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Rembrandt

January 21, 2023

This article is about the Dutch artist. For other uses, see Rembrandt (disambiguation).

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (/ˈrɛmbrænt, ˈrɛmbrɑːnt/,[2] Dutch: [ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin] (listen); 15 July 1606[1] – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media,[3] he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history.[4]

Rembrandt
Born
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn

(1606-07-15)15 July 1606[1]
Leiden, Dutch Republic
Died4 October 1669(1669-10-04) (aged 63)
Amsterdam, Dutch Republic
EducationJacob van Swanenburg
Pieter Lastman
Known forPainting, printmaking, drawing
Notable workSelf-portraits
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632)
Belshazzar's Feast (1635)
The Night Watch (1642)
Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654)
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662)
The Hundred Guilder Print (etching, c. 1647–1649)
MovementDutch Golden Age
Baroque

Unlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age, when Dutch art (especially Dutch painting), whilst antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was prolific and innovative. This era gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt was an avid art collector and dealer.

Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian masters and Netherlandish artists who had studied in Italy, like Pieter Lastman, the Utrecht Caravaggists, Flemish Baroque, and Peter Paul Rubens. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high,[5] and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters.[6]

Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form an intimate autobiography.[4] Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form. His reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic while he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone.

The Prodigal Son in the Brothel, a self-portrait with Saskia, c. 1635

In his works, he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography. A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of Amsterdam's Jewish population.[7] Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization".[8] The French sculptor Auguste Rodin said, "Compare me with Rembrandt! What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!"[9]

Life

Rembrandt[a] Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July, 1606 in Leiden,[1] in the Dutch Republic, now the Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck.[11] His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. While his work reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church. Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church).[12]

As a boy, he attended Latin school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter, Jacob van Swanenburg, with whom he spent three years.[13] After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden.[13][14] Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime.[15][16]

 
Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh, c. 1635

He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, which included Gerrit Dou in 1628.[17]

In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens (father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646.[18]

At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh.[19][20] Saskia came from a good family: her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester (mayor) of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in Het Bildt. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives.[21] In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck.[22]

In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river. In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now the Rembrandt House Museum) in the upscale 'Breestraat' (eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young up-and-coming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties.[22] Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have made some unsuccessful investments.[23] It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes.[24] Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works.[25]

 
Rembrandt's son Titus, as a monk, 1660

During Saskia's illness, Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover. She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise (a euphemism for seduction under [breached] promise to marry) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year.[22] Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse (called a "bridewell") at Gouda, after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia.[26]

In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels, who had initially been his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church.[27] The two were considered legally wed under common law, but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will.[25]

Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement (cessio bonorum) to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities, but was allowed to keep his tools. The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from Old Master paintings and drawings, included busts of the Roman emperors, suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing.[28] Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660.[29] The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam painters' guild, which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter. To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a dummy corporation as art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee.[30]

 
Rembrandt Memorial Marker Westerkerk Amsterdam

In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis, was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work.[31] It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, Aert de Gelder. In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works.[32] In 1662 one of Rembrandt's creditors went to the High Court (Hof van Holland) to contest that Titus had to be paid first.[33] Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus, which he did in 1668.[34] When Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited Rembrandt at his house.[35]

Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663, and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter. He died within a year of his son, on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam, and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money, f 15.[36] but in a paupers grave in the Westerkerk. It was in a numbered 'kerkgraf' (grave owned by the church) somewhere under a tombstone in the church. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed, as was customary.

Works

See also: List of paintings by Rembrandt, List of etchings by Rembrandt, and List of drawings by Rembrandt

In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art: the greatest and most natural movement, translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid. The word "beweegelijkheid" is also argued to mean "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual.[37]

 
Rembrandt's only known seascape, The Storm on the Sea of Galilee, 1633. The painting is still missing after the robbery from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in 1990.

Earlier-20th-century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings,[38] nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings.[39] More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings.[b] His prints, traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300.[c] It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but those extant are more rare than presumed.[d] Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010.[42]

At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits, but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group.[43] Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face.[e]

In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness.[44]

In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of the Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams and The Stoning of Saint Stephen, Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life".[45]

Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio, or, more likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti, but adapted for very personal means.[46] Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes.

Periods, themes and styles

Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail.[47] Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself.[48]

 
The Abduction of Europa, 1632. Oil on panel. The work has been described as "...a shining example of the 'golden age' of Baroque painting".[49]

A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones.[50]

It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (1625–1631) that Lastman's influence was most prominent. It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well.[51] Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies.[51] In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame.[51] In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio, works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter.[52]

 
A typical portrait from 1634, when Rembrandt was enjoying great commercial success

During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format (The Blinding of Samson, 1636, Belshazzar's Feast, c. 1635 Danaë, 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens.[53] With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small (Jacob de Gheyn III) and large (Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife, 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632).[54]

By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (Cottages before a Stormy Sky, c. 1641; The Three Trees, 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night Watch, the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works.[55]

 
Self Portrait, 1658, Frick Collection, a masterpiece of the final style, "the calmest and grandest of all his portraits"[56]

In the decade following the Night Watch, Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (Susanna and the Elders, 1637–47).[57] At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes.[58] In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes.

In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings.[59] The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner.[60]

In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (The Jewish Bride, c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God.[61][62]

Graphic works

 
The Hundred Guilder Print, c. 1647–49, etching, drypoint and burin on Japan paper, National Museum of Western Art.

Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work.[63] He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings.[64] He worked on the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge.[65] Although the print only survives in two states, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it.[66]

 
The Three Trees, 1643, etching

In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently, and on vellum. He began to use "surface tone," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions.[67]

His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings.[68] He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna, Raphael, Hercules Seghers, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.

Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars[f] through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters:[75] a "combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century".[76]

Asian inspiration

 
Rembrandt drawing of an Indian Mughal painting
 
Role-playing in self-portrait as an oriental potentate with a kris/keris, a Javanese blade weapon from the VOC era (etching, c. 1634)
Main article: Rembrandt's Mughal drawings

Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings, and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan, Akbar, Jahangir and Dara Shikoh. They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works.[77][78][79][80]

The Night Watch

 
The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, 1642. Oil on canvas; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Rembrandt painted the The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642 which became his most famous work.[81] This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For Théophile Thoré it was the prettiest painting in the world.

The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen, the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission, an ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of debate).

Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis. Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum.[g] In 1940 the painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud; in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk; in 1942 to St Pietersberg; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam.

Expert assessments

See also: Rembrandt catalog raisonné, 1968
 
The Polish Rider – Possibly a Lisowczyk on horseback

In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back.[82] Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.

One example of activity is The Polish Rider, in New York's Frick Collection. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick, with Simon Schama (in his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes) and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour different attributions for different parts of the work.[83]

 
The Man with the Golden Helmet, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, once one of the most famous "Rembrandt" portraits, is no longer attributed to the master.[84]

A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book Rembrandt's Eyes concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw.[85] Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle.[86]

Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling.[87]

The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping Woman, owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet, painted in 1640.[88] The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career.[89]

Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments.[90] As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable.[91] It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.

Painting materials

 
Saskia as Flora, 1635

Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister[92] and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel)[93] was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white, various ochres, Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black, lamp black, vermilion, madder lake, azurite, ultramarine, yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora)[94] reportedly contains gamboge. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar's Feast[95][96] in the National Gallery in London. The book by Bomford[95] describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex.[97] The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details.[98]

Name and signature

"Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine.[99]

Roughly speaking, his earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73).[100] His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone.[101]

Workshop

Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include[102] Ferdinand Bol, Adriaen Brouwer, Gerrit Dou, Willem Drost, Heiman Dullaart, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Carel Fabritius, Govert Flinck, Hendrick Fromantiou, Aert de Gelder, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Abraham Janssens, Godfrey Kneller, Philip de Koninck, Jacob Levecq, Nicolaes Maes, Jürgen Ovens, Christopher Paudiß, Willem de Poorter, Jan Victors, and Willem van der Vliet.

Museum collections

The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum, including The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride, the Mauritshuis in The Hague, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the National Gallery in London, Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, The Louvre, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt.[103]

Notable collections of Rembrandt's paintings in the United States are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles.[104]

The Rembrandt House Museum in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success, has furnishings that are mostly not original, but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings, many loaned, but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display. All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public, or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.

Influence and recognition

Further information: Old master print, Etching Revival, Rembrandt Research Project, List of things named after Rembrandt van Rijn, List of works about Rembrandt, List of Rembrandt pupils, and List of Rembrandt connoisseurs and scholars
 
Rembrandt statue and the sculptures of The Night Watch in 3D at the Rembrandtplein in Amsterdam

[...] I maintain that it did not occur to Protogenes, Apelles or Parrhasius, nor could it occur to them were they return to earth that (I am amazed simply to report this) a youth, a Dutchman, a beardless miller, could bring together so much in one human figure and express what is universal. All honor to thee, my Rembrandt! To have carried Illium, indeed all Asia, to Italy is a lesser achievement than to have brought the laurels of Greece and Italy to Holland, the achievement of a Dutchman who has seldom ventured outside the walls of his native city...

— Constantijn Huygens, Lord of Zuilichem, possibly the earliest known notable Rembrandt connoisseur and critic, 1629. Excerpt from the manuscript Autobiography of Constantijn Huygens (Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag), originally published in Oud Holland (1891), translated from the Dutch.[105]
 
Rembrandt statue in Leiden

Rembrandt is one of the most famous[106][107] and the best expertly researched visual artists in history.[108][109] His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history,[110] cultural history,[111] education, humanities, philosophy and aesthetics,[112] psychology, sociology, literary studies,[113] anatomy,[114] medicine,[115] religious studies,[h][116] theology,[117] Jewish studies,[118] Oriental studies (Asian studies),[119] global studies,[120] and art market research.[121] He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature in genres of both fiction and nonfiction. Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable connoisseurs and scholars[122] and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age.[108][123][109]

According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey:

[Rembrandt] earned international renown as a painter, printmaker, teacher, and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic. In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam, where he worked for nearly forty years, he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration, critique, and interpretation. (...) Rembrandt's art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age, and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established, but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest. Literary critics have pondered "Rembrandt" as a "cultural text"; novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers have romanticized his life, and in popular culture, his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services, ranging from toothpaste to self-help advice.[109]

 
In 1775, a 25-year-old Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote in a letter that "I live wholly with Rembrandt" ("...ich zeichne, künstle p. Und lebe ganz mit Rembrandt."). At the age of 81 (1831), Goethe wrote the essay "Rembrandt der Denker" ("Rembrandt the Thinker"), published in the posthumous collection of his works.[124][125]

Francisco Goya, often considered to be among the last of the Old Masters, said, "I have had three masters: Nature, Velázquez, and Rembrandt." ("Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza, Velázquez y Rembrandt.")[126][127][128] In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt's art, it was the significant Rembrandt-inspired 'revivals' or 'rediscoveries' in 18th–19th century France,[129][130] Germany,[131][132][133] and Britain[134][135][136][137] that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries.[138] When a critic referred to Auguste Rodin's busts in the same vein as Rembrandt's portraits, the French sculptor responded: "Compare me with Rembrandt? What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! What are you thinking of, my friend! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!”[9] Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo (1885), "Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language. It is with justice that they call Rembrandt—magician—that's no easy occupation."[139]

Rembrandt and the Jewish world

See also: History of the Jews in Amsterdam

Although Rembrandt was not Jewish, he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists, writers and scholars (art critics and art historians in particular).[140][141] The German-Jewish painter Max Liebermann said, "Whenever I see a Frans Hals, I feel like painting; whenever I see a Rembrandt, I feel like giving up."[142] Marc Chagall wrote in 1922, "Neither Imperial Russia, nor the Russia of the Soviets needs me. They don't understand me. I am a stranger to them," and he added, "I'm certain Rembrandt loves me."[143]

 
The Jewish Bride, c. 1665–9, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. In Vincent van Gogh's own words (1885), "I should be happy to give 10 years of my life if I could go on sitting here in front of this picture [The Jewish Bride] fortnight, with only a crust of dry bread for food." In a letter to his brother Theo, Vincent wrote, "What an intimate, what an infinitely sympathetic picture it is,"[144]

It has proved a comfort to me, in this era of European Jewish tragedy, to dwell upon the life and work of Rembrandt. Here was a man of Germanic ancestry who did not regard the Jews in the Holland of his day as a "misfortune," but approached them with friendly sentiments, dwelt in their midst, and portrayed their personalities and ways of life. Rembrandt, moreover, regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life, in affluence and poverty, in success and failure. He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations, and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives.

— Franz Landsberger, a German Jewish émigré to America, the author of Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible (1946)[145][146]

Criticism of Rembrandt

Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history.[108][147] Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include Constantijn Huygens, Joachim von Sandrart,[148] Andries Pels (who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"),[149] Samuel van Hoogstraten, Arnold Houbraken,[148] Filippo Baldinucci,[148] Gerard de Lairesse, Roger de Piles, John Ruskin,[150] and Eugène Fromentin.[147]

By 1875 Rembrandt was already a powerful figure, projecting from historical past into the present with such a strength that he could not be simply overlooked or passed by. The great shadow of the old master required a decided attitude. A late Romantic painter and critic, like Fromentin was, if he happened not to like some of Rembrandt's pictures, he felt obliged to justify his feeling. The greatness of the dramatic old master was for artists of about 1875 not a matter for doubt. 'Either I am wrong', Fromentin wrote from Holland 'or everybody else is wrong'. When Fromentin realized his inability to like some of the works by Rembrandt he formulated the following comments: 'I even do not dare to write down such a blasphemy; I would get ridiculed if this is disclosed'. Only about twenty-five years earlier another French Romantic master Eugène Delacroix, when expressing his admiration for Rembrandt, has written in his Journal a very different statement: '... perhaps one day we will discover that Rembrandt is a much greater painter than Raphael. It is a blasphemy which would make hair raise on the heads of all the academic painters'. In 1851 the blasphemy was to put Rembrandt above Raphael. In 1875 the blasphemy was not to admire everything Rembrandt had ever produced. Between these two dates, the appreciation of Rembrandt reached its turning point and since that time he was never deprived of the high rank in the art world.

— Rembrandt scholar Jan Białostocki (1972)[147]

In popular culture

See also: Category:Cultural depictions of Rembrandt

[...] One thing that really surprises me is the extent to which Rembrandt exists as a phenomenon in pop culture. You have this musical group call [sic] the Rembrandts, who wrote the theme song to Friends—"I'll Be There For You". There are Rembrandt restaurants, Rembrandt hotels, art supplies and other things that are more obvious. But then there's Rembrandt toothpaste. Why on Earth would somebody name a toothpaste after this artist who's known for his really dark tonalities? It doesn't make a lot of sense. But I think it's because his name has become synonymous with quality. It's even a verb—there's a term in underworld slang, 'to be Rembrandted,' which means to be framed for a crime. And people in the cinema world use it to mean pictorial effects that are overdone. He's just everywhere, and people who don't know anything, who wouldn't recognize a Rembrandt painting if they tripped over it, you say the name Rembrandt and they already know that this is a great artist. He's become a synonym for greatness.

— Rembrandt scholar, Stephanie Dickey, in an interview with Smithsonian Magazine, December 2006[107]

While shooting The Warrens of Virginia (1915), Cecil B. DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner Sam Goldwyn saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was Rembrandt lighting. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!"[151]

Works about Rembrandt

See also: Category:Works about Rembrandt

Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)

Films

Selected works

 
The evangelist Matthew and the Angel, 1661

Exhibitions

 
Moving Rembrandt's The Night Watch for the 1898 Rembrandt Exhibition
  • Sept–Oct 1898: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.[154]
  • Jan–Feb 1899: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Royal Academy, London, England.[154]
  • 21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, Musée du Louvre.[155]
  • 16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher, Syracuse University Art Galleries.[156]
  • 19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection, National Arts Club.[157]
  • 19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art.[158]
  • 15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: Rembrandt: The Late Works, The National Gallery, London.[159]
  • 12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: Late Rembrandt, The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[160]
  • 16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker, Denver Art Museum, Denver.[161]
  • 24 Aug 2019 – 1 December 2019: Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario.[162]
  • 4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: Rembrandt's Light, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London.[163]
  • 18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 , Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid.[164]
  • 10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: Young Rembrandt, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.[165]

Paintings

Self-portraits

Main article: Self-portraits by Rembrandt

Other paintings

Drawings and etchings

Notes

  1. ^ This version of his first name, "Rembrandt" with a "d," first appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late 1632, he began signing solely with his first name, "Rembrant". He added the "d" in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although scholars can only speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., who did not sign with their last names, if at all.[10]
  2. ^ Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: "very likely authentic", "possibly authentic" and "unlikely to be authentic" are given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue [40]
  3. ^ Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, p. 6, 289; Münz 1952, 279; Boon 1963, 287 – but Schwartz's total quoted does not tally with the book.
  4. ^ It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress – analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. Codart.nl [41] The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise.
  5. ^ While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290.
  6. ^ Such as Otto Benesch,[69][70][71] David Hockney,[72] Nigel Konstam, Jakob Rosenberg, Gary Schwartz, and Seymour Slive.[73][74]
  7. ^ The Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition.
  8. ^ It is important to note that Rembrandt's religious affiliation was uncertain. And there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any denomination.

References

  1. ^ a b c Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old. See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon? One year too late? 21 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine and (in Dutch) J. de Jong, Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine for sources concerning Rembrandt's birth year, especially supporting 1607. However, most sources continue to use 1606.
  2. ^ "Rembrandt" 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^ See: list of drawings, prints (etchings), and paintings by Rembrandt.
  4. ^ a b Gombrich, p. 420.
  5. ^ Gombrich, p. 427.
  6. ^ Clark 1969, pp. 203
  7. ^ Clark 1969, pp. 203–204
  8. ^ Clark 1969, pp. 205
  9. ^ a b Rodin, Auguste: Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell. Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B. Sanders. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) ISBN 0-520-03819-3, p. 85. Originally published as Auguste Rodin, L'Art: Entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1911). Auguste Rodin: "Me comparer à Rembrandt, quel sacrilège! À Rembrandt, le colosse de l'Art! Y pensez-vous, mon ami! Rembrandt, prosternons-nous et ne mettons jamais personne à côté de lui!” (original in French)
  10. ^ . www.rembrandt-signature-file.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016.
  11. ^ Bull, et al., p. 28.
  12. ^ "Doopregisters, Zoek" (in Dutch). Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl. 3 April 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.[permanent dead link]
  13. ^ a b (in Dutch) Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (1718) by Arnold Houbraken, courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature
  14. ^ Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Simon van Leeuwen's Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden, Leiden, 1672
  15. ^ Rembrandt biography 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, nationalgallery.org.uk
  16. ^ Erhardt, Michelle A., and Amy M. Morris. 2012. Mary Magdalene, Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque 8 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Boston : Brill. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-23195-5.
  17. ^ Slive has a comprehensive biography, pp. 55ff.
  18. ^ Slive, pp. 60, 65
  19. ^ Slive, pp. 60–61
  20. ^ "Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909 Image Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909; pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68". Familysearch.org. from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
  21. ^ Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
  22. ^ a b c Bull, et al., p. 28
  23. ^ Clark, 1978, pp. 26–27, 76, 102
  24. ^ Adams, p. 660
  25. ^ a b Slive, p. 71
  26. ^ Driessen, pp. 151–57
  27. ^ Slive, p. 82
  28. ^ Slive, p. 84
  29. ^ Schwartz, p. 12. The house sale was in 1658, but was agreed with two years for Rembrandt to vacate.
  30. ^ Clark, 1974 p. 105
  31. ^ Clark 1974, pp. 60–61
  32. ^ Bull, et al., p. 29.
  33. ^ Ruysscher, D. D., & 'T Veld, C. I. (2021). Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor, Oud Holland–Journal for Art of the Low Countries, 134(1), 9–24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/18750176-13401002 7 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement", Oud Holland Reviews, April 2020.
  35. ^ Clark 1978, p. 34
  36. ^ Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
  37. ^ Hughes, p. 6
  38. ^ . 28 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
  39. ^ . Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
  40. ^ . Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  41. ^ "Rembrandt, der Zeichner". from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
  42. ^ "Schwartzlist 301 – Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz". Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  43. ^ White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10.
  44. ^ Taylor, Michael (2007).Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh & Spirit in the Master's Portraits 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., New York ISBN 978-1-933045-44-3'
  45. ^ Durham, p. 60.
  46. ^ Bull, et al., pp. 11–13.
  47. ^ van der Wetering, p. 268.
  48. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190.
  49. ^ Clough, p. 23
  50. ^ Ackley, p. 14.
  51. ^ a b c van de Wetering, p. 284.
  52. ^ van de Wetering, p. 285.
  53. ^ van de Wetering, p. 287.
  54. ^ van de Wetering, p. 286.
  55. ^ van de Wetering, p. 288.
  56. ^ Clark 1978, p. 28
  57. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 163–65.
  58. ^ van de Wetering, p. 289.
  59. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 155–65.
  60. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 157–58, 190.
  61. ^ "In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering. Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's self-portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart." Gombrich, p. 423.
  62. ^ "It (The Jewish Bride) is a picture of grown-up love, a marvelous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve." Clark, p. 206.
  63. ^ Schwartz, 1994, pp. 8–12
  64. ^ White 1969, pp. 5–6
  65. ^ White 1969, p. 6
  66. ^ White 1969, pp. 6, 9–10
  67. ^ White, 1969 pp. 6–7
  68. ^ See Schwartz, 1994, where the works are divided by subject, following Bartsch.
  69. ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt: First Complete Edition in Six Volumes. (London: Phaidon, 1954–57)
  70. ^ Benesch, Otto: Rembrandt as a Draughtsman: An Essay with 115 Illustrations. (London: Phaidon Press, 1960)
  71. ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt. A Critical and Chronological Catalogue [2nd ed., 6 vols.]. (London: Phaidon, 1973)
  72. ^ a b Lewis, Tim (16 November 2014). "David Hockney: 'When I'm working, I feel like Picasso, I feel I'm 30'". The Guardian. from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020. David Hockney (2014): "There's a drawing by Rembrandt, I think it's the greatest drawing ever done. It's in the British Museum and it's of a family teaching a child to walk, so it's a universal thing, everybody has experienced this or seen it happen. Everybody. I used to print out Rembrandt drawings big and give them to people and say: 'If you find a better drawing send it to me. But if you find a better one it will be by Goya or Michelangelo perhaps.' But I don't think there is one actually. It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent."
  73. ^ Slive, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt: A New Study. (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009)
  74. ^ Silve, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt. (London: Thames & Hudson, 2019)
  75. ^ a b Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: Drawing. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. As Mendelowitz (1967) noted: "Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself. His "Winter Landscape" displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master, yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy, it is not based on an established convention of brush performance. It is as personal as handwriting."
  76. ^ a b Sullivan, Michael: The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art. (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91
  77. ^ Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) ISBN 978-1-60606-552-5
  78. ^ "Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India (catalogue)" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  79. ^ "In Paintings: Rembrandt & his Mughal India Inspiration". 3 September 2017. from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  80. ^ Ganz, James (2013). Rembrandt's Century. San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. p. 45. ISBN 978-3-7913-5224-4.
  81. ^ Beliën, H & P. Knevel (2006) Langs Rembrandts roem, p. 92-121
  82. ^ "The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
  83. ^ See "Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by Rembrandt" Zdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197–205. Also New York Times story 8 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine. There is a book on the subject:Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider? by Anthony Bailey (New York, 1993)
  84. ^ John Russell (1 December 1985). "Art View; In Search of the Real Thing". The New York Times. from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  85. ^ Schama, Simon (1999). Rembrandt's Eyes. Knopf, p. 720.
  86. ^ Schama, pp 582–591.
  87. ^ "Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction". Outpost Art. from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  88. ^ "Entertainment | Lost Rembrandt works discovered". BBC News. 23 September 2005. from the original on 22 December 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
  89. ^ Brown, Mark (23 May 2014), "Rembrandt expert urges National Gallery to rethink demoted painting", The Guardian, from the original on 21 September 2016, retrieved 21 December 2015
  90. ^ "...Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent, logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be." Ackley, p. 13.
  91. ^ van de Wetering, p. x.
  92. ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden'(Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden), Maltechnik/Restauro, issue 4 (1977): 223–233
  93. ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel' (Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel), Maltechnik/Restauro, volume 82 (1976): 25–33
  94. ^ Rembrandt, Saskia as Flora 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ColourLex
  95. ^ a b Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
  96. ^ Rembrandt, Belshazzar's Feast, Pigment analysis 7 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine at ColourLex
  97. ^ "Resources Rembrandt". ColourLex. from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  98. ^ . Archived from the original on 23 August 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
  99. ^ Roberts, Russell. Rembrandt. Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2009. ISBN 978-1-61228-760-7. p. 13.
  100. ^ Chronology of his signatures (pdf) 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine with examples. Source: www.rembrandt-signature-file.com
  101. ^ Slive, p. 60
  102. ^ Rembrandt pupils (under Leraar van) in the RKD
  103. ^ . zamek-krolewski.pl. Archived from the original on 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014. The works of art which Karolina Lanckorońska gave to the Royal Castle in 1994 was one of the most invaluable gift's made in the museum's history.
  104. ^ Clark 1974, pp. 147–50. See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts
  105. ^ Binstock, Benjamin: Vermeer's Family Secrets: Genius, Discovery, and the Unknown Apprentice. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2009), p. 330
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    • Solman, Paul (21 June 2004). "Rembrandt's Journey". PBS.org. from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2018. Paul Solman (2004): "[Rembrandt] The most famous brand name in western art. In America alone it graces toothpaste, bracelet charms, restaurant and bars, counter-tops and of course the town of Rembrandt, Iowa just halfway around the world from the Rembrandt Hotel in Bangkok, Thailand."
    • Valiunas, Algis (25 December 2006). "Looking at Rembrandt". The Weekly Standard. from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2020. Algis Valiunas (2006): "Alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo, Rembrandt is one of the three most famous artists ever, with whom the public is on a first-name basis; and the name Rembrandt has lent the cachet of greatness and the grace of familiarity to sell everything from kitchen countertops to whitening toothpaste to fancy hotels in Bangkok and Knightsbridge."
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  110. ^ *Negri, Antonio: The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). Translated from the Italian by Michael Hardt. Originally published as L'anomalia selvaggia. Saggio su potere e potenza in Baruch Spinoza (Milano: Feltrinelli, 1981). Antonio Negri (1981): "Kolakowski, as we will see, has clearly depicted the religious life and the forms of community constructed by the cultured strata of the Dutch bourgeoisie. Spinoza lives in this world, with a vast network of simple and sociable friendships and correspondences. But for certain determinate strata of the bourgeoisie the sweetness of the cultured and sedate life is accompanied, without any contradiction, by an association with a capitalist power ('potestas'), expressed in very mature terms. This is the condition of a Dutch bourgeois man. We could say the same thing for the other genius of that age, Rembrandt van Rijn. On his canvases the power of light is concentrated with intensity on the figures of a bourgeois world in terrific expansion. It is a prosaic but very powerful society, which makes poetry without knowing it because it has the force to do so."
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Works cited

  • Ackley, Clifford, et al., Rembrandt's Journey, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. ISBN 0-87846-677-0
  • Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). Art Across Time. Volume II. New York: McGraw-Hill College.
  • Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
  • Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio, Rijksmuseum, 2006.
  • Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), Rembrandt by himself, 1999, National Gallery
  • Clark, Kenneth (1969). Civilisation: a personal view. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-010801-4.
  • Clark, Kenneth, An Introduction to Rembrandt, 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978
  • Clough, Shepard B. (1975). European History in a World Perspective. D.C. Heath and Company, Los Lexington, MA. ISBN 978-0-669-85555-5.
  • Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. ISBN 978-90-351-3690-8
  • Durham, John I. (2004). Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-886-2.
  • Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X
  • Hughes, Robert (2006), "The God of Realism", The New York Review of Books, vol. 53, no. 6
  • The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-28181-7
  • Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-4
  • van de Wetering, Ernst in Rembrandt by himself, 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, ISBN 1-85709-270-8
  • van de Wetering, Ernst, Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22668-2
  • White, Christopher, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt, 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London ISBN 978-90-400-9315-9

Further reading

Further information: List of works about Rembrandt
  • Catalogue raisonné: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project:
    • A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I, which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982
    • A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2
    • A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9
    • A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV. Ernst van de Wetering, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3280-3. p. 692. (Self-Portraits)
  • Rembrandt. Images and metaphors, Christian and Astrid Tümpel (editors), Haus Books London 2006 ISBN 978-1-904950-92-9
  • Anthony M. Amore; Tom Mashberg (2012). Stealing Rembrandts: The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists. ISBN 978-0-230-33990-3.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rembrandt.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Rembrandt.
  • A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London
  • Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com
  • The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress)
  • Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings
  • 114 artworks by or after Rembrandt at the Art UK site
  • Works by or about Rembrandt at Internet Archive
  • Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources
  • Gary Schwartz The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question
  • Rembrandt
  • The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project

January 21, 2023
rembrandt, this, article, about, dutch, artist, other, uses, disambiguation, harmenszoon, rijn, ɑː, dutch, ˈrɛmbrɑnt, ˈɦɑrmə, ˌsoːɱ, vɑn, ˈrɛin, listen, july, 1606, october, 1669, usually, simply, known, dutch, golden, painter, printmaker, draughtsman, innovat. This article is about the Dutch artist For other uses see Rembrandt disambiguation Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn ˈ r ɛ m b r ae n t ˈ r ɛ m b r ɑː n t 2 Dutch ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrme n ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin listen 15 July 1606 1 4 October 1669 usually simply known as Rembrandt was a Dutch Golden Age painter printmaker and draughtsman An innovative and prolific master in three media 3 he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history 4 RembrandtSelf Portrait with Beret and Turned Up Collar 1659 National Gallery of Art Washington D C BornRembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn 1606 07 15 15 July 1606 1 Leiden Dutch RepublicDied4 October 1669 1669 10 04 aged 63 Amsterdam Dutch RepublicEducationJacob van Swanenburg Pieter LastmanKnown forPainting printmaking drawingNotable workSelf portraitsThe Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp 1632 Belshazzar s Feast 1635 The Night Watch 1642 Bathsheba at Her Bath 1654 Syndics of the Drapers Guild 1662 The Hundred Guilder Print etching c 1647 1649 MovementDutch Golden AgeBaroqueUnlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century Rembrandt s works depict a wide range of style and subject matter from portraits and self portraits to landscapes genre scenes allegorical and historical scenes biblical and mythological themes and animal studies His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age when Dutch art especially Dutch painting whilst antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe was prolific and innovative This era gave rise to important new genres Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age such as Jan Vermeer Rembrandt was an avid art collector and dealer Rembrandt never went abroad but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian masters and Netherlandish artists who had studied in Italy like Pieter Lastman the Utrecht Caravaggists Flemish Baroque and Peter Paul Rubens After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter Rembrandt s later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime his reputation as an artist remained high 5 and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters 6 Rembrandt s portraits of his contemporaries self portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs His self portraits form an intimate autobiography 4 Rembrandt s foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form His reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic while he lived but his prints were circulated throughout Europe and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone The Prodigal Son in the Brothel a self portrait with Saskia c 1635 In his works he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt s knowledge of the specific text his assimilation of classical composition and his observations of Amsterdam s Jewish population 7 Because of his empathy for the human condition he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization 8 The French sculptor Auguste Rodin said Compare me with Rembrandt What sacrilege With Rembrandt the colossus of Art We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him 9 Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2 1 Periods themes and styles 2 2 Graphic works 2 3 Asian inspiration 2 4 The Night Watch 3 Expert assessments 4 Painting materials 5 Name and signature 6 Workshop 7 Museum collections 8 Influence and recognition 8 1 Rembrandt and the Jewish world 8 2 Criticism of Rembrandt 8 3 In popular culture 8 4 Works about Rembrandt 8 4 1 Literary works e g poetry and fiction 8 4 2 Films 9 Selected works 10 Exhibitions 11 Paintings 11 1 Self portraits 11 2 Other paintings 12 Drawings and etchings 13 Notes 14 References 14 1 Works cited 15 Further reading 16 External linksLife EditRembrandt a Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden 1 in the Dutch Republic now the Netherlands He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck 11 His family was quite well to do his father was a miller and his mother was a baker s daughter Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt s works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest His mother was Catholic and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church While his work reveals deep Christian faith there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam four in the Oude Kerk Old Church and one Titus in the Zuiderkerk Southern Church 12 As a boy he attended Latin school At the age of 13 he was enrolled at the University of Leiden although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter Jacob van Swanenburg with whom he spent three years 13 After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden 13 14 Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime 15 16 Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh c 1635 He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625 which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens In 1627 Rembrandt began to accept students which included Gerrit Dou in 1628 17 In 1629 Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague As a result of this connection Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646 18 At the end of 1631 Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time with great success He initially stayed with an art dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh and in 1634 married Hendrick s cousin Saskia van Uylenburgh 19 20 Saskia came from a good family her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester mayor of Leeuwarden When Saskia as the youngest daughter became an orphan she lived with an older sister in Het Bildt Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt s relatives 21 In the same year Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters He also acquired a number of students among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck 22 In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house now the Rembrandt House Museum in the upscale Breestraat eng Broadway today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter then a young up and coming neighborhood The mortgage to finance the 13 000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties 22 Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income and he may have made some unsuccessful investments 23 It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes 24 Although they were by now affluent the couple suffered several personal setbacks their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638 In 1640 they had a second daughter also named Cornelia who died after living barely over a month Only their fourth child Titus who was born in 1641 survived into adulthood Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus s birth probably from tuberculosis Rembrandt s drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works 25 Rembrandt s son Titus as a monk 1660 During Saskia s illness Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt s lover She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise a euphemism for seduction under breached promise to marry and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year 22 Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse called a bridewell at Gouda after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia 26 In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels who had initially been his maid In 1654 they had a daughter Cornelia bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to answer the charge that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church 27 The two were considered legally wed under common law but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia s will 25 Rembrandt lived beyond his means buying art including bidding up his own work prints often used in his paintings and rarities which probably caused a court arrangement cessio bonorum to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656 by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities but was allowed to keep his tools The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt s collections which apart from Old Master paintings and drawings included busts of the Roman emperors suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia and collections of natural history and minerals But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing 28 Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660 29 The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him except for the Amsterdam painters guild which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt s circumstances could trade as a painter To get around this Hendrickje and Titus set up a dummy corporation as art dealers in 1660 with Rembrandt as an employee 30 Rembrandt Memorial Marker Westerkerk Amsterdam In 1661 Rembrandt or rather the new business was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall but only after Govert Flinck the artist previously commissioned died without beginning to paint The resulting work The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis was rejected and returned to the painter the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work 31 It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice Aert de Gelder In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works 32 In 1662 one of Rembrandt s creditors went to the High Court Hof van Holland to contest that Titus had to be paid first 33 Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus which he did in 1668 34 When Cosimo III de Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667 he visited Rembrandt at his house 35 Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje who died in 1663 and Titus who died in 1668 leaving a baby daughter He died within a year of his son on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money f 15 36 but in a paupers grave in the Westerkerk It was in a numbered kerkgraf grave owned by the church somewhere under a tombstone in the church After twenty years his remains were taken away and destroyed as was customary Works EditSee also List of paintings by Rembrandt List of etchings by Rembrandt and List of drawings by Rembrandt In a letter to Huygens Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art the greatest and most natural movement translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid The word beweegelijkheid is also argued to mean emotion or motive Whether this refers to objectives material or otherwise is open to interpretation either way critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual 37 Rembrandt s only known seascape The Storm on the Sea of Galilee 1633 The painting is still missing after the robbery from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in 1990 Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings 38 nearly 400 etchings and 2 000 drawings 39 More recent scholarship from the 1960s to the present day led by the Rembrandt Research Project often controversially has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings b His prints traditionally all called etchings although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint have a much more stable total of slightly under 300 c It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2 000 but those extant are more rare than presumed d Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively certain is no higher than about 75 although this is disputed The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010 42 At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self portraits but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self portraits as part of their training Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings as well as a few drawings and thirty one etchings which include many of the most remarkable images of the group 43 Some show him posing in quasi historical fancy dress or pulling faces at himself His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man through the dapper and very successful portrait painter of the 1630s to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man his appearance and his psychological make up as revealed by his richly weathered face e A Polish Nobleman 1637 In his portraits and self portraits he angles the sitter s face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed and the nose bright and obvious thrusting into the riddle of halftones serves to focus the viewer s attention upon and to dramatize the division between a flood of light an overwhelming clarity and a brooding duskiness 44 In a number of biblical works including The Raising of the Cross Joseph Telling His Dreams and The Stoning of Saint Stephen Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt a kind of diary an account of moments in his own life 45 Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt s work are his use of chiaroscuro the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio or more likely from the Dutch Caravaggisti but adapted for very personal means 46 Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed and a deeply felt compassion for mankind irrespective of wealth and age His immediate family his wife Saskia his son Titus and his common law wife Hendrickje often figured prominently in his paintings many of which had mythical biblical or historical themes Periods themes and styles Edit Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture landscape and narrative painting For the last he was especially praised by his contemporaries who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail 47 Stylistically his paintings progressed from the early smooth manner characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form to the late rough treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself 48 The Abduction of Europa 1632 Oil on panel The work has been described as a shining example of the golden age of Baroque painting 49 A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt s skill as a printmaker In the etchings of his maturity particularly from the late 1640s onward the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones 50 It was during Rembrandt s Leiden period 1625 1631 that Lastman s influence was most prominent It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well 51 Paintings were rather small but rich in details for example in costumes and jewelry Religious and allegorical themes were favored as were tronies 51 In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame 51 In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter 52 A typical portrait from 1634 when Rembrandt was enjoying great commercial success During his early years in Amsterdam 1632 1636 Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format The Blinding of Samson 1636 Belshazzar s Feast c 1635 Danae 1636 but reworked later seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens 53 With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh s workshop he painted numerous portrait commissions both small Jacob de Gheyn III and large Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife 1633 Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp 1632 54 By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies Cottages before a Stormy Sky c 1641 The Three Trees 1643 From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone possibly reflecting personal tragedy Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament as had been the case before In 1642 he painted The Night Watch the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works 55 Self Portrait 1658 Frick Collection a masterpiece of the final style the calmest and grandest of all his portraits 56 In the decade following the Night Watch Rembrandt s paintings varied greatly in size subject and style The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color Simultaneously figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art Susanna and the Elders 1637 47 57 At the same time there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes 58 In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes In the 1650s Rembrandt s style changed again Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced With these changes Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion which increasingly inclined toward fine detailed works His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh and shine becomes almost nonexistent His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of finish and surface quality of paintings Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt s brushwork and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings 59 The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting s surface The result is a richly varied handling of paint deeply layered and often apparently haphazard which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner 60 In later years biblical themes were still depicted often but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait like figures James the Apostle 1661 In his last years Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self portraits from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen and several moving images of both men and women The Jewish Bride c 1666 in love in life and before God 61 62 Graphic works Edit The Hundred Guilder Print c 1647 49 etching drypoint and burin on Japan paper National Museum of Western Art Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career from 1626 to 1660 when he was forced to sell his printing press and practically abandoned etching Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work 63 He took easily to etching and though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself At first he used a style based on drawing but soon moved to one based on painting using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line Towards the end of the 1630s he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style with fewer bitings 64 He worked on the so called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s and it was the critical work in the middle of his career from which his final etching style began to emerge 65 Although the print only survives in two states the first very rare evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it 66 The Three Trees 1643 etching In the mature works of the 1650s Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states up to eleven often radically changed He now used hatching to create his dark areas which often take up much of the plate He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper including Japanese paper which he used frequently and on vellum He began to use surface tone leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression He made more use of drypoint exploiting especially in landscapes the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions 67 His prints have similar subjects to his paintings although the twenty seven self portraits are relatively more common and portraits of other people less so There are forty six landscapes mostly small which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century One third of his etchings are of religious subjects many treated with a homely simplicity whilst others are his most monumental prints A few erotic or just obscene compositions have no equivalent in his paintings 68 He owned until forced to sell it a magnificent collection of prints by other artists and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna Raphael Hercules Seghers and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars f through the centuries His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters most notably Chinese masters 75 a combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century 76 Asian inspiration Edit Rembrandt drawing of an Indian Mughal painting Role playing in self portrait as an oriental potentate with a kris keris a Javanese blade weapon from the VOC era etching c 1634 Main article Rembrandt s Mughal drawings Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures especially around the 1650s He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings and may have owned an album of them These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan Akbar Jahangir and Dara Shikoh They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works 77 78 79 80 The Night Watch Edit The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq 1642 Oil on canvas Rijksmuseum Amsterdam Rembrandt painted the The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642 which became his most famous work 81 This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable and it looked quite like a night scene After it was cleaned it was discovered to represent broad day a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight For Theophile Thore it was the prettiest painting in the world The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen the musketeer branch of the civic militia Rembrandt departed from convention which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal rather a line up than an action scene Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission what kind of mission an ordinary patrol or some special event is a matter of debate Contrary to what is often said the work was hailed as a success from the beginning Parts of the canvas were cut off approximately 20 from the left hand side was removed to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715 In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum g In 1940 the painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk in 1942 to St Pietersberg in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam Expert assessments EditSee also Rembrandt catalog raisonne 1968 The Polish Rider Possibly a Lisowczyk on horseback In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt using all methods available including state of the art technical diagnostics and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonne of his paintings As a result of their findings many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list although others have been added back 82 Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students One example of activity is The Polish Rider in New York s Frick Collection Rembrandt s authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar Alfred von Wurzbach at the beginning of the twentieth century but for many decades later most scholars including the foremost authority writing in English Julius S Held agreed that it was indeed by the master In the 1980s however Dr Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt s closest and most talented pupils Willem Drost about whom little is known But Bruyn s remained a minority opinion the suggestion of Drost s authorship is now generally rejected and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution the label still reading Rembrandt and not attributed to or school of More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick with Simon Schama in his 1999 book Rembrandt s Eyes and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering Melbourne Symposium 1997 both arguing for attribution to the master Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt s authorship feel that the execution is uneven and favour different attributions for different parts of the work 83 The Man with the Golden Helmet Gemaldegalerie Berlin once one of the most famous Rembrandt portraits is no longer attributed to the master 84 A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book Rembrandt s Eyes concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt s works For example the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw 85 Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle 86 Another painting Pilate Washing His Hands is also of questionable attribution Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905 when Wilhelm von Bode described it as a somewhat abnormal work by Rembrandt Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil possibly Aert de Gelder The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master s command of illumination and modeling 87 The attribution and re attribution work is ongoing In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt s students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection Study of a Weeping Woman owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet painted in 1640 88 The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example in 2014 Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair was a vast mistake it is a most important painting The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt s experimentation This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career 89 Rembrandt s own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution since like many masters before him he encouraged his students to copy his paintings sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals and sometimes selling them as authorized copies Additionally his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt s own work and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments 90 As well there were later imitations of his work and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable 91 It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt Painting materials Edit Saskia as Flora 1635 Technical investigation of Rembrandt s paintings in the possession of the Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister 92 and in the Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister Kassel 93 was conducted by Hermann Kuhn in 1977 The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt s palette consisted of the following pigments lead white various ochres Vandyke brown bone black charcoal black lamp black vermilion madder lake azurite ultramarine yellow lake and lead tin yellow One painting Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora 94 reportedly contains gamboge Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar s Feast 95 96 in the National Gallery in London The book by Bomford 95 describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt s paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex 97 The best source for technical information on Rembrandt s paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports infrared and radiography images and other scientific details 98 Name and signature Edit Slaughtered Ox 1655 Musee du Louvre Paris Rembrandt is a modification of the spelling of the artist s first name that he introduced in 1633 Harmenszoon indicates that his father s name is Harmen van Rijn indicates that his family lived near the Rhine 99 Roughly speaking his earliest signatures c 1625 consisted of an initial R or the monogram RH for Rembrant Harmenszoon and starting in 1629 RHL the L stood presumably for Leiden In 1632 he used this monogram early in the year then added his family name to it RHL van Rijn but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling Rembrant In 1633 he added a d and maintained this form consistently from then on proving that this minor change had a meaning for him whatever it might have been This change is purely visual it does not change the way his name is pronounced Curiously enough despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original Rembrant spelling Note the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings and to a lesser degree to the etchings from 1632 presumably there is only one etching signed RHL v Rijn the large format Raising of Lazarus B 73 100 His practice of signing his work with his first name later followed by Vincent van Gogh was probably inspired by Raphael Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who then as now were referred to by their first names alone 101 Workshop EditRembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt A partial list should include 102 Ferdinand Bol Adriaen Brouwer Gerrit Dou Willem Drost Heiman Dullaart Gerbrand van den Eeckhout Carel Fabritius Govert Flinck Hendrick Fromantiou Aert de Gelder Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten Abraham Janssens Godfrey Kneller Philip de Koninck Jacob Levecq Nicolaes Maes Jurgen Ovens Christopher Paudiss Willem de Poorter Jan Victors and Willem van der Vliet Museum collections Edit Rembrandt House Museum The most notable collections of Rembrandt s work are at Amsterdam s Rijksmuseum including The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride the Mauritshuis in The Hague the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg the National Gallery in London Gemaldegalerie in Berlin Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden The Louvre Nationalmuseum Stockholm and Schloss Wilhelmshohe in Kassel The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt 103 Notable collections of Rembrandt s paintings in the United States are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City the National Gallery of Art in Washington D C Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and J Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles 104 The Rembrandt House Museum in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success has furnishings that are mostly not original but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had and paintings reflecting Rembrandt s use of the house for art dealing His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press where replica prints are printed The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings many loaned but an important collection of his prints a good selection of which are on rotating display All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints although as some exist in only a single impression no collection is complete The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public or can easily be viewed by them in the print room varies greatly Influence and recognition EditFurther information Old master print Etching Revival Rembrandt Research Project List of things named after Rembrandt van Rijn List of works about Rembrandt List of Rembrandt pupils and List of Rembrandt connoisseurs and scholars Rembrandt statue and the sculptures of The Night Watch in 3D at the Rembrandtplein in Amsterdam I maintain that it did not occur to Protogenes Apelles or Parrhasius nor could it occur to them were they return to earth that I am amazed simply to report this a youth a Dutchman a beardless miller could bring together so much in one human figure and express what is universal All honor to thee my Rembrandt To have carried Illium indeed all Asia to Italy is a lesser achievement than to have brought the laurels of Greece and Italy to Holland the achievement of a Dutchman who has seldom ventured outside the walls of his native city Constantijn Huygens Lord of Zuilichem possibly the earliest known notable Rembrandt connoisseur and critic 1629 Excerpt from the manuscript Autobiography of Constantijn Huygens Koninklijke Bibliotheek Den Haag originally published in Oud Holland 1891 translated from the Dutch 105 Rembrandt statue in Leiden Rembrandt is one of the most famous 106 107 and the best expertly researched visual artists in history 108 109 His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history socio political history 110 cultural history 111 education humanities philosophy and aesthetics 112 psychology sociology literary studies 113 anatomy 114 medicine 115 religious studies h 116 theology 117 Jewish studies 118 Oriental studies Asian studies 119 global studies 120 and art market research 121 He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature in genres of both fiction and nonfiction Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable connoisseurs and scholars 122 and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age 108 123 109 According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey Rembrandt earned international renown as a painter printmaker teacher and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam where he worked for nearly forty years he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration critique and interpretation Rembrandt s art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest Literary critics have pondered Rembrandt as a cultural text novelists playwrights and filmmakers have romanticized his life and in popular culture his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services ranging from toothpaste to self help advice 109 In 1775 a 25 year old Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote in a letter that I live wholly with Rembrandt ich zeichne kunstle p Und lebe ganz mit Rembrandt At the age of 81 1831 Goethe wrote the essay Rembrandt der Denker Rembrandt the Thinker published in the posthumous collection of his works 124 125 Francisco Goya often considered to be among the last of the Old Masters said I have had three masters Nature Velazquez and Rembrandt Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza Velazquez y Rembrandt 126 127 128 In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt s art it was the significant Rembrandt inspired revivals or rediscoveries in 18th 19th century France 129 130 Germany 131 132 133 and Britain 134 135 136 137 that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries 138 When a critic referred to Auguste Rodin s busts in the same vein as Rembrandt s portraits the French sculptor responded Compare me with Rembrandt What sacrilege With Rembrandt the colossus of Art What are you thinking of my friend We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him 9 Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo 1885 Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language It is with justice that they call Rembrandt magician that s no easy occupation 139 Rembrandt and the Jewish world Edit See also History of the Jews in Amsterdam Although Rembrandt was not Jewish he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists writers and scholars art critics and art historians in particular 140 141 The German Jewish painter Max Liebermann said Whenever I see a Frans Hals I feel like painting whenever I see a Rembrandt I feel like giving up 142 Marc Chagall wrote in 1922 Neither Imperial Russia nor the Russia of the Soviets needs me They don t understand me I am a stranger to them and he added I m certain Rembrandt loves me 143 The Jewish Bride c 1665 9 Rijksmuseum Amsterdam In Vincent van Gogh s own words 1885 I should be happy to give 10 years of my life if I could go on sitting here in front of this picture The Jewish Bride fortnight with only a crust of dry bread for food In a letter to his brother Theo Vincent wrote What an intimate what an infinitely sympathetic picture it is 144 It has proved a comfort to me in this era of European Jewish tragedy to dwell upon the life and work of Rembrandt Here was a man of Germanic ancestry who did not regard the Jews in the Holland of his day as a misfortune but approached them with friendly sentiments dwelt in their midst and portrayed their personalities and ways of life Rembrandt moreover regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life in affluence and poverty in success and failure He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives Franz Landsberger a German Jewish emigre to America the author of Rembrandt the Jews and the Bible 1946 145 146 Criticism of Rembrandt Edit Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial visual artists in history 108 147 Several of Rembrandt s notable critics include Constantijn Huygens Joachim von Sandrart 148 Andries Pels who called Rembrandt the first heretic in the art of painting 149 Samuel van Hoogstraten Arnold Houbraken 148 Filippo Baldinucci 148 Gerard de Lairesse Roger de Piles John Ruskin 150 and Eugene Fromentin 147 By 1875 Rembrandt was already a powerful figure projecting from historical past into the present with such a strength that he could not be simply overlooked or passed by The great shadow of the old master required a decided attitude A late Romantic painter and critic like Fromentin was if he happened not to like some of Rembrandt s pictures he felt obliged to justify his feeling The greatness of the dramatic old master was for artists of about 1875 not a matter for doubt Either I am wrong Fromentin wrote from Holland or everybody else is wrong When Fromentin realized his inability to like some of the works by Rembrandt he formulated the following comments I even do not dare to write down such a blasphemy I would get ridiculed if this is disclosed Only about twenty five years earlier another French Romantic master Eugene Delacroix when expressing his admiration for Rembrandt has written in his Journal a very different statement perhaps one day we will discover that Rembrandt is a much greater painter than Raphael It is a blasphemy which would make hair raise on the heads of all the academic painters In 1851 the blasphemy was to put Rembrandt above Raphael In 1875 the blasphemy was not to admire everything Rembrandt had ever produced Between these two dates the appreciation of Rembrandt reached its turning point and since that time he was never deprived of the high rank in the art world Rembrandt scholar Jan Bialostocki 1972 147 In popular culture Edit See also Category Cultural depictions of Rembrandt One thing that really surprises me is the extent to which Rembrandt exists as a phenomenon in pop culture You have this musical group call sic the Rembrandts who wrote the theme song to Friends I ll Be There For You There are Rembrandt restaurants Rembrandt hotels art supplies and other things that are more obvious But then there s Rembrandt toothpaste Why on Earth would somebody name a toothpaste after this artist who s known for his really dark tonalities It doesn t make a lot of sense But I think it s because his name has become synonymous with quality It s even a verb there s a term in underworld slang to be Rembrandted which means to be framed for a crime And people in the cinema world use it to mean pictorial effects that are overdone He s just everywhere and people who don t know anything who wouldn t recognize a Rembrandt painting if they tripped over it you say the name Rembrandt and they already know that this is a great artist He s become a synonym for greatness Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey in an interview with Smithsonian Magazine December 2006 107 While shooting The Warrens of Virginia 1915 Cecil B DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house When business partner Sam Goldwyn saw a scene in which only half an actor s face was illuminated he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture DeMille remonstrated that it was Rembrandt lighting Sam s reply was jubilant with relief recalled DeMille For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double 151 Works about Rembrandt Edit See also Category Works about Rembrandt Literary works e g poetry and fiction Edit To the Picture of Rembrandt Russian language poem by Mikhail Lermontov 1830 Gaspard de la nuit Fantaisies a la maniere de Rembrandt et de Callot French language prose poems by Aloysius Bertrand 1842 Picture This 1988 novel by Joseph Heller Moi la Putain de Rembrandt French language novel by Sylvie Matton 1998 Van Rijn 2006 novel by Sarah Emily Miano I Am Rembrandt s Daughter 2007 novel by Lynn Cullen The Rembrandt Affair 2011 novel by Daniel Silva The Anatomy Lesson 2014 novel by Nina Siegal Rembrandt s Mirror 2015 novel by Kim Devereux Films Edit The Stolen Rembrandt 1914 film directed by Leo D Maloney and J P McGowan The Tragedy of a Great Die Tragodie eines Grossen 1920 film directed by Arthur Gunsburg The Missing Rembrandt 1932 film directed by Leslie S Hiscott Rembrandt 1936 film directed by Alexander Korda Rembrandt 1940 film Rembrandt in de schuilkelder Rembrandt in the Bunker 1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten Rembrandt 1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff Rembrandt A Self Portrait 1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman Rembrandt schilder van de mens Rembrandt Painter of Man 1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra Rembrandt fecit 1669 1977 film directed by Jos Stelling Rembrandt The Public Eye and the Private Gaze 1992 documentary film by Simon Schama Rembrandt 1999 film directed by Charles Matton Rembrandt Fathers amp Sons 1999 film directed by David Devine Stealing Rembrandt 2003 film directed by Jannik Johansen and Anders Thomas Jensen Simon Schama s Power of Art Rembrandt 2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama Nightwatching 2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway Rembrandt s J Accuse 2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway Rembrandt en ik 2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris Schama on Rembrandt Masterpieces of the Late Years 2014 documentary film by Simon Schama Rembrandt From the National Gallery London and Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen Selected works Edit Rembrandt Laughing 1628 J Paul Getty Museum The Girl in a Picture Frame 1641 Royal Castle Warsaw The evangelist Matthew and the Angel 1661 The Stoning of Saint Stephen 1625 Musee des Beaux Arts Lyon Andromeda Chained to the Rocks 1630 Mauritshuis The Hague Jacob de Gheyn III 1632 Dulwich Picture Gallery London Philosopher in Meditation 1632 The Louvre Paris The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp 1632 Mauritshuis The Hague Artemisia 1634 oil on canvas 142 152 cm Museo del Prado Madrid Descent from the Cross 1634 oil on canvas 158 117 cm looted from the Landgrave of Hesse Kassel or Hesse Cassel Germany in 1806 currently Hermitage Museum St Petersburg Belshazzar s Feast 1635 National Gallery London The Prodigal Son in the Tavern c 1635 oil on canvas 161 131 cm Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister Dresden Danae 1636 c 1643 Hermitage Museum St Petersburg The Scholar at the Lectern 1641 Royal Castle in Warsaw Warsaw The Girl in a Picture Frame 1641 Royal Castle Warsaw The Night Watch formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq 1642 Rijksmuseum Amsterdam Christ Healing the Sick etching c 1643 also known as the Hundred Guilder Print nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it Boaz and Ruth 1643 aka The Old Rabbi or Old Man Woburn Abbey Gemaldegalerie Berlin The Mill 1645 48 National Gallery of Art Washington D C Old Man with a Gold Chain Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget c 1631 Art Institute of Chicago Susanna and the Elders 1647 oil on panel 76 91 cm Gemaldegalerie Berlin Head of Christ c 1648 56 The Philadelphia Museum of Art 152 Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer 1653 Metropolitan Museum of Art New York Bathsheba at Her Bath 1654 The Louvre Paris Christ Presented to the People Ecce Homo 1655 Drypoint Birmingham Museum of Art Selfportrait 1658 Frick Collection New York The Three Crosses 1660 Etching fourth state Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther 1660 Pushkin Museum Moscow The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis 1661 Nationalmuseum Stockholm Claudius Civilis led a Dutch revolt against the Romans most of the cut up painting is lost only the central part still exists Portrait of Dirck van Os 1662 Joslyn Art Museum Omaha Nebraska Syndics of the Drapers Guild Dutch De Staalmeesters 1662 Rijksmuseum Amsterdam The Jewish Bride 1665 Rijksmuseum Amsterdam Haman before Esther 1665 National Museum of Art of Romania Bucharest 153 The Entombment Sketch c 1639 reworked c 1654 oil on oak panel Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery Glasgow Saul and David c 1660 1665 Mauritshuis The Hague Portrait of an Old Man 1645 Calouste Gulbenkian Museum Lisbon Pallas Athena c 1657 Calouste Gulbenkian Museum LisbonExhibitions Edit Moving Rembrandt s The Night Watch for the 1898 Rembrandt Exhibition Sept Oct 1898 Rembrandt Tentoonstelling Rembrandt Exhibition Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam The Netherlands 154 Jan Feb 1899 Rembrandt Tentoonstelling Rembrandt Exhibition Royal Academy London England 154 21 April 2011 18 July 2011 Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus Musee du Louvre 155 16 September 2013 14 November 2013 Rembrandt The Consummate Etcher Syracuse University Art Galleries 156 19 May 2014 27 June 2014 From Rembrandt to Rosenquist Works on Paper from the NAC s Permanent Collection National Arts Club 157 19 October 2014 4 January 2015 Rembrandt Rubens Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art 158 15 October 2014 18 January 2015 Rembrandt The Late Works The National Gallery London 159 12 February 2015 17 May 2015 Late Rembrandt The Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 160 16 September 2018 6 January 2019 Rembrandt Painter as Printmaker Denver Art Museum Denver 161 24 Aug 2019 1 December 2019 Leiden circa 1630 Rembrandt Emerges Agnes Etherington Art Centre Kingston Ontario 162 4 October 2019 2 February 2020 Rembrandt s Light Dulwich Picture Gallery London 163 18 February 2020 30 August 2020 Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture 1590 1670 Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza Madrid 164 10 August 2020 1 November 2020 Young Rembrandt Ashmolean Museum Oxford 165 Paintings EditSelf portraits Edit Main article Self portraits by Rembrandt A young Rembrandt c 1628 when he was 22 Partly an exercise in chiaroscuro Rijksmuseum Self Portrait in a Gorget c 1629 Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg Self portrait 1630 Nationalmuseum Stockholm Self Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle 1634 Self portrait at the age of 34 1640 National Gallery London Self Portrait oil on canvas 1652 Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Self portrait Vienna c 1655 oil on walnut cut down in size Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Self Portrait 1660 Self Portrait as Zeuxis c 1662 One of 2 painted self portraits in which Rembrandt is turned to the left 166 Wallraf Richartz Museum Cologne Self Portrait with Two Circles c 1665 1669 Kenwood House London Self portrait 1669 Self portrait at the age of 63 dated 1669 the year he died National Gallery LondonOther paintings Edit The Stoning of Saint Stephen 1625 The first painting by Rembrandt painted at the age of 19 167 It is currently kept in the Musee des Beaux Arts de Lyon Artist in His Studio 1628 Museum of Fine Arts Boston Bust of an old man with a fur hat the artist s father 1630 Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem c 1630 Andromeda Circa 1630 The Philosopher in Meditation 1632 Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp 1632 Portrait of Aeltje Uylenburgh 1632 Museum of Fine Arts Boston Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh c 1633 1634 Sacrifice of Isaac 1635 The Blinding of Samson 1636 which Rembrandt gave to Huyghens Susanna 1636 Belshassar s Feast 1636 1638 Danae 1636 c 1643 Hermitage Museum The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias Family 1637 Louvre The Landscape with Good Samaritan 1638 Czartoryski Museum Krakow Scholar at his Writing Table 1641 Royal Castle Warsaw Joseph s Dream c 1645 Susanna and the Elders 1647 The Mill 1648 An Old Man in Red 1652 1654 Aristotle with a Bust of Homer 1653 Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York Young Girl at the Window 1654 Nationalmuseum Stockholm Portrait of Jan Six a wealthy friend of Rembrandt 1654 Bathsheba at Her Bath modelled by Hendrickje 1654 A Woman Bathing in a Stream modelled by Hendrickje 1654 Pallas Athene c 1655 The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Deijman 1656 Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph 1656 Woman in a Doorway 1657 1658 Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther 1660 Saint Bartholomew 1661 J Paul Getty Museum The Syndics of the Drapers Guild 1662 The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis cut down 1661 62 Lucretia 1666 Minneapolis Institute of Art The Return of the Prodigal Son detail c 1669 Hermitage Museum St Petersburg Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks The Abduction of Ganymede 1635 Staatliche Kunstsammlungen DresdenDrawings and etchings Edit Self portrait c 1628 29 pen and brush and ink on paper Self portrait in a cap with eyes wide open 1630 etching and burin Seated Old Man c 1630 red and black chalk on paper Nationalmuseum Stockholm Suzannah and the Elders 1634 drawing in Sanguine on paper Kupferstichkabinett Berlin Self portrait with Saskia 1636 etching Rijksmuseum An elephant 1637 drawing in black chalk on paper Albertina Austria Self portrait leaning on a Sill 1639 etching National Gallery of Art Christ and the woman taken in adultery c 1639 41 drawing in ink Louvre Beggars I c 1640 42 ink on paper Warsaw University Library The Windmill 1641 etching The Diemerdijk at Houtewael near Amsterdam 1648 49 pen and brown ink brown wash Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen The Three Crosses 1653 drypoint etching state III of V Museum of Fine Arts Boston Virgin and Child with a Cat 1654 original copper etching plate above the original copper plate in Victoria and Albert Museum example of the print below Christ presented to the People drypoint etching 1655 state I of VIII Rijksmuseum Two Old Men in Conversation Two Jews in Discussion Walking year unknown black chalk and brown ink on paper Teylers Museum A child being taught to walk c 1635 David Hockney said I think it s the greatest drawing ever done It s a magnificent drawing magnificent 72 A young woman sleeping c 1654 Shows Rembrandt s calligraphic style draughtsmanship 75 76 Notes Edit This version of his first name Rembrandt with a d first appeared in his signatures in 1633 Until then he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms In late 1632 he began signing solely with his first name Rembrant He added the d in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life Although scholars can only speculate this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance Leonardo Raphael etc who did not sign with their last names if at all 10 Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues often divided into classes along the lines of very likely authentic possibly authentic and unlikely to be authentic are given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue 40 Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375 More recent catalogues have added three two in unique impressions and excluded enough to reach totals as follows Schwartz p 6 289 Munz 1952 279 Boon 1963 287 Print Council of America but Schwartz s total quoted does not tally with the book It is not possible to give a total as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006 7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60 Codart nl 41 The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self portraits by prominent artists Van de Wetering p 290 Such as Otto Benesch 69 70 71 David Hockney 72 Nigel Konstam Jakob Rosenberg Gary Schwartz and Seymour Slive 73 74 The Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition It is important to note that Rembrandt s religious affiliation was uncertain And there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any denomination References Edit a b c Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon One year too late Archived 21 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine and in Dutch J de Jong Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd Archived 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine for sources concerning Rembrandt s birth year especially supporting 1607 However most sources continue to use 1606 Rembrandt Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Random House Webster s Unabridged Dictionary See list of drawings prints etchings and paintings by Rembrandt a b Gombrich p 420 Gombrich p 427 Clark 1969 pp 203 Clark 1969 pp 203 204 Clark 1969 pp 205 a b Rodin Auguste Art Conversations with Paul Gsell Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B Sanders Berkeley CA University of California Press 1984 ISBN 0 520 03819 3 p 85 Originally published as Auguste Rodin L Art Entretiens reunis par Paul Gsell Paris Bernard Grasset 1911 Auguste Rodin Me comparer a Rembrandt quel sacrilege A Rembrandt le colosse de l Art Y pensez vous mon ami Rembrandt prosternons nous et ne mettons jamais personne a cote de lui original in French Rembrandt Signature Files www rembrandt signature file com Archived from the original on 9 April 2016 Bull et al p 28 Doopregisters Zoek in Dutch Stadsarchief amsterdam nl 3 April 2014 Retrieved 7 April 2014 permanent dead link a b in Dutch Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen 1718 by Arnold Houbraken courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Simon van Leeuwen s Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden Leiden 1672 Rembrandt biography Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine nationalgallery org uk Erhardt Michelle A and Amy M Morris 2012 Mary Magdalene Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque Archived 8 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine Boston Brill p 252 ISBN 978 90 04 23195 5 Slive has a comprehensive biography pp 55ff Slive pp 60 65 Slive pp 60 61 Netherlands Noord Holland Province Church Records 1553 1909 Image Netherlands Noord Holland Province Church Records 1553 1909 pal MM9 3 1 TH 1971 31164 16374 68 Familysearch org Archived from the original on 5 June 2016 Retrieved 7 April 2014 Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia kept at the Amsterdam City Archives a b c Bull et al p 28 Clark 1978 pp 26 27 76 102 Adams p 660 a b Slive p 71 Driessen pp 151 57 Slive p 82 Slive p 84 Schwartz p 12 The house sale was in 1658 but was agreed with two years for Rembrandt to vacate Clark 1974 p 105 Clark 1974 pp 60 61 Bull et al p 29 Ruysscher D D amp T Veld C I 2021 Rembrandt s insolvency The artist as legal actor Oud Holland Journal for Art of the Low Countries 134 1 9 24 doi https doi org 10 1163 18750176 13401002 Archived 7 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine Wexuan Li Review of Rembrandts plan De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement Oud Holland Reviews April 2020 Clark 1978 p 34 Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt s burial kept at the Amsterdam City Archives Hughes p 6 A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings 28 July 2012 Archived from the original on 28 July 2012 Institute Member Login Institute for the Study of Western Civilization Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings Archived from the original on 13 May 2012 Retrieved 10 July 2007 Rembrandt der Zeichner Archived from the original on 27 May 2016 Retrieved 3 October 2007 Schwartzlist 301 Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz Garyschwartzarthistorian nl Archived from the original on 22 February 2012 Retrieved 17 February 2012 White and Buvelot 1999 p 10 Taylor Michael 2007 Rembrandt s Nose Of Flesh amp Spirit in the Master s Portraits Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 21 D A P Distributed Art Publishers Inc New York ISBN 978 1 933045 44 3 Durham p 60 Bull et al pp 11 13 van der Wetering p 268 van de Wetering pp 160 190 Clough p 23 Ackley p 14 a b c van de Wetering p 284 van de Wetering p 285 van de Wetering p 287 van de Wetering p 286 van de Wetering p 288 Clark 1978 p 28 van de Wetering pp 163 65 van de Wetering p 289 van de Wetering pp 155 65 van de Wetering pp 157 58 190 In Rembrandt s late great portraits we feel face to face with real people we sense their warmth their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt s self portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart Gombrich p 423 It The Jewish Bride is a picture of grown up love a marvelous amalgam of richness tenderness and trust the heads which in their truth have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve Clark p 206 Schwartz 1994 pp 8 12 White 1969 pp 5 6 White 1969 p 6 White 1969 pp 6 9 10 White 1969 pp 6 7 See Schwartz 1994 where the works are divided by subject following Bartsch Benesch Otto The Drawings of Rembrandt First Complete Edition in Six Volumes London Phaidon 1954 57 Benesch Otto Rembrandt as a Draughtsman An Essay with 115 Illustrations London Phaidon Press 1960 Benesch Otto The Drawings of Rembrandt A Critical and Chronological Catalogue 2nd ed 6 vols London Phaidon 1973 a b Lewis Tim 16 November 2014 David Hockney When I m working I feel like Picasso I feel I m 30 The Guardian Archived from the original on 16 May 2020 Retrieved 16 June 2020 David Hockney 2014 There s a drawing by Rembrandt I think it s the greatest drawing ever done It s in the British Museum and it s of a family teaching a child to walk so it s a universal thing everybody has experienced this or seen it happen Everybody I used to print out Rembrandt drawings big and give them to people and say If you find a better drawing send it to me But if you find a better one it will be by Goya or Michelangelo perhaps But I don t think there is one actually It s a magnificent drawing magnificent Slive Seymour The Drawings of Rembrandt A New Study London Thames amp Hudson 2009 Silve Seymour The Drawings of Rembrandt London Thames amp Hudson 2019 a b Mendelowitz Daniel Marcus Drawing New York Holt Rinehart amp Winston Inc 1967 p 305 As Mendelowitz 1967 noted Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself His Winter Landscape displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy it is not based on an established convention of brush performance It is as personal as handwriting a b Sullivan Michael The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press 1989 p 91 Schrader Stephanie et al eds Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Los Angeles CA J Paul Getty Museum 2018 ISBN 978 1 60606 552 5 Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India catalogue PDF Archived PDF from the original on 18 October 2019 Retrieved 18 October 2019 In Paintings Rembrandt amp his Mughal India Inspiration 3 September 2017 Archived from the original on 23 May 2018 Retrieved 12 May 2018 Ganz James 2013 Rembrandt s Century San Francisco CA Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco p 45 ISBN 978 3 7913 5224 4 Belien H amp P Knevel 2006 Langs Rembrandts roem p 92 121 The Rembrandt Research Project Past Present Future PDF Archived PDF from the original on 22 August 2014 Retrieved 11 August 2014 See Further Battles for the Lisowczyk Polish Rider by Rembrandt Zdzislaw Zygulski Jr Artibus et Historiae Vol 21 No 41 2000 pp 197 205 Also New York Times story Archived 8 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine There is a book on the subject Responses to Rembrandt Who painted the Polish Rider by Anthony Bailey New York 1993 John Russell 1 December 1985 Art View In Search of the Real Thing The New York Times Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 Retrieved 12 February 2017 Schama Simon 1999 Rembrandt s Eyes Knopf p 720 Schama pp 582 591 Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction Outpost Art Archived from the original on 12 January 2015 Retrieved 1 January 2015 Entertainment Lost Rembrandt works discovered BBC News 23 September 2005 Archived from the original on 22 December 2006 Retrieved 7 October 2009 Brown Mark 23 May 2014 Rembrandt expert urges National Gallery to rethink demoted painting The Guardian archived from the original on 21 September 2016 retrieved 21 December 2015 Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be Ackley p 13 van de Wetering p x Kuhn Hermann Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgrunden Rembrandts durchgefuhrt an den Gemalden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden Maltechnik Restauro issue 4 1977 223 233 Kuhn Hermann Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgrunden Rembrandts durchgefuhrt an den Gemalden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel Maltechnik Restauro volume 82 1976 25 33 Rembrandt Saskia as Flora Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ColourLex a b Bomford D et al Art in the making Rembrandt New edition Yale University Press 2006 Rembrandt Belshazzar s Feast Pigment analysis Archived 7 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine at ColourLex Resources Rembrandt ColourLex Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 23 February 2021 The Rembrandt Database Archived from the original on 23 August 2015 Retrieved 6 July 2015 Roberts Russell Rembrandt Mitchell Lane Publishers 2009 ISBN 978 1 61228 760 7 p 13 Chronology of his signatures pdf Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine with examples Source www rembrandt signature file com Slive p 60 Rembrandt pupils under Leraar van in the RKD The Lanckoronski Collection Rembrandt s Paintings zamek krolewski pl Archived from the original on 20 May 2014 Retrieved 20 May 2014 The works of art which Karolina Lanckoronska gave to the Royal Castle in 1994 was one of the most invaluable gift s made in the museum s history Clark 1974 pp 147 50 See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts Binstock Benjamin Vermeer s Family Secrets Genius Discovery and the Unknown Apprentice New York NY Routledge 2009 p 330 Golahny Amy 2001 The Use and Misuse of Rembrandt An Overview of Popular Reception Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine Dutch Crossing Journal of Low Countries Studies 25 2 305 322 Solman Paul 21 June 2004 Rembrandt s Journey PBS org Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 10 October 2018 Paul Solman 2004 Rembrandt The most famous brand name in western art In America alone it graces toothpaste bracelet charms restaurant and bars counter tops and of course the town of Rembrandt Iowa just halfway around the world from the Rembrandt Hotel in Bangkok Thailand Valiunas Algis 25 December 2006 Looking at Rembrandt The Weekly Standard Archived from the original on 16 December 2018 Retrieved 25 April 2020 Algis Valiunas 2006 Alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo Rembrandt is one of the three most famous artists ever with whom the public is on a first name basis and the name Rembrandt has lent the cachet of greatness and the grace of familiarity to sell everything from kitchen countertops to whitening toothpaste to fancy hotels in Bangkok and Knightsbridge a b Crawford Amy 12 December 2006 An Interview with Stephanie Dickey author of Rembrandt at 400 Smithsonian Magazine Archived from the original on 21 September 2018 Retrieved 10 October 2018 a b c Slive Seymour Rembrandt and his Critics 1630 1730 The Hague Martinus Nijhoff 1953 a b c Franits Wayne ed The Ashgate Research Companion to Dutch Art of the Seventeenth Century Burlington VT Ashgate 2016 Negri Antonio The Savage Anomaly The Power of Spinoza s Metaphysics and Politics Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press 1991 Translated from the Italian by Michael Hardt Originally published as L anomalia selvaggia Saggio su potere e potenza in Baruch Spinoza Milano Feltrinelli 1981 Antonio Negri 1981 Kolakowski as we will see has clearly depicted the religious life and the forms of community constructed by the cultured strata of the Dutch bourgeoisie Spinoza lives in this world with a vast network of simple and sociable friendships and correspondences But for certain determinate strata of the bourgeoisie the sweetness of the cultured and sedate life is accompanied without any contradiction by an association with a capitalist power potestas expressed in very mature terms This is the condition of a Dutch bourgeois man We could say the same thing for the other genius of that age Rembrandt van Rijn On his canvases the power of light is concentrated with intensity on the figures of a bourgeois world in terrific expansion It is a prosaic but very powerful society which makes poetry without knowing it because it has the force to do so Ahmad Iftikhar 2008 Art in Social Studies Exploring the World and Ourselves with Rembrandt The Journal of Aesthetic Education 42 2 19 37 Molyneux John 5 July 2019 The Dialectics of Art Rebelnews ie Archived from the original on 30 June 2020 Retrieved 25 June 2020 John Molyneux 2019 In short there is a dialectical relationship between art and society Thus two major artists from the same period and the same part of the world may respond to the same historical events in very different ways One example would be Rubens and Rembrandt Rubens 1577 1640 was based in Antwerp and Rembrandt 1606 1669 in Amsterdam Rembrandt s art was very much a product of the Dutch Revolt a bourgeois revolution which established the Dutch Republic while Rubens art was commissioned by and expressed the aristocratic counter revolution of the Habsburg Empire Bab Julius Rembrandt und Spinoza Ein Doppelbildnis im deutsch judischen Raum Berlin Philo Verlag 1934 Valentiner Wilhelm R Rembrandt and Spinoza A Study of the Spiritual Conflicts in Seventeenth Century Holland London Phaidon Press 1957 Streiff Bruno Le Peintre et le Philosophe ou Rembrandt et Spinoza a Amsterdam Paris Editions Complicites 2002 ISBN 978 2 910721 34 3 Simmel Georg Rembrandt Ein kunstphilodophischer Versuch Leipzig K Wolff Verlag 1916 Simmel Georg Rembrandt An Essay in the Philosophy of Art Translated and edited by Alan Scott and Helmut Staubmann New York Routledge 2005 Budick Sanford 1997 Descartes s Cogito Kant s Sublime and Rembrandt s Philosophers Cultural Transmission as Occasion for Freedom Modern Language Quarterly 58 1 27 61 doi 10 1215 00267929 58 1 27 Wright J Lenore 2007 Reading Rembrandt The influence of Cartesian dualism on Dutch art History of European Ideas 33 3 275 291 doi 10 1016 j histeuroideas 2006 11 012 Genet Jean Le Secret de Rembrandt Œuvres completes Paris Gallimard 1968 ISBN 2 07 010215 7 Genet Jean Rembrandt Paris Gallimard 2016 Proust Marcel Chardin et Rembrandt Paris Le Bruit du Temps 2009 Pavans Jean Proust Vermeer Rembrandt Paris Editions Arlea 2018 Todorov Tzvetan L art ou la vie Le cas Rembrandt Suivi d Art et morale Paris Biro Editeur 2008 Hassine Juliette 2006 Correspondance des arts Rembrandt Dostoievski dans l Europe du vingtieme siecle In memoriam Jo Yoshida Department Bulletin Paper Kyoto University 2006 06 20 doi 10 14989 138068 IJpma Frank F A van de Graaf Robert C Nicolai J P A Meek M F 2006 The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp by Rembrandt 1632 A Comparison of the Painting With a Dissected Left Forearm of a Dutch Male Cadaver The Journal of Hand Surgery 31 6 882 91 doi 10 1016 j jhsa 2006 02 014 Ijpma Frank F A van Gulik T M 2018 Anatomy lesson of the brain and cerebral membranes captured on canvas by Rembrandt in 1656 British Journal of Surgery 105 5 1 7 doi 10 1002 bjs 10610 Fernandez F J de Paz 2018 Rembrandt s Anatomy lessons Neurosciences and History 6 1 1 9 Harris P 1995 Rembrandt and medicine J R Coll Surg Edinb 40 2 81 3 Marcus Esther Lee Clarfield A Mark 2002 Rembrandt s Late Self Portraits Psychological and Medical Aspects The International Journal of Aging and Human Development 55 1 25 49 doi 10 2190 8LQ5 CC7W UJDF TNM0 Livingstone M S Conway B R 2004 Was Rembrandt stereoblind New England Journal of Medicine 351 12 1264 1265 doi 10 1056 NEJM200409163511224 Friedman Tal Lurie Doron Westreich Melvyn Golik A 2007 Rembrandt Aging and Sickness A Combined Look by Plastic Surgeons an Art Researcher and an Internal Medicine Specialist Israel Medical Association Journal 9 2 67 71 Friedman Tal Lurie Doron Shalom A 2012 Authentication of Rembrandt s self portraits through the use of facial aging analysis Isr Med Assoc J 14 10 591 4 Hage J Joris Lange Jan Karim Refaat B 2019 Rembrandt s Aging Face in Plastic Surgical Perspective Annals of Plastic Surgery 83 2 123 131 doi 10 1097 SAP 0000000000001917 Zell Michael Reframing Rembrandt Jews and the Christian Image in Seventeenth Century Amsterdam Berkeley University of California Press 2002 Durham John The Biblical Rembrandt Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith Macon GA Mercer University Press 2004 ISBN 978 0 86554 886 2 Perlove Shelley Silver Larry Rembrandt s Faith Church and Temple in the Dutch Golden Age University Park PA Pennsylvania State University Press 2009 ISBN 978 0 271 03406 5 Perlove Shelley Silver Larry 2007 Rembrandt and the Dutch Catholics Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies Revue canadienne d etudes neerlandaises 28 53 75 Squarzina Silvia Danesi Giovinezza di Rembrandt La committenza mennonita Roma De Luca Editori d Arte 2013 ISBN 88 6557 137 3 Joby Christopher 2004 How Does the Work of Rembrandt van Rijn Represent a Calvinist Aesthetic Theology 107 835 22 29 Marsh Clive 1997 Rembrandt Reads the Gospels Form Context and Theological Responsibility in New Testament Interpretation Scottish Journal of Theology 50 4 399 413 Seghers Anna Reiling Radvanyi Netty Jude und Judentum im Werke Rembrandts PhD diss Universitat Heidelberg 1924 Leipzig Reclam 1981 Nadler Steven Rembrandt s Jews Chicago University of Chicago Press 2003 Van Breda Jacobus 1997 Rembrandt Etchings on Oriental Papers Papers in the Collection of the National Gallery of Victoria Art Bulletin of Victoria 38 1997 25 38 Kalmar Ivan 2012 Rembrandt s Orient where Earth met Heaven Chapter 6 in Ivan Kalmar Early Orientalism Imagined Islam and the Notion of Sublime Power New York Routledge 2012 pp 56 66 Rembrandt s Etchings and Japanese Washi Paper from Echizen Washi Arts www washiarts com 2 June 2015 Archived from the original on 17 June 2020 Retrieved 12 June 2020 Schrader Stephanie et al eds Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India Los Angeles CA J Paul Getty Museum 2018 Westheider Ortrud Helfenstein Joseph Brinkmann Bodo Philipp Michael eds Rembrandt s Orient West Meets East in Dutch Art of the 17th Century Munich Prestel 2020 Scallen Catherine B 2009 The Global Rembrandt In Crossing Cultures Conflict Migration and Convergence The Proceedings of the 32nd International Congress in the History of Art edited by Jaynie Anderson Carlton Miegunyah Press 2009 pp 263 267 Behpoor Bavand 2010 How Moghul Was Rembrandt A Critique on a Global Laboratory of Infinite Multiplicities Third Text 24 4 501 504 doi 10 1080 09528822 2010 491389 Chung Jina Rembrandt Redefined Making the Global Artist in Seventeenth Century Amsterdam MA thesis University of Texas at Austin 2011 Alpers Svetlana Rembrandt s Enterprise The Studio and the Market Chicago University of Chicago Press 1988 ISBN 978 0 226 01518 7 Bok Marten Jan 2004 Rembrandt s Fame and Rembrandt s Failure The Market for History Paintings in the Dutch Republic In A Kofuku ed Rembrandt and Dutch History Painting in the 17th Century Tokyo 2004 pp 159 180 Bok Marten Jan van der Molen Tom 2009 Productivity Levels of Rembrandt and His Main Competitors in the Amsterdam Art Market Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen 51 Bd Beiheft Rembrandt Wissenschaft auf der Suche Beitrage des Internationalen Symposiums Berlin 4 und 5 November 2006 61 68 Crenshaw Paul Rembrandt s Bankruptcy The Artist his Patrons and the Art market in Seventeenth Century Netherlands Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 521 85825 0 Tummers Annaand Jonckheere Koenraad eds Art market and Connoisseurship A Closer Look at Paintings by Rembrandt Rubens and Their Contemporaries Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 2008 Schwartz Gary 11 July 2017 How I became a Rembrandt scholar garyschwartzarthistorian nl Archived from the original on 16 July 2020 Retrieved 11 July 2020 Chalard Fillaudeau Anne Rembrandt l artiste au fil des textes Rembrandt dans la litterature et la philosophie europeennes depuis 1669 Paris L Harmattan 2004 Munz Ludwig Die Kunst Rembrandts und Goethes Sehen Leipzig Verlag Heinrich Keller 1934 Van den Boogert B et al Goethe en Rembrandt Tekeningen uit Weimar Uit de grafische bestanden van de Kunstsammlungen zu Weimar aangevuld met werken uit het Goethe Nationalmuseum Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 1999 Protter Eric ed Painters on Painting Mineola N Y Dover Publications 1997 ISBN 0 486 29941 4 p 98 La luz en la sombra de Rembrandt a Goya RealGoya com 7 January 2017 Archived from the original on 14 May 2020 Retrieved 17 May 2020 Rodriguez Angel 16 April 2020 Rembrandt en Espana Arsmagazine com Archived from the original on 29 April 2020 Retrieved 16 May 2020 McQueen Alison The Rise of the Cult of Rembrandt Reinventing an Old Master in Nineteenth Century France Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 2003 Prigot Aude La reception de Rembrandt a travers les estampes en France au XVIIIe siecle Rennes Presses universitaires de Rennes 2018 ISBN 978 2 7535 7552 3 Langbehn Julius Rembrandt als Erzieher Rembrandt as Teacher Rembrandt as Educator Leipzig C L Hirschfeld 1890 Heenk Liesbeth Rembrandt and his Influence on Eighteenth century German and Austrian Printmakers Amsterdam Museum het Rembrandthuis Rembrandt Information Centre 1998 Chalard Fillaudeau Anne Rembrandt ou le genie du depassement Essai sur l artiste hollandais dans l histoire de l art allemande Saarbrucken Editions Universitaires Europeennes 2010 Hoff Ursula Rembrandt und England Hamburg Kleinert 1935 White Christopher Alexander David D Oench Ellen Rembrandt in Eighteenth Century England New Haven Yale Center for British Art 1983 Seifert Christian Tico Dickey Stephanie S et al Rembrandt Britain s Discovery of the Master Edinburgh National Galleries of Scotland 2018 ISBN 978 1 911054 19 1 Seifert Christian Tico Rembrandt amp Britain Edinburgh Trustees of the National Galleries of Scotland 2018 Scallen Catherine B Rembrandt Reputation and the Practice of Connoisseurship Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 2004 Wessels Anton Van Gogh and the Art of Living The Gospel According to Vincent van Gogh Wipf amp Stock 2013 ISBN 978 1 62564 109 0 Golahny Amy April 2004 Book Review Rembrandt s Jews by Steven Nadler Historians of Netherlandish Art Reviews hnanews org hnar reviews Archived from the original on 17 July 2020 Retrieved 14 July 2020 Derman Ushi 13 July 2020 Was Rembrandt One of ours How The Dutch Genius Became a Jew of Honor Beit Hatfutsot bh org il Archived from the original on 18 July 2020 Retrieved 20 July 2020 Molina Corton Juan 2014 Chap IX Danae Mito poder y erotismo en la pintura occidental in Spanish Madrid Spain Cultiva Libros Wullschlager Jackie Chagall A Biography New York Alfred A Knopf 2008 p 274 Masters Tim 14 October 2014 Exhibition paints Rembrandt as modern artist BBC com Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 Retrieved 14 May 2020 Landsberger Franz Rembrandt the Jews and the Bible Translated from the German by Felix N Gerson Philadelphia Jewish Publication Society 1946 Zell Michael Reframing Rembrandt Jews and the Christian Image in Seventeenth Century Amsterdam Berkeley University of California Press 2002 pp 45 46 a b c Bialostocki Jan 1972 Rembrandt and Posterity Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 23 1972 131 157 JSTOR 24705655 a b c Von Sandrart Joachim Baldinucci Filippo Houbraken Arnold Lives of Rembrandt Lives of the Artists Introduced by Charles Ford Los Angeles CA J Paul Getty Museum 2018 ISBN 978 1 60606 562 4 Muller Sheila D ed Dutch Art An Encyclopedia New York Garland Pub 1997 p 178 Nichols Aidan All Great Art is Praise Art and Religion in John Ruskin Washington D C The Catholic University of America Press 2016 p 454 In Ruskin words It is the aim of the best painters to paint the noblest things they can see by sunlight It was the aim of Rembrandt to paint the foulest things he could see by rushlight Cecil B De Mille Foundation The Legacy of Cecil B DeMille Cecil B De Mille Foundation cecilbdemille com Archived from the original on 10 August 2020 Retrieved 20 May 2020 Stinebring Anna Claire Head of Christ by Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn cat 480 The John G Johnson Collection A History and Selected Works A Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication permanent dead link The National Museum of Art of Romania Rembrandt Haman before Esther www mnar arts ro Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 15 July 2020 a b Rembrandt tentoonstilling www nga gov Archived from the original on 14 August 2019 Retrieved 14 August 2019 Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 Retrieved 13 January 2015 Rembrandt The Consummate Etcher Archived from the original on 13 January 2015 Retrieved 13 January 2015 From Rembrandt to Rosenquist Works on Paper from the NAC s Permanent Collection Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 MutualArt com Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Rembrandt Rubens Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 MutualArt com Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Rembrandt The Late Works Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 MutualArt com Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Promoted in Rembrandt From the National Gallery London and Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 2014 at IMDb MutualArt Auctions Exhibitions and Analysis for over 400 000 artists www mutualart com Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 Retrieved 10 October 2018 MutualArt com The Web s Largest Art Information Service www mutualart com Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 Retrieved 10 October 2018 Leiden circa 1630 Rembrandt Emerges Agnes Etherington Art Centre agnes queensu ca Archived from the original on 15 January 2019 Retrieved 15 January 2019 Rembrandt s Light Dulwich Picture Gallery www dulwichpicturegallery org uk Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 Retrieved 12 February 2020 Exhibitions Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture 1590 1670 Madrid Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza 2020 Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 Retrieved 19 September 2020 Welcome Ashmolean Museum Archived from the original on 24 September 2020 Retrieved 23 September 2020 White 200 Starcky Emmanuel 1990 Rembrandt Hazan p 45 ISBN 978 2 85025 212 9 Works cited Edit Ackley Clifford et al Rembrandt s Journey Museum of Fine Arts Boston 2004 ISBN 0 87846 677 0 Adams Laurie Schneider 1999 Art Across Time Volume II New York McGraw Hill College Bomford D et al Art in the making Rembrandt New edition Yale University Press 2006 Bull Duncan et al Rembrandt Caravaggio Rijksmuseum 2006 Buvelot Quentin White Christopher eds Rembrandt by himself 1999 National Gallery Clark Kenneth 1969 Civilisation a personal view New York Harper amp Row ISBN 978 0 06 010801 4 Clark Kenneth An Introduction to Rembrandt 1978 London John Murray Readers Union 1978 Clough Shepard B 1975 European History in a World Perspective D C Heath and Company Los Lexington MA ISBN 978 0 669 85555 5 Driessen Christoph Rembrandts vrouwen Bert Bakker Amsterdam 2012 ISBN 978 90 351 3690 8 Durham John I 2004 Biblical Rembrandt Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith Mercer University Press ISBN 978 0 86554 886 2 Gombrich E H The Story of Art Phaidon 1995 ISBN 0 7148 3355 X Hughes Robert 2006 The God of Realism The New York Review of Books vol 53 no 6 The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size Gary Schwartz editor New York Dover 1988 ISBN 0 486 28181 7 Slive Seymour Dutch Painting 1600 1800 Yale UP 1995 ISBN 0 300 07451 4 van de Wetering Ernst in Rembrandt by himself 1999 National Gallery London Mauritshuis The Hague ISBN 1 85709 270 8 van de Wetering Ernst Rembrandt The Painter at Work Amsterdam University Press 2000 ISBN 0 520 22668 2 White Christopher The Late Etchings of Rembrandt 1999 British Museum Lund Humphries London ISBN 978 90 400 9315 9Further reading EditFurther information List of works about Rembrandt Catalogue raisonne Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume I which deals with works from Rembrandt s early years in Leiden 1629 1631 1982 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume II 1631 1634 Bruyn J Haak B et al Band 2 1986 ISBN 978 90 247 3339 2 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume III 1635 1642 Bruyn J Haak B Levie S H van Thiel P J J van de Wetering E Ed Hrsg Band 3 1990 ISBN 978 90 247 3781 9 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume IV Ernst van de Wetering Karin Groen et al Springer Dordrecht the Netherlands ISBN 1 4020 3280 3 p 692 Self Portraits Rembrandt Images and metaphors Christian and Astrid Tumpel editors Haus Books London 2006 ISBN 978 1 904950 92 9 Anthony M Amore Tom Mashberg 2012 Stealing Rembrandts The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists ISBN 978 0 230 33990 3 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rembrandt Wikiquote has quotations related to Rembrandt A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn from the National Gallery London Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist com The Drawings of Rembrandt a revision of Otto Benesch s catalogue raisonne by Martin Royalton Kisch in progress Rembrandt s house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam with images of many of his etchings 114 artworks by or after Rembrandt at the Art UK site Works by or about Rembrandt at Internet Archive Rembrandt van Rijn General Resources Gary Schwartz The transparent connoisseur 3 the 30 million pound question Rembrandt The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rembrandt amp oldid 1131611505, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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