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Wikipedia

Emotion

January 26, 2023

For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation).
"Emotional" redirects here. For other uses, see Emotional (disambiguation).

Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.[1][2][3][4][5] There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition.[6] Emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, or creativity.[7]

Sixteen faces expressing the human passions – coloured engraving by J. Pass, 1821, after Charles Le Brun

Research on emotion has increased over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, medicine, history, sociology of emotions, and computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, function and other aspects of emotions have fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition, PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective picture processes in the brain.[8]

From a mechanistic perspective, emotions can be defined as "a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. The original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the passing on of genes through survival, reproduction, and kin selection.[9][10]

In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. Consciously experiencing an emotion is exhibiting a mental representation of that emotion from a past or hypothetical experience, which is linked back to a content state of pleasure or displeasure.[11] The content states are established by verbal explanations of experiences, describing an internal state.[12]

Emotions are complex. There are various theories on the question of whether or not emotions cause changes in our behaviour.[5] On the one hand, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation.[13] On the other hand, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behaviour, and physiological changes, but none of these components is the emotion. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.[14]

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar multi-componential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits[15] described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.

Nowadays most research into emotions in the clinical and well-being context focuses on emotion dynamics in daily life, predominantly the intensity of specific emotions, and their variability, instability, inertia, and differentiation, and whether and how emotions augment or blunt each other over time, and differences in these dynamics between people and along the lifespan.[16]

Etymology

The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a catch-all term to passions, sentiments and affections.[17] The word "emotion" was coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and it is around the 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first emerged for the English language.[18] "No one felt emotions before about 1830. Instead they felt other things – 'passions', 'accidents of the soul', 'moral sentiments' – and explained them very differently from how we understand emotions today."[18]

Some cross-cultural studies indicate that the categorization of "emotion" and classification of basic emotions such as "anger" and "sadness" are not universal and that the boundaries and domains of these concepts are categorized differently by all cultures.[19] However, others argue that there are some universal bases of emotions (see Section 6.1).[20] In psychiatry and psychology, an inability to express or perceive emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia.[21]

History

Human nature and the accompanying bodily sensations have always been part of the interests of thinkers and philosophers. Far more extensively, this has also been of great interest to both Western and Eastern societies. Emotional states have been associated with the divine and with the enlightenment of the human mind and body.[22] The ever-changing actions of individuals and their mood variations have been of great importance to most of the Western philosophers (including Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, Aquinas, and Hobbes), leading them to propose extensive theories—often competing theories—that sought to explain emotion and the accompanying motivators of human action, as well as its consequences.

In the Age of Enlightenment, Scottish thinker David Hume[23] proposed a revolutionary argument that sought to explain the main motivators of human action and conduct. He proposed that actions are motivated by "fears, desires, and passions". As he wrote in his book Treatise of Human Nature (1773): "Reason alone can never be a motive to any action of the will… it can never oppose passion in the direction of the will… The reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them".[24] With these lines, Hume attempted to explain that reason and further action would be subject to the desires and experience of the self. Later thinkers would propose that actions and emotions are deeply interrelated with social, political, historical, and cultural aspects of reality that would also come to be associated with sophisticated neurological and physiological research on the brain and other parts of the physical body.

Definitions

The Lexico definition of emotion is "A strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others."[25] Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events.[26]

Emotions can be occurrences (e.g., panic) or dispositions (e.g., hostility), and short-lived (e.g., anger) or long-lived (e.g., grief).[27] Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity.[28] Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame.[29] Emotions have been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms.[30]

Emotions have been categorized, with some relationships existing between emotions and some direct opposites existing. Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits.[31]

In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.[32] On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse.[33]

In practical terms, Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger.[34]

Components

According to Scherer's Component Process Model (CPM) of emotion,[35] there are five crucial elements of emotion. From the component process perspective, emotional experience requires that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the CPM provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.

  • Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and objects.
  • Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience.
  • Action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses.
  • Expression: facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions.
  • Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred.

Differentiation

See also: Affect measures § Differentiating affect from other terms

Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:[30]

  • Feeling: not all feelings include emotion, such as the feeling of knowing. In the context of emotion, feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them.[36][better source needed]
  • Moods: diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions; they are also usually less intense than emotions and often appear to lack a contextual stimulus.[32]
  • Affect: used to describe the underlying affective experience of an emotion or a mood.

Purpose and value

One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors.[37] Emotions can function as a way to communicate what's important to individuals, such as values and ethics.[38] However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value.[39]

Classification

Main article: Emotion classification

A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.[40]

Basic emotions

 
Examples of basic emotions
 
The emotion wheel

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. Ekman's facial-expression research examined six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.[41]

Later in his career,[42] Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.[43][44][45]

Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation.[46] Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.[47]

Jaak Panksepp carved out seven biologically inherited primary affective systems called SEEKING (expectancy), FEAR (anxiety), RAGE (anger), LUST (sexual excitement), CARE (nurturance), PANIC/GRIEF (sadness), and PLAY (social joy). He proposed what is known as "core-SELF" to be generating these affects.[48]

Multi-dimensional analysis

 
Two dimensions of emotions, made accessible for practical use[49]
 
Two dimensions of emotion

Psychologists have used methods such as factor analysis to attempt to map emotion-related responses onto a more limited number of dimensions. Such methods attempt to boil emotions down to underlying dimensions that capture the similarities and differences between experiences.[50] Often, the first two dimensions uncovered by factor analysis are valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels). These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map.[51] This two-dimensional map has been theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect.[52][53] Core affect is not theorized to be the only component to emotion, but to give the emotion its hedonic and felt energy.

Using statistical methods to analyze emotional states elicited by short videos, Cowen and Keltner identified 27 varieties of emotional experience: admiration, adoration, aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, awe, awkwardness, boredom, calmness, confusion, craving, disgust, empathic pain, entrancement, excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy, nostalgia, relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise.[54]

Theories

See also: Functional accounts of emotion

Pre-modern history

In Buddhism, emotions occur when an object is considered as attractive or repulsive. There is a felt tendency impelling people towards attractive objects and impelling them to move away from repulsive or harmful objects; a disposition to possess the object (greed), to destroy it (hatred), to flee from it (fear), to get obsessed or worried over it (anxiety), and so on.[55]

In Stoic theories, normal emotions (like delight and fear) are described as irrational impulses which come from incorrect appraisals of what is 'good' or 'bad'. Alternatively, there are 'good emotions' (like joy and caution) experienced by those that are wise, which come from correct appraisals of what is 'good' and 'bad'.[56][57]

Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue.[58] In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas[59] in particular.

In Chinese antiquity, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to qi, which in turn, damages the vital organs.[60] The four humours theory made popular by Hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine.

In the early 11th century, Avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions.[61]

Early modern views on emotion are developed in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza,[62] Thomas Hobbes[63] and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

Western theological

Christian perspective on emotion presupposes a theistic origin to humanity. God who created humans gave humans the ability to feel emotion and interact emotionally. Biblical content expresses that God is a person who feels and expresses emotion. Though a somatic view would place the locus of emotions in the physical body, Christian theory of emotions would view the body more as a platform for the sensing and expression of emotions. Therefore, emotions themselves arise from the person, or that which is "imago-dei" or Image of God in humans. In Christian thought, emotions have the potential to be controlled through reasoned reflection. That reasoned reflection also mimics God who made mind. The purpose of emotions in human life are therefore summarized in God's call to enjoy Him and creation, humans are to enjoy emotions and benefit from them and use them to energize behavior.[64][65]

Evolutionary theories

Main articles: Evolution of emotion and Evolutionary psychology

19th century

Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with Charles Darwin's 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[66] Darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans, neither in communication, nor in aiding survival.[67] Darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters.[68] He pioneered various methods for studying non-verbal expressions, from which he concluded that some expressions had cross-cultural universality. Darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that occur in animals. This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.

Contemporary

More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.[13] Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.[69] Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and Antonio Damasio.

Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[13] Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.[13][70]

Somatic theories

Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John T. Cacioppo,[71] Antonio Damasio,[72] Joseph E. LeDoux[73] and Robert Zajonc[74] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[75]

James–Lange theory

Main article: James–Lange theory
 
Simplified graph of James-Lange Theory of Emotion

In his 1884 article[76] William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion."[77] To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."[76]

An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.[78] Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).[79]

Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions.[80]

The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion. (p. 583)

Cannon–Bard theory

Main article: Cannon–Bard theory

Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion.[81] He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.[82][83] An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.[82]

Two-factor theory

Main article: Two-factor theory of emotion

Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.[84] With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.[85]

Cognitive theories

With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:

  1. Cognitive appraisal – The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.
  2. Physiological changes – The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.
  3. Action – The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.

For example: Jenny sees a snake.

  1. Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.
  2. Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenaline through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat.
  3. Jenny screams and runs away.

Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.

George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind and Emotion, 1975,[86] and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984[87])

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993[88]). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the 'standard objection' to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[89] The affect infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information.

Perceptual theory

Theories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion.[90] A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions,[85] and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.[78]

Affective events theory

Affective events theory is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996),[91] that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes –\ a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory has been used by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections on Affective Events Theory", published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005.[92]

Situated perspective on emotion

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology.[93] This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

Genetics

Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems.[94] These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring.

In the five million years since the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system.[95] Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language.[96] Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans.[97] Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.

Formation

 
Timeline of some of the most prominent brain models of emotion in affective neuroscience

Neurobiological explanation

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).[36]

For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of Paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate cortex (or gyrus)) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brainstem and spinal cord.

Other emotions like fear and anxiety long thought to be exclusively generated by the most primitive parts of the brain (stem) and more associated to the fight-or-flight responses of behavior, have also been associated as adaptive expressions of defensive behavior whenever a threat is encountered. Although defensive behaviors have been present in a wide variety of species, Blanchard et al. (2001) discovered a correlation of given stimuli and situation that resulted in a similar pattern of defensive behavior towards a threat in human and non-human mammals.[98]

Whenever potentially dangerous stimuli is presented additional brain structures activate that previously thought (hippocampus, thalamus, etc.). Thus, giving the amygdala an important role on coordinating the following behavioral input based on the presented neurotransmitters that respond to threat stimuli. These biological functions of the amygdala are not only limited to the "fear-conditioning" and "processing of aversive stimuli", but also are present on other components of the amygdala. Therefore, it can referred the amygdala as a key structure to understand the potential responses of behavior in danger like situations in human and non-human mammals.[99]

The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept – one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.[36]

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Paul Broca (1878),[100] James Papez (1937),[101] and Paul D. MacLean (1952)[102] suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

Prefrontal cortex

There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.[103] If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli[104] and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[105]

Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The valence model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. The direction model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.[106]

This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (direction model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (movement model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (action tendency model). Support for the action tendency model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness[107] and research on behavioral inhibition.[108] Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the action tendency model.[109][110]

Homeostatic/primordial emotion

Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion: "classical" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and "homeostatic emotions" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.[111]

Derek Denton calls the latter "primordial emotions" and defines them as "the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis. They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain and hunger for specific minerals etc. There are two constituents of a primordial emotion – the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act."[112]

Emergent explanation

Emotions are seen by some researchers to be constructed (emerge) in social and cognitive domain alone, without directly implying biologically inherited characteristics.

Joseph LeDoux differentiates between the human's defense system, which has evolved over time, and emotions such as fear and anxiety. He has said that the amygdala may release hormones due to a trigger (such as an innate reaction to seeing a snake), but "then we elaborate it through cognitive and conscious processes".[34]

Lisa Feldman Barrett highlights differences in emotions between different cultures,[113] and says that emotions (such as anxiety) are socially constructed (see theory of constructed emotion). She says that they "are not triggered; you create them. They emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment."[114] She has termed this approach the theory of constructed emotion.

Disciplinary approaches

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes, e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication studies, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[115] an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.

In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making.

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

History

Main article: History of emotions

The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars[who?] arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and the constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyze the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural, or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science, or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules; thus historically variable and open to change.[116] Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain,[117] Sweden, and Australia.

Furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma.

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of emotions

A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (for example, smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues.[15] One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009).[118][119] Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant.

Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities. The expression of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women to a greater extent than in boys and men (the notion being that an angry man has a valid complaint that needs to be rectified, while an angry women is hysterical or oversensitive, and her anger is somehow invalid), while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women (attitudes implicit in phrases like "man up" or "don't be a sissy").[120][121] Expectations attached to social roles, such as "acting as man" and not as a woman, and the accompanying "feeling rules" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage. In advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism.[122]

Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Émile Durkheim (1915/1965)[123] wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian Aboriginal society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects.

In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992),[124] pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991)[125] conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990)[126] developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004)[127] formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967)[128][129] into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (for example, Milne & Otieno, 2007;[130] Olitsky, 2007;[131] Tobin, et al., 2013;[132] Zembylas, 2002[133]). These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate.

Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of six other categories:[119]

  • evolutionary/biological theories
  • symbolic interactionist theories
  • dramaturgical theories
  • ritual theories
  • power and status theories
  • stratification theories
  • exchange theories

This list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.[118]

[96][97][95]

Psychotherapy and regulation

Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience.[134] For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.).[135] Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).[136]

Cross-cultural research

Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific.[137] In strategic settings, cross-cultural research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors. This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national, political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.[138]

Computer science

Main article: Affective computing

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.[139] In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.[140] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[76] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper[141] on affective computing.[142][143] Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.

The effects on memory

Emotion affects the way autobiographical memories are encoded and retrieved. Emotional memories are reactivated more, they are remembered better and have more attention devoted to them.[144] Through remembering our past achievements and failures, autobiographical memories affect how we perceive and feel about ourselves.[144]

Notable theorists

In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.[145]

Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the affect theory and script theory. The affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life.[146]

Some of the most influential deceased theorists on emotion from the 20th century include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions;[147] Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion;[148] Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (2003);[149] Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986);[150] Jaak Panksepp (1943–2017), an Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist, neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience.

Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists:

See also

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Further reading

  • Glinka, Lukasz Andrzej (2013) Theorizing Emotions: A Brief Study of Psychological, Philosophical, and Cultural Aspects of Human Emotions. Great Abington: Cambridge International Science Publishing. ISBN 978-1907343957.
  • Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee "Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions" 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine, International Journal on Humanistic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1, Spring–Summer 2010.
  • Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.[ISBN missing]
  • Denton D (2006). The Primordial Emotions: The Dawning of Consciousness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199203147.
  • Fox E (2008). Emotion Science: An Integration of Cognitive and Neuroscientific Approaches. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0230005174.
  • González, Ana Marta (2012). The Emotions and Cultural Analysis. Burlington, VT : Ashgate. ISBN 978-1409453178
  • Ekman, P. (1999). "". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:.
  • Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and
  • Russell Hochschild, Arlie (1983). The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520054547
  • Hogan, Patrick Colm. (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion 13 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Hordern, Joshua. (2013). Political Affections: Civic Participation and Moral Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199646813
  • LeDoux, J.E. (1986). "The neurobiology of emotion". Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge.[ISBN missing]
  • Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York: Norton.
  • Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[ISBN missing]
  • Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic.
  • Roberts, Robert. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[ISBN missing]
  • Robinson DL (2008). (PDF). Netherlands Journal of Psychology. 64 (4): 152–67. doi:10.1007/BF03076418. S2CID 143896041. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  • Scherer, K (2005). (PDF). Social Science Information. 44 (4): 695–729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216. S2CID 145575751. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2015.
  • Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.[ISBN missing]
  • Zeki S, Romaya JP (2008). "Neural correlates of hate". PLOS ONE. 3 (10): e3556. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.3556Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003556. PMC 2569212. PMID 18958169.
  • Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience
  • Dror Green (2011). "Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world". Bulgaria: Books[ISBN missing]

External links

January 26, 2023
emotion, other, uses, disambiguation, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, mental, states, brought, neurophysiological, changes, variously, associated, with, thoughts, feelings, behavioral, responses, degree, pleasure, displeasure, there, currently, s. For other uses see Emotion disambiguation Emotional redirects here For other uses see Emotional disambiguation Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts feelings behavioral responses and a degree of pleasure or displeasure 1 2 3 4 5 There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition 6 Emotions are often intertwined with mood temperament personality disposition or creativity 7 Sixteen faces expressing the human passions coloured engraving by J Pass 1821 after Charles Le Brun Research on emotion has increased over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology medicine history sociology of emotions and computer science The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin function and other aspects of emotions have fostered more intense research on this topic Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective picture processes in the brain 8 From a mechanistic perspective emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity Emotions produce different physiological behavioral and cognitive changes The original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the passing on of genes through survival reproduction and kin selection 9 10 In some theories cognition is an important aspect of emotion Other theories however claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition Consciously experiencing an emotion is exhibiting a mental representation of that emotion from a past or hypothetical experience which is linked back to a content state of pleasure or displeasure 11 The content states are established by verbal explanations of experiences describing an internal state 12 Emotions are complex There are various theories on the question of whether or not emotions cause changes in our behaviour 5 On the one hand the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation 13 On the other hand emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components which might include motivation feeling behaviour and physiological changes but none of these components is the emotion Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components 14 Emotions involve different components such as subjective experience cognitive processes expressive behavior psychophysiological changes and instrumental behavior At one time academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components William James with a subjective experience behaviorists with instrumental behavior psychophysiologists with physiological changes and so on More recently emotion is said to consist of all the components The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline In psychology and philosophy emotion typically includes a subjective conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions biological reactions and mental states A similar multi componential description of emotion is found in sociology For example Peggy Thoits 15 described emotions as involving physiological components cultural or emotional labels anger surprise etc expressive body actions and the appraisal of situations and contexts Nowadays most research into emotions in the clinical and well being context focuses on emotion dynamics in daily life predominantly the intensity of specific emotions and their variability instability inertia and differentiation and whether and how emotions augment or blunt each other over time and differences in these dynamics between people and along the lifespan 16 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Definitions 4 Components 5 Differentiation 6 Purpose and value 7 Classification 7 1 Basic emotions 7 2 Multi dimensional analysis 8 Theories 8 1 Pre modern history 8 2 Western theological 8 3 Evolutionary theories 8 3 1 19th century 8 3 2 Contemporary 8 4 Somatic theories 8 4 1 James Lange theory 8 4 2 Cannon Bard theory 8 4 3 Two factor theory 8 5 Cognitive theories 8 6 Situated perspective on emotion 8 7 Genetics 9 Formation 9 1 Neurobiological explanation 9 1 1 Prefrontal cortex 9 1 2 Homeostatic primordial emotion 9 2 Emergent explanation 10 Disciplinary approaches 10 1 History 10 2 Sociology 10 3 Psychotherapy and regulation 10 4 Cross cultural research 10 5 Computer science 11 The effects on memory 12 Notable theorists 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External linksEtymology EditThe word emotion dates back to 1579 when it was adapted from the French word emouvoir which means to stir up The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a catch all term to passions sentiments and affections 17 The word emotion was coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and it is around the 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first emerged for the English language 18 No one felt emotions before about 1830 Instead they felt other things passions accidents of the soul moral sentiments and explained them very differently from how we understand emotions today 18 Some cross cultural studies indicate that the categorization of emotion and classification of basic emotions such as anger and sadness are not universal and that the boundaries and domains of these concepts are categorized differently by all cultures 19 However others argue that there are some universal bases of emotions see Section 6 1 20 In psychiatry and psychology an inability to express or perceive emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia 21 History EditHuman nature and the accompanying bodily sensations have always been part of the interests of thinkers and philosophers Far more extensively this has also been of great interest to both Western and Eastern societies Emotional states have been associated with the divine and with the enlightenment of the human mind and body 22 The ever changing actions of individuals and their mood variations have been of great importance to most of the Western philosophers including Aristotle Plato Descartes Aquinas and Hobbes leading them to propose extensive theories often competing theories that sought to explain emotion and the accompanying motivators of human action as well as its consequences In the Age of Enlightenment Scottish thinker David Hume 23 proposed a revolutionary argument that sought to explain the main motivators of human action and conduct He proposed that actions are motivated by fears desires and passions As he wrote in his book Treatise of Human Nature 1773 Reason alone can never be a motive to any action of the will it can never oppose passion in the direction of the will The reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them 24 With these lines Hume attempted to explain that reason and further action would be subject to the desires and experience of the self Later thinkers would propose that actions and emotions are deeply interrelated with social political historical and cultural aspects of reality that would also come to be associated with sophisticated neurological and physiological research on the brain and other parts of the physical body Definitions EditThe Lexico definition of emotion is A strong feeling deriving from one s circumstances mood or relationships with others 25 Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events 26 Emotions can be occurrences e g panic or dispositions e g hostility and short lived e g anger or long lived e g grief 27 Psychotherapist Michael C Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity 28 Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame 29 Emotions have been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses which may include verbal physiological behavioral and neural mechanisms 30 Emotions have been categorized with some relationships existing between emotions and some direct opposites existing Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits 31 In some uses of the word emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something 32 On the other hand emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild as in annoyed or content and to states that are not directed at anything as in anxiety and depression One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse 33 In practical terms Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger 34 Components EditAccording to Scherer s Component Process Model CPM of emotion 35 there are five crucial elements of emotion From the component process perspective emotional experience requires that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time driven by appraisal processes Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems the CPM provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode Cognitive appraisal provides an evaluation of events and objects Bodily symptoms the physiological component of emotional experience Action tendencies a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses Expression facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions Feelings the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred Differentiation EditSee also Affect measures Differentiating affect from other terms Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience 30 Feeling not all feelings include emotion such as the feeling of knowing In the context of emotion feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions private to the individual experiencing them 36 better source needed Moods diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions they are also usually less intense than emotions and often appear to lack a contextual stimulus 32 Affect used to describe the underlying affective experience of an emotion or a mood Purpose and value EditOne view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors 37 Emotions can function as a way to communicate what s important to individuals such as values and ethics 38 However some emotions such as some forms of anxiety are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value 39 Classification EditMain article Emotion classification A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do Finally some theorists place emotions within a more general category of affective states where affective states can also include emotion related phenomena such as pleasure and pain motivational states for example hunger or curiosity moods dispositions and traits 40 Basic emotions Edit Examples of basic emotions The emotion wheel For more than 40 years Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete measurable and physiologically distinct Ekman s most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions for example disgust they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions Ekman s facial expression research examined six basic emotions anger disgust fear happiness sadness and surprise 41 Later in his career 42 Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six In light of this recent cross cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner both former students of Ekman extended the list of universal emotions In addition to the original six these studies provided evidence for amusement awe contentment desire embarrassment pain relief and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions They also found evidence for boredom confusion interest pride and shame facial expressions as well as contempt relief and triumph vocal expressions 43 44 45 Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman s biologically driven perspective but developed the wheel of emotions suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis joy versus sadness anger versus fear trust versus disgust and surprise versus anticipation 46 Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions Alternatively similar to the way primary colors combine primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt Relationships exist between basic emotions resulting in positive or negative influences 47 Jaak Panksepp carved out seven biologically inherited primary affective systems called SEEKING expectancy FEAR anxiety RAGE anger LUST sexual excitement CARE nurturance PANIC GRIEF sadness and PLAY social joy He proposed what is known as core SELF to be generating these affects 48 Multi dimensional analysis Edit Two dimensions of emotions made accessible for practical use 49 Two dimensions of emotion Psychologists have used methods such as factor analysis to attempt to map emotion related responses onto a more limited number of dimensions Such methods attempt to boil emotions down to underlying dimensions that capture the similarities and differences between experiences 50 Often the first two dimensions uncovered by factor analysis are valence how negative or positive the experience feels and arousal how energized or enervated the experience feels These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map 51 This two dimensional map has been theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect 52 53 Core affect is not theorized to be the only component to emotion but to give the emotion its hedonic and felt energy Using statistical methods to analyze emotional states elicited by short videos Cowen and Keltner identified 27 varieties of emotional experience admiration adoration aesthetic appreciation amusement anger anxiety awe awkwardness boredom calmness confusion craving disgust empathic pain entrancement excitement fear horror interest joy nostalgia relief romance sadness satisfaction sexual desire and surprise 54 Theories EditSee also Functional accounts of emotion Pre modern history Edit In Buddhism emotions occur when an object is considered as attractive or repulsive There is a felt tendency impelling people towards attractive objects and impelling them to move away from repulsive or harmful objects a disposition to possess the object greed to destroy it hatred to flee from it fear to get obsessed or worried over it anxiety and so on 55 In Stoic theories normal emotions like delight and fear are described as irrational impulses which come from incorrect appraisals of what is good or bad Alternatively there are good emotions like joy and caution experienced by those that are wise which come from correct appraisals of what is good and bad 56 57 Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue 58 In the Aristotelian view all emotions called passions corresponded to appetites or capacities During the Middle Ages the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas 59 in particular In Chinese antiquity excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to qi which in turn damages the vital organs 60 The four humours theory made popular by Hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine In the early 11th century Avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors suggesting the need to manage emotions 61 Early modern views on emotion are developed in the works of philosophers such as Rene Descartes Niccolo Machiavelli Baruch Spinoza 62 Thomas Hobbes 63 and David Hume In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective Western theological Edit Christian perspective on emotion presupposes a theistic origin to humanity God who created humans gave humans the ability to feel emotion and interact emotionally Biblical content expresses that God is a person who feels and expresses emotion Though a somatic view would place the locus of emotions in the physical body Christian theory of emotions would view the body more as a platform for the sensing and expression of emotions Therefore emotions themselves arise from the person or that which is imago dei or Image of God in humans In Christian thought emotions have the potential to be controlled through reasoned reflection That reasoned reflection also mimics God who made mind The purpose of emotions in human life are therefore summarized in God s call to enjoy Him and creation humans are to enjoy emotions and benefit from them and use them to energize behavior 64 65 Evolutionary theories Edit Main articles Evolution of emotion and Evolutionary psychology Illustration from Charles Darwin s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals 1872 19th century Edit Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid late 19th century with Charles Darwin s 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals 66 Darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans neither in communication nor in aiding survival 67 Darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters 68 He pioneered various methods for studying non verbal expressions from which he concluded that some expressions had cross cultural universality Darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that occur in animals This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion Contemporary Edit More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment 13 Emotion is an essential part of any human decision making and planning and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems 69 Paul D MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses on one hand and the more abstract reasoning on the other hand The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E LeDoux and Antonio Damasio Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans see affect display For example spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual s reputation as someone to be feared 13 Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one s standing in a community and self esteem is one s estimate of one s status 13 70 Somatic theories Edit Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than cognitive interpretations are essential to emotions The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s The theory lost favor in the 20th century but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John T Cacioppo 71 Antonio Damasio 72 Joseph E LeDoux 73 and Robert Zajonc 74 who are able to appeal to neurological evidence 75 James Lange theory Edit Main article James Lange theory Simplified graph of James Lange Theory of Emotion In his 1884 article 76 William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena In his theory James proposed that the perception of what he called an exciting fact directly led to a physiological response known as emotion 77 To account for different types of emotional experiences James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time and therefore this theory became known as the James Lange theory As James wrote the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion James further claims that we feel sad because we cry angry because we strike afraid because we tremble and either we cry strike or tremble because we are sorry angry or fearful as the case may be 76 An example of this theory in action would be as follows An emotion evoking stimulus snake triggers a pattern of physiological response increased heart rate faster breathing etc which is interpreted as a particular emotion fear This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state 78 Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion specific actions for example I m crying because I m sad or I ran away because I was scared The issue with the James Lange theory is that of causation bodily states causing emotions and being a priori not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory 79 Although mostly abandoned in its original form Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James Lange theory of emotions 80 The James Lange theory has remained influential Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion p 583 Cannon Bard theory Edit Main article Cannon Bard theory Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion 81 He also believed that the richness variety and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses 82 83 An example of this theory in action is as follows An emotion evoking event snake triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals Bard found that sensory motor and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon particularly the thalamus before being subjected to any further processing Therefore Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously 82 Two factor theory Edit Main article Two factor theory of emotion Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician Gregorio Maranon who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt Maranon found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion evoking stimulus the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience Emotions were thus a result of two stage process general physiological arousal and experience of emotion For example the physiological arousal heart pounding in a response to an evoking stimulus the sight of a bear in the kitchen The brain then quickly scans the area to explain the pounding and notices the bear Consequently the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear 84 With his student Jerome Singer Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation a confederate displayed that emotion Hence the combination of the appraisal of the situation cognitive and the participants reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz s 2004 Gut Reactions 85 Cognitive theories Edit With the two factor theory now incorporating cognition several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments evaluations or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing Lazarus theory is very influential emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order Cognitive appraisal The individual assesses the event cognitively which cues the emotion Physiological changes The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response Action The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react For example Jenny sees a snake Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenaline through her blood stream resulting in increased heartbeat Jenny screams and runs away Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition consciousness and the autonomic nervous system in two books Mind and Emotion 1975 86 and Mind and Body Psychology of Emotion and Stress 1984 87 There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments evaluations or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C Solomon for example The Passions Emotions and the Meaning of Life 1993 88 Solomon claims that emotions are judgments He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the standard objection to cognitivism the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion so judgment cannot be identified with emotion The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example It has also been suggested that emotions affect heuristics feelings and gut feeling reactions are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior 89 The affect infusion model AIM is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one s ability to process information Perceptual theoryTheories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion 90 A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory This theory is neo Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something as is recognized by cognitive theories The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations In this respect emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz s book Gut Reactions 85 and psychologist James Laird s book Feelings 78 Affective events theoryAffective events theory is a communication based theory developed by Howard M Weiss and Russell Cropanzano 1996 91 that looks at the causes structures and consequences of emotional experience especially in work contexts This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes a series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme This theory has been used by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens and was reviewed further by Howard M Weiss and Daniel J Beal in their article Reflections on Affective Events Theory published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005 92 Situated perspective on emotion Edit A situated perspective on emotion developed by Paul E Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology 93 This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo Jamesian theories of emotion both of which see emotion as a purely internal process with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion In contrast a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment and observing the responses of other organisms Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms In some contexts the expression of emotion both voluntary and involuntary could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion since emotion is an action oriented form of skillful engagement with the world Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias as well as the emotions of infants and animals Genetics Edit Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology particularly with the stress systems This is important because emotions are related to the anti stress complex with an oxytocin attachment system which plays a major role in bonding Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems 94 These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells and at every speciation event heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring In the five million years since the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split only about 1 2 of their genetic material has been modified This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA including our behaviors Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene dependent behavioral phenotypes In voles Microtus spp minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system 95 Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language 96 Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200 000 years coinciding with the beginning of modern humans 97 Speech language and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions Formation Edit Timeline of some of the most prominent brain models of emotion in affective neuroscience Neurobiological explanation Edit Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns in which neurochemicals for example dopamine noradrenaline and serotonin step up or step down the brain s activity level as visible in body movements gestures and postures Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones see fear 36 For example the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of Paleocircuits of the mammalian brain specifically modules of the cingulate cortex or gyrus which facilitate the care feeding and grooming of offspring Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech They consist of pre configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain brainstem and spinal cord Other emotions like fear and anxiety long thought to be exclusively generated by the most primitive parts of the brain stem and more associated to the fight or flight responses of behavior have also been associated as adaptive expressions of defensive behavior whenever a threat is encountered Although defensive behaviors have been present in a wide variety of species Blanchard et al 2001 discovered a correlation of given stimuli and situation that resulted in a similar pattern of defensive behavior towards a threat in human and non human mammals 98 Whenever potentially dangerous stimuli is presented additional brain structures activate that previously thought hippocampus thalamus etc Thus giving the amygdala an important role on coordinating the following behavioral input based on the presented neurotransmitters that respond to threat stimuli These biological functions of the amygdala are not only limited to the fear conditioning and processing of aversive stimuli but also are present on other components of the amygdala Therefore it can referred the amygdala as a key structure to understand the potential responses of behavior in danger like situations in human and non human mammals 99 The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision sound touch chemical gravity and motion with pre set body movements and programmed postures With the arrival of night active mammals smell replaced vision as the dominant sense and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain 36 Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention motivate our behavior and determine the significance of what is going on around us Pioneering work by Paul Broca 1878 100 James Papez 1937 101 and Paul D MacLean 1952 102 suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system which includes the hypothalamus cingulate cortex hippocampi and other structures More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance Prefrontal cortex Edit There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach 103 If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain then logically the converse should hold that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli 104 and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli 105 Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions The valence model predicted that anger a negative emotion would activate the right prefrontal cortex The direction model predicted that anger an approach emotion would activate the left prefrontal cortex The second model was supported 106 This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away direction model as unmoving but with strength and resistance movement model or as unmoving with passive yielding action tendency model Support for the action tendency model passivity related to right prefrontal activity comes from research on shyness 107 and research on behavioral inhibition 108 Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the action tendency model 109 110 Homeostatic primordial emotion Edit Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion classical emotions such as love anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli and homeostatic emotions attention demanding feelings evoked by body states such as pain hunger and fatigue that motivate behavior withdrawal eating or resting in these examples aimed at maintaining the body s internal milieu at its ideal state 111 Derek Denton calls the latter primordial emotions and defines them as the subjective element of the instincts which are the genetically programmed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis They include thirst hunger for air hunger for food pain and hunger for specific minerals etc There are two constituents of a primordial emotion the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act 112 Emergent explanation Edit Emotions are seen by some researchers to be constructed emerge in social and cognitive domain alone without directly implying biologically inherited characteristics Joseph LeDoux differentiates between the human s defense system which has evolved over time and emotions such as fear and anxiety He has said that the amygdala may release hormones due to a trigger such as an innate reaction to seeing a snake but then we elaborate it through cognitive and conscious processes 34 Lisa Feldman Barrett highlights differences in emotions between different cultures 113 and says that emotions such as anxiety are socially constructed see theory of constructed emotion She says that they are not triggered you create them They emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in and your culture and upbringing which provide that environment 114 She has termed this approach the theory of constructed emotion Disciplinary approaches EditMany different disciplines have produced work on the emotions Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms In psychiatry emotions are examined as part of the discipline s study and treatment of mental disorders in humans Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes e g cognitive behavioral therapy In neuroscience sub fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality emotion and mood In linguistics the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds In education the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions In sociology emotions are examined for the role they play in human society social patterns and interactions and culture In anthropology the study of humanity scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross cultural comparisons of a range of human activities Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities In the field of communication studies critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations from the perspectives of managers employees and even customers A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild s concept of emotional labor The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet 115 an e mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe In economics the social science that studies the production distribution and consumption of goods and services emotions are analyzed in some sub fields of microeconomics in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision making and risk perception In criminology a social science approach to the study of crime scholars often draw on behavioral sciences sociology and psychology emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of toughness aggressive behavior and hooliganism In law which underpins civil obedience politics economics and society evidence about people s emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers as evidence of the defendant s state of mind during trials sentencing and parole hearings In political science emotions are examined in a number of sub fields such as the analysis of voter decision making In philosophy emotions are studied in sub fields such as ethics the philosophy of art for example sensory emotional values and matters of taste and sentimentality and the philosophy of music see also music and emotion In history scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation In literature and film making the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama melodrama and romance In communication studies scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages Emotion is also studied in non human animals in ethology a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science with strong ties to ecology and evolution Ethologists often study one type of behavior for example aggression in a number of unrelated animals History Edit Main article History of emotions The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently with some scholars who arguing that it is an essential category of analysis not unlike class race or gender Historians like other social scientists assume that emotions feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times and the constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta emotions for example schadenfreude are learnt and not only regulated by culture Historians of emotion trace and analyze the changing norms and rules of feeling while examining emotional regimes codes and lexicons from social cultural or political history perspectives Others focus on the history of medicine science or psychology What somebody can and may feel and show in a given situation towards certain people or things depends on social norms and rules thus historically variable and open to change 116 Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany England Spain 117 Sweden and Australia Furthermore research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation presented as examples of transgenerational trauma Sociology Edit Main article Sociology of emotions A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels for example anger pride fear happiness physiological changes for example increased perspiration changes in pulse rate expressive facial and body movements for example smiling frowning baring teeth and appraisals of situational cues 15 One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner 2007 2009 118 119 Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self other and situation are met or not met People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology psychology evolutionary science and neuroscience Based on this analysis he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive anger aversion fear satisfaction happiness and disappointment sadness These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences These more elaborate emotions are called first order elaborations in Turner s theory and they include sentiments such as pride triumph and awe Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many sometimes conflicting demands and expectations which originate from various entities The expression of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women to a greater extent than in boys and men the notion being that an angry man has a valid complaint that needs to be rectified while an angry women is hysterical or oversensitive and her anger is somehow invalid while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women attitudes implicit in phrases like man up or don t be a sissy 120 121 Expectations attached to social roles such as acting as man and not as a woman and the accompanying feeling rules contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness sadness or jealousy and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage In advertising such as health campaigns and political messages emotional appeals are commonly found Recent examples include no smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism 122 Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time Emile Durkheim 1915 1965 123 wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian Aboriginal society He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power a force that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped These feelings of exaltation he argued ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects In the 1990s sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant For Cooley 1992 124 pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions During every encounter he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the looking glass that the gestures and reactions of others provide Depending on these reactions we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action Retzinger 1991 125 conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley s work Scheff 1990 126 developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions Subsequent to these developments Randall Collins 2004 127 formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim s work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman 1964 2013 1967 128 129 into everyday focused encounters Based on interaction ritual theory we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face to face interactions Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students for example Milne amp Otieno 2007 130 Olitsky 2007 131 Tobin et al 2013 132 Zembylas 2002 133 These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion other approaches have been classed into one of six other categories 119 evolutionary biological theories symbolic interactionist theories dramaturgical theories ritual theories power and status theories stratification theories exchange theoriesThis list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner 2007 in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions 118 96 97 95 Psychotherapy and regulation Edit Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience 134 For example a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions trying not to think about the situation doing distracting activities etc 135 Depending on the particular school s general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion physical energy discharging or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components such as rational emotive behavior therapy Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components like in contemporary Gestalt therapy 136 Cross cultural research Edit Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture specific 137 In strategic settings cross cultural research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture basically founded on its national political social economic and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events 138 Computer science Edit Main article Affective computing In the 2000s research in computer science engineering psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions 139 In computer science affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize interpret and process human emotions It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences psychology and cognitive science 140 While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion 76 the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard s 1995 paper 141 on affective computing 142 143 Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user s physical state or behavior without interpreting the input The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions Emotional speech processing recognizes the user s emotional state by analyzing speech patterns The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors The effects on memory EditEmotion affects the way autobiographical memories are encoded and retrieved Emotional memories are reactivated more they are remembered better and have more attention devoted to them 144 Through remembering our past achievements and failures autobiographical memories affect how we perceive and feel about ourselves 144 Notable theorists EditIn the late 19th century the most influential theorists were William James 1842 1910 and Carl Lange 1834 1900 James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology psychology of religious experience mysticism and the philosophy of pragmatism Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist Working independently they developed the James Lange theory a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions The theory states that within human beings as a response to experiences in the world the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension a rise in heart rate perspiration and dryness of the mouth Emotions then are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes rather than being their cause 145 Silvan Tomkins 1911 1991 developed the affect theory and script theory The affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion which he called the affected system was the motivating force in human life 146 Some of the most influential deceased theorists on emotion from the 20th century include Magda B Arnold 1903 2002 an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions 147 Richard Lazarus 1922 2002 an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress especially in relation to cognition Herbert A Simon 1916 2001 who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence Robert Plutchik 1928 2006 an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion 148 Robert Zajonc 1923 2008 a Polish American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation Robert C Solomon 1942 2007 an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion Classic and Contemporary Readings 2003 149 Peter Goldie 1946 2011 a British philosopher who specialized in ethics aesthetics emotion mood and character Nico Frijda 1927 2015 a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances detailed in his book The Emotions 1986 150 Jaak Panksepp 1943 2017 an Estonian born American psychologist psychobiologist neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists neurologists philosophers and sociologists Michael Apter born 1939 British psychologist who developed reversal theory a structural phenomenological theory of personality motivation and emotion Lisa Feldman Barrett born 1963 neuroscientist and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion John T Cacioppo born 1951 from the University of Chicago founding father with Gary Berntson of social neuroscience Randall Collins born 1941 American sociologist from the University of Pennsylvania developed the interaction ritual theory which includes the emotional entrainment model Antonio Damasio born 1944 Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US Richard Davidson born 1951 American psychologist and neuroscientist pioneer in affective neuroscience Paul Ekman born 1934 psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions Barbara Fredrickson Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology Arlie Russell Hochschild born 1940 American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations Joseph E LeDoux born 1949 American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion especially the mechanisms of fear George Mandler born 1924 American psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion Jesse Prinz American philosopher who specializes in emotion moral psychology aesthetics and consciousness James A Russell born 1947 American psychologist who developed or co developed the PAD theory of environmental impact circumplex model of affect prototype theory of emotion concepts a critique of the hypothesis of universal recognition of emotion from facial expression concept of core affect developmental theory of differentiation of emotion concepts and more recently the theory of the psychological construction of emotion Klaus Scherer born 1943 Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva he specializes in the psychology of emotion Ronald de Sousa born 1940 English Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology Jonathan H Turner born 1942 American sociologist from the University of California Riverside who is a general sociological theorist with specialty areas including the sociology of emotions ethnic relations social institutions social stratification and bio sociology Dominique Moisi born 1946 authored a book titled The Geopolitics of Emotion focusing on emotions related to globalization 151 See also EditAffect measures Affective forecasting Emotion and memory Emotion Review Emotional intelligence Emotional isolation Emotions in virtual communication Facial feedback hypothesis Fuzzy trace theory Group emotion Moral emotions Social sharing of emotions Two factor theory of emotionReferences Edit Panksepp Jaak 2005 Affective neuroscience the foundations of human and animal emotions Reprint ed Oxford u a Oxford Univ Press p 9 ISBN 978 0195096736 Our emotional feelings reflect our ability to subjectively experience certain states of the nervous system Although conscious feeling states are universally accepted as major distinguishing characteristics of human emotions in animal research the issue of whether other organisms feel emotions is little more than a conceptual embarrassment Damasio AR May 1998 Emotion in the perspective of an integrated nervous system Brain Research Brain Research Reviews 26 2 3 83 86 doi 10 1016 s0165 0173 97 00064 7 PMID 9651488 S2CID 8504450 Ekman Paul Davidson Richard J 1994 The Nature of emotion fundamental questions New York Oxford University Press pp 291 293 ISBN 978 0195089448 Emotional processing but not emotions can occur unconsciously Cabanac Michel 2002 What is emotion Behavioural Processes 60 2 69 83 E motion is any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content pleasure displeasure a b Scirst Daniel L 2011 Psychology Second Edition New York Worth Publishers p 310 ISBN 978 1429237192 Lisa Feldman Barrett Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland Jones eds 2016 Handbook of emotions Fourth ed New York ISBN 978 1462525348 OCLC 950202673 Averill James R February 1999 Individual Differences in Emotional Creativity Structure and Correlates Journal of Personality 67 2 331 371 doi 10 1111 1467 6494 00058 ISSN 0022 3506 PMID 10202807 Cacioppo John T Gardner Wendi L 1999 Emotion Annual Review of Psychology 50 191 214 doi 10 1146 annurev psych 50 1 191 PMID 10074678 Schacter D L Gilbert D T Wegner D M amp Hood B M 2011 Psychology European ed Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan ISBN missing page needed Pinker Steven 1997 How the Mind Works New York W W Norton amp Company p 342 ISBN missing Wilson TD Dunn EW February 2004 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Cambridge University Press 2003 ISBN 978 0521026697 link Archived 9 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b Smith TW 2015 The Book of Human Emotions Little Brown and Company pp 4 7 ISBN 978 0316265409 Russell JA November 1991 Culture and the categorization of emotions Psychological Bulletin 110 3 426 450 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 110 3 426 PMID 1758918 S2CID 4830394 Wierzbicka Anna Emotions across languages and cultures diversity and universals Cambridge University Press 1999 ISBN missing page needed Taylor Graeme J Alexithymia concept measurement and implications for treatment The American Journal of Psychiatry 1984 page needed Kagan Jerome 2007 What is emotion History measures and meanings Yale University Press pp 10 11 Mossner Ernest Campbell 2001 The Life of David Hume Oxford University Press p 2 ISBN missing Hume David 2003 A treatise of human nature Courier Corporation ISBN missing Emotion Definition of Emotion by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico com also meaning of Emotion Lexico 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ISBN missing Shiota Michelle N 2016 Ekman s theory of basic emotions In Miller Harold L ed The Sage encyclopedia of theory in psychology Thousand Oaks CA SAGE Publications pp 248 250 doi 10 4135 9781483346274 n85 ISBN 978 1452256719 Some aspects of Ekman s approach to basic emotions are commonly misunderstood Three misinterpretations are especially common The first and most widespread is that Ekman posits exactly six basic emotions Although his original facial expression research examined six emotions Ekman has often written that evidence may eventually be found for several more and has suggested as many as 15 likely candidates Ekman Paul Cordaro Daniel 20 September 2011 What is Meant by Calling Emotions Basic Emotion Review 3 4 364 370 doi 10 1177 1754073911410740 ISSN 1754 0739 S2CID 52833124 Cordaro Daniel T Keltner Dacher Tshering Sumjay Wangchuk Dorji Flynn Lisa M 2016 The voice conveys emotion in ten globalized cultures and one remote village in Bhutan Emotion 16 1 117 128 doi 10 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different publishers Hess Ursula Thibault 2009 Darwin amp Emotion Expression The Principle of Serviceable Habits American Psychologist 64 2 120 128 doi 10 1037 a0013386 PMID 19203144 S2CID 31276371 for most emotion expressions Darwin insisted that they were functional in the past or were functional in animals but not in humans Sheldrake Rupert 8 June 2015 Darwinian Inheritance amp the Evolution of Evolutionary Theory OpenSciences org Archived from the original on 8 July 2019 Retrieved 8 July 2019 Lerner JS Li Y Valdesolo P Kassam KS January 2015 Emotion and decision making PDF Annual Review of Psychology 66 799 823 doi 10 1146 annurev psych 010213 115043 PMID 25251484 Archived PDF from the original on 17 July 2019 Retrieved 8 July 2019 Wright Robert Moral animal Cacioppo JT 1998 Somatic responses to psychological stress The reactivity hypothesis Advances in Psychological Science 2 87 114 Aziz Zadeh L Damasio A 2008 Embodied semantics for actions findings from functional brain imaging 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doi 10 1016 0001 6918 87 90020 5 PMID 3687478 Merckelbach H van Oppen P March 1989 Effects of gaze manipulation on subjective evaluation of neutral and phobia relevant stimuli A comment on Drake s 1987 Effects of Gaze Manipulation on Aesthetic Judgments Hemisphere Priming of Affect Acta Psychologica 70 2 147 151 doi 10 1016 0001 6918 89 90017 6 PMID 2741709 Harmon Jones E Vaughn Scott K Mohr S Sigelman J Harmon Jones C March 2004 The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortical activity Emotion 4 1 95 101 doi 10 1037 1528 3542 4 1 95 PMID 15053729 Schmidt LA 1999 Frontal brain electrical activity in shyness and sociability Psychological Science 10 4 316 320 doi 10 1111 1467 9280 00161 S2CID 145482474 Taborsky I Dolnik V September 1977 Physico chemical properties of interferon produced by a mixed leukocyte suspension Acta Virologica 21 5 359 364 PMID 22229 Drake RA Myers LR 2006 Visual attention emotion and action tendency Feeling active or passive 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Human Development Mpib berlin mpg de Archived from the original on 5 May 2015 Retrieved 11 November 2013 Cultura Emocional E Identidad unav edu Archived from the original on 1 May 2016 Retrieved 11 November 2013 a b Turner J H 2007 Human emotions A sociological theory London Routledge a b Turner JH 2009 The sociology of emotion Basic Theoretical arguments Emotion Review 1 4 340 354 doi 10 1177 1754073909338305 S2CID 146259730 Blair Elaine 27 September 2018 The Power of Enraged Women The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 1 January 2022 Retrieved 9 December 2018 Jamison Leslie 17 January 2018 I Used to Insist I Didn t Get Angry Not Anymore The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 1 January 2022 Retrieved 9 December 2018 Singh Virendra 2016 Ethics Integrity amp Aptitude Neelkanth Pralashan p 75 ASIN B01BKSC2BK Archived from the original on 18 February 2020 Retrieved 8 July 2019 Durkheim E 1915 1912 The elementary forms of the religious life trans J W Swain New York Free Press Cooley C H 1992 Human nature and the social order New Brunswick Transaction Publishers Retzinger S M 1991 Violent emotions Shame and rage in marital quarrels London Sage ISBN missing Scheff J 1990 Microsociology discourse emotion and social structure Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN missing Collins R 2004 Interaction ritual chains Princeton NJ Princeton University Press Goffman E 1967 Interaction ritual New York Anchor Books Goffman E 1964 2013 Encounters Two studies in the sociology of interactions Mansfiled Centre CT Martino Publishing Milne C Otieno T 2007 Understanding engagement Science demonstrations and emotional energy Science Education 91 4 532 553 Bibcode 2007SciEd 91 523M doi 10 1002 sce 20203 Olitsky S 2007 Science learning status and identity formation in an urban middle school In W M Roth amp K G Tobin Eds Science learning identity Sociocultural and cultural historical perspectives pp 41 62 Rotterdam The Netherlands Sense Tobin K Ritchie SM Oakley J Mergard V Hudson P 2013 Relationships between emotional climate and the fluency of classroom interactions PDF Learning Environments Research 16 71 89 doi 10 1007 s10984 013 9125 y S2CID 140384593 Archived PDF from the original on 30 July 2022 Retrieved 8 July 2022 Zembylas M 2002 Constructing genealogies of teachers emotions in science teaching Journal of Research in Science Teaching 39 1 79 103 Bibcode 2002JRScT 39 79Z doi 10 1002 tea 10010 Schacter Daniel Psychology Worth Publishers 2011 p 316 Schacter Daniel Psychology Worth Publishers 2011 p 340 On Emotion an article from Manchester Gestalt Centre website 123webpages co uk Archived from the original on 12 May 2012 Retrieved 11 November 2013 Shaver Phillip R Wu Shelley Schwartz Judith C Cross cultural similarities and differences in emotion and its representation In Clark Margaret S Ed 1992 Emotion Review of personality and social psychology No 13 pp 175 212 Thousand Oaks CA SAGE Publications Inc ix 326 pp North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO Standardization Agency AAP 6 Glossary of terms and definitions p 188 Fellous Armony amp LeDoux 2002 Tao J Tan T 2005 Affective Computing A Review Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction LNCS Vol 3784 Springer pp 981 995 doi 10 1007 11573548 Affective Computing Archived 13 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine MIT Technical Report 321 Abstract Archived 24 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine 1995 Kleine Cosack C October 2006 Recognition and Simulation of Emotions PDF Archived from the original PDF on 28 May 2008 Retrieved 13 May 2008 The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard sic who created the field of affective computing Diamond D December 2003 The Love Machine Building computers that care Wired Archived from the original on 18 May 2008 Retrieved 13 May 2008 Rosalind Picard a genial MIT professor is the field s godmother her 1997 book Affective Computing triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users a b D Argembeau Arnaud Comblain Christine Van der Linden Martial 2003 Phenomenal characteristics of autobiographical memories for positive negative and neutral events Applied Cognitive Psychology 17 3 281 294 doi 10 1002 acp 856 ISSN 0888 4080 Cherry K What Is the James Lange Theory of Emotion Archived from the original on 14 February 2012 Retrieved 30 April 2012 The Tomkins Institute Applied Studies in Motivation Emotion and Cognition Archived from the original on 19 March 2012 Retrieved 30 April 2012 Reisenzein R 2006 Arnold s theory of emotion in historical perspective Cognition amp Emotion 20 7 920 951 doi 10 1080 02699930600616445 hdl 20 500 11780 598 S2CID 6113452 Plutchik R 1982 A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions Social Science Information 21 4 5 529 553 doi 10 1177 053901882021004003 S2CID 144109550 Solomon Robert C 2003 What is an Emotion Classic and Contemporary Readings Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195159646 Frijda N H 1986 The Emotions Maison des Sciences de l Homme and Cambridge University Press Moisi Dominique 2009 The Geopolitics of Emotion How Cultures of Fear Humiliation and Hope are Reshaping the World London Bodley Head ISBN 978 1409077084 Further reading EditGlinka Lukasz Andrzej 2013 Theorizing Emotions A Brief Study of Psychological Philosophical and Cultural Aspects of Human Emotions Great Abington Cambridge International Science Publishing ISBN 978 1907343957 Dana Sugu amp Amita Chaterjee Flashback Reshuffling Emotions Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine International Journal on Humanistic Ideology Vol 3 No 1 Spring Summer 2010 Cornelius R 1996 The science of emotion New Jersey Prentice Hall ISBN missing Denton D 2006 The Primordial Emotions The Dawning of Consciousness Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199203147 Fox E 2008 Emotion Science An Integration of Cognitive and Neuroscientific Approaches Palgrave MacMillan ISBN 978 0230005174 Gonzalez Ana Marta 2012 The Emotions and Cultural Analysis Burlington VT Ashgate ISBN 978 1409453178 Ekman P 1999 Basic Emotions In T Dalgleish and M Power Eds Handbook of Cognition and Emotion John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Sussex UK Frijda N H 1986 The Emotions Maison des Sciences de l Homme and Cambridge University Press Russell Hochschild Arlie 1983 The managed heart commercialization of human feeling Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0520054547 Hogan Patrick Colm 2011 What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion Archived 13 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge Cambridge University Press Hordern Joshua 2013 Political Affections Civic Participation and Moral Theology Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0199646813 LeDoux J E 1986 The neurobiology of emotion Chap 15 in J E LeDoux amp W Hirst Eds Mind and Brain dialogues in cognitive neuroscience New York Cambridge ISBN missing Mandler G 1984 Mind and Body Psychology of emotion and stress New York Norton Wayback Machine Nussbaum Martha C 2001 Upheavals of Thought The Intelligence of Emotions Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN missing Plutchik R 1980 A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion In R Plutchik amp H Kellerman Eds Emotion Theory research and experience Vol 1 Theories of emotion pp 3 33 New York Academic Roberts Robert 2003 Emotions An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN missing Robinson DL 2008 Brain function emotional experience and personality PDF Netherlands Journal of Psychology 64 4 152 67 doi 10 1007 BF03076418 S2CID 143896041 Archived from the original PDF on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 1 March 2022 Scherer K 2005 What are emotions and how can they be measured PDF Social Science Information 44 4 695 729 doi 10 1177 0539018405058216 S2CID 145575751 Archived from the original PDF on 25 February 2015 Solomon R 1993 The Passions Emotions and the Meaning of Life Indianapolis Hackett Publishing ISBN missing Zeki S Romaya JP 2008 Neural correlates of hate PLOS ONE 3 10 e3556 Bibcode 2008PLoSO 3 3556Z doi 10 1371 journal pone 0003556 PMC 2569212 PMID 18958169 Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience Dror Green 2011 Emotional Training the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world Bulgaria Books ISBN missing External links EditEmotion at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Resources from Wikiversity Zalta Edward N ed Emotion Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Theories of Emotion Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Emotion amp oldid 1134741079, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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