PMC 1461012 PMID 10747041 Retrieved 11 November 2008 Wilkins John Evolving Thoughts Darwin and the Holocaust 3 eugenics Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 Retrieved 11 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magellanicus Squamata Liolaemidae Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 95 7 doi 10 1186 s40693 022 00112 y S2CID 252717680 Desmond amp Moore 1991 pp 189 192 198 Eldredge 2006 Desmond amp Moore 1991 pp 131 159Herbert 1991 pp 174 179 Darwin Online Hurrah Chiloe an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook Archived from the original on 4 December 2008 Retrieved 24 October 2008 Darwin 1845 pp 205 208 Browne 1995 pp 243 244 248 250 382 383 Keynes 2001 pp 226 227 Desmond amp Moore 1991 pp 160 168 182 Letter no 275 Charles Darwin to Susan Elizabeth Darwin 23 April 1835 Darwin Correspondence Project Retrieved 6 December 2021 a b Darwin 1958 pp 98 99 a b Keynes 2001 pp 356 357 Sulloway 1982 p 19 a b Darwin Online Coccatoos amp Crows An introduction to the Sydney Notebook Archived from the original on 14 January 2009 Retrieved 2 January 2009 Keynes 2001 pp 398 399 Letter no 301 Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin 29 April 1836 Port Lewis Mauritius Darwin Correspondence Project Retrieved 12 February 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2011 Retrieved 22 November 2008 Wilkins John S 2008 Darwin In Tucker Aviezer ed A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Blackwell Companions to Philosophy Chichester Wiley Blackwell pp 405 415 ISBN 978 1 4051 4908 2 van Wyhe John 27 March 2007 Mind the gap Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years Notes and Records of the Royal Society 61 2 177 205 doi 10 1098 rsnr 2006 0171 S2CID 202574857 Archived from the original on 11 January 2011 Retrieved 7 February 2008 van Wyhe John 2008 Charles Darwin gentleman naturalist A biographical sketch Darwin Online Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 Retrieved 17 November 2008 van Wyhe John 2008b Darwin The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution London Andre Deutsch Ltd published 1 September 2008 ISBN 978 0 233 00251 4 von Sydow Momme 2005 Darwin A Christian Undermining Christianity On Self Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science PDF In Knight David M Eddy Matthew D eds Science and Beliefs From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science 1700 1900 Burlington Ashgate pp 141 156 ISBN 978 0 7546 3996 1 Archived from the original PDF on 26 March 2009 Retrieved 16 December 2008 Yates Simon 2003 The Lady Hope Story A Widespread Falsehood TalkOrigins Archive Archived from the original on 12 October 2009 Retrieved 15 December 2006 External linksWorks by Charles Darwin in eBook form at Standard Ebooks Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at Internet Archive Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox public domain audiobooks The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online Darwin Online Darwin s publications private papers and bibliography supplementary works including biographies obituaries and reviews Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867 with summaries of all the rest and pages of commentary Darwin Manuscript Project Archival material relating to Charles Darwin UK National Archives View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwin at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital Library Portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery London Newspaper clippings about Charles Darwin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Charles Darwin in the British horticultural press Occasional Papers from RHS Lindley Library volume 3 July 2010 Scientific American 29 April 1882 pp 256 Obituary of Charles Darwin Charles Darwin at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Taxa from Wikispecies Data from Wikidata Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Charles Darwin amp oldid 1139762877, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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