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Wikipedia

Society

May 05, 2023

For other uses, see Society (disambiguation).

A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups.

Left to right: a family in Savannakhet, Laos; a school of fish near Fiji; a military parade on a Spanish national holiday; a crowd shopping in Maharashtra, India.

Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts as acceptable or unacceptable. These patterns of behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. Societies, and their norms, undergo gradual and perpetual changes.

So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology, and also applied to distinctive subsections of a larger society.

More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a society may be illustrated as an economic, social, industrial or cultural infrastructure, made up of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard, society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than "other people" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment.

Etymology and usage

The term "society" came from the 12th-century French société (meaning 'company').[1] This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: "society in general", "society at large", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be "antisocial". In the 1630s it was used in reference to "people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community".[2] However, in the 18th century the Scottish economist, Adam Smith taught that a society "may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing injury to each other."[3]

Conceptions

Humans fall between presocial and eusocial in the spectrum of animal ethology. The great apes have always been more (Bonobo, Homo, Pan) or less (Gorilla, Pongo) social animals. According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos), is the parental role assumed by the males, which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable.[4][5]

In sociology

 
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae) social ethology.

Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as "...a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts ... upon its producer[s]." According to him, society was created by humans, but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day.[6]

 
Canis lupus social ethology

Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5) special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies).[7] This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:

In addition to this, there are:

  • Humanity, humankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs.
  • Virtual society, a society based on online identity, which is evolving in the information age.

Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.[8]

Types

Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.[9]

Pre-industrial

Main article: Pre-industrial society

In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, and agricultural.[7]

Hunting and gathering

Main article: Hunter-gatherer society
 
San people in Botswana start a fire by hand.

The main form of food production in hunter-gatherer societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food.[10] As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as the people of Tlingit in North America) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies.[11] Bands consist of 15 to 50 people related by kinship.[12] Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership is personal—charismatic—and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence.[13] The family forms the main social unit, with most members being related by birth or marriage.[14] The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins described hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" due to their extended leisure time:[15] adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.[16]

Pastoral

Main article: Pastoral society

Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another.[17] Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex.[9] For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value. The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral societies.

Horticultural

Main article: Horticulturalist society

Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Historians use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 10,000 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals.[18] Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops.[19] The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers.[20] Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages.[21] The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.

As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders.[21] This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life.

Agrarian

Main article: Agrarian society
 
Ploughing with oxen in the 15th century

Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. According to Lenski, the difference between horticultural and agrarian societies is the use of the plow.[22] Increases in food supplies due to improved technology led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.

Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on different roles in providing food for the family, men took an increasingly dominant role in society. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from "lesser" members of society.

Industrial

Main article: Industrial society

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies.

Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods.[23] This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.

Once again, the population boomed.[24] Increased productivity made more goods available to everyone. However, inequality became even greater than before. The breakup of agricultural-based societies caused many people to leave the land and seek employment in cities.[25] This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages.

Post-industrial

Main article: Post-industrial society
See also: Information revolution

Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology more than the production of goods.[26] Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The United States is the first country to have over half of its workforce employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking.

Characteristics

Gender

Main articles: Gender and Gender role

The division of humans into male and female gender roles has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children.[27] Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.[28][29]

Kinship

Main article: Kinship

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance.[30] All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations.[31]

Ethnicity

Main article: Ethnic group

Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.[32][33] Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed.[34] Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level.[35] Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group.[36] Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.[37][38][39]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government and Politics
 
The United Nations Headquarters in New York City, which houses one of the world's largest political organizations

The early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water, fertile soil, and temperate climate of different locations.[40] As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities.[41] As communities got bigger the need for some form of governance increased, as all large societies without a government have struggled to function.[42] Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages.[43] This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances.[44]

Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern. There have been multiple forms of government throughout human history, each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population.[45] As of 2017, more than half of all national governments are democracies, with 13% being autocracies and 28% containing elements of both.[46] Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states.[47]

Trade and economics

Main articles: Trade and Economics
 
The Silk Road (red) and spice trade routes (blue)

Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids.[48] Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals.[49][50] Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian.[51] The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.[52]

Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system.[53] Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells.[54] Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money.[54] Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people.[55] There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same net monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.[56]

Conflict

See also: War and Violence

Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but kill adult humans at a high rate (with infanticide being more common among other animals).[57] It is predicted that 2% of early H. sapiens would be killed, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times.[58] There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0.01%.[59]

The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought is that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and appeared due to changing social conditions.[60] While not settled, the current evidence suggests warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that.[60] War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war.[61]

Contemporary usage

The term "society" is currently used to cover both a number of political and scientific connotations as well as a variety of associations.

Western

Main article: Western world

The development of the Western world has brought with it the emerging concepts of Western culture, politics, and ideas, often referred to simply as "Western society". Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It sometimes also includes Eastern Europe, South America, and Israel.

The cultures and lifestyles of all of these stem from Western Europe. They all enjoy relatively strong economies and stable governments, allow freedom of religion, have chosen democracy as a form of governance, favor capitalism and international trade, are heavily influenced by Judeo-Christian values, and have some form of political and military alliance or cooperation.[62]

Information

 
World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva
Main article: Information society

Although the concept of information society has been under discussion since the 1930s, in the modern world it is almost always applied to the manner in which information technologies have impacted society and culture. It, therefore, covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace.[63]

One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society. Here, policies are directed towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy, research into information and communication technologies, as well as their application to improve social inclusion, public services, and quality of life.[64]

The International Telecommunication Union's World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva and Tunis (2003 and 2005) has led to a number of policy and application areas where action is envisaged.[65]

Knowledge

Main article: Knowledge society
 
The Seoul Cyworld control room

As the access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. An analysis by the Irish government stated, "The capacity to manipulate, store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years. The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity, to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth. As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge."[66]

See also

Notes

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  2. ^ "Society (n.)". Online Etymological Dictionary. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
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  4. ^ Godelier, Maurice (2004). Métamorphoses de la parenté.
  5. ^ Jack Goody. "The Labyrinth of Kinship". New Left Review. from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
  6. ^ Berger, Peter L. (1967). The Scared Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, NYC: Doubleday & Company, Inc. p. 3.
  7. ^ a b Lenski 1974, p. 96.
  8. ^ Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Archived 15 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive.
  9. ^ a b OpenStax 2021, p. 99.
  10. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 135.
  11. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 134.
  12. ^ Lee, Richard B.; Daly, Richard (1999). "Introduction: Foragers & Others". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters & Gatherers. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 052157109X.
  13. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 146.
  14. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 142.
  15. ^ Sahlins, M. (1968). "Notes on the Original Affluent Society". Man the Hunter. By Lee, R.B.; DeVore, I. New York: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 85–89. ISBN 020233032X. See also: Lewis, Jerome (2008). (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2013, and Gowdy, John (2005). . Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. By Lee, Richard B. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021.
  16. ^ Sackett, Ross (1996). (PhD). University of California, Los Angeles. S2CID 146347757. Archived from the original on 10 April 2022 – via Semantic Scholar Corpus ID: 146347757.
  17. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 267.
  18. ^ Bulliet et al. 2015, p. 14.
  19. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 186.
  20. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 187.
  21. ^ a b Lenski 1974, p. 165.
  22. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 207.
  23. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 315.
  24. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 319.
  25. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 328.
  26. ^ OpenStax 2021, p. 102.
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  40. ^ Holslag J. A political history of the world: three thousand years of war and peace. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0241384664. OCLC 1080190517.
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  • Dunfey, Theo Spanos (29 May 2019). "What is Social Change and Why Should We Care?". Southern New Hampshire University.
  • Lenski, Gerhard E. (1974). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 978-0070371729.
  • OpenStax (2021). Introduction to Sociology, 3rd edition (PDF). Rice University. p. 99. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  • Rummel, R.J. (1976). "The State, Political System and Society". Understanding Conflict and War, Vol. 2: The Conflict Helix.

Further reading

 
Look up Society in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Society.
  • Althusser, Louis; Balibar, Étienne (2009). Reading Capital. London: Verso.
  • Bottomore, Tom, ed. (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 45–48.
  • Calhoun, Craig, ed. (2002). Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press.
  • Griffen, Leonid (2021). (PDF). The Scientific Heritage. 5 (67): 51–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2021.
  • Hall, Stuart (1977). "Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor". In Bloomfield, J. (ed.). Papers on Class, Hegemony and Party. London: Lawrence & Wishart.
  • Harman, Chris (Summer 1986). . International Socialism. 2 (32): 3–44. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015.
  • Harvey, David (2010). A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso.
  • Jenkins, Richard (2002). Foundations of Sociology. London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0333960509.
  • Larrain, Jorge (1983). Marxism and Ideology. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
  • Lukács, Georg (1972). History and Class Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Postone, Moishe (1993). Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press.
  • Williams, Raymond (1976). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana.
  • — (1977). Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

May 05, 2023
society, other, uses, disambiguation, society, group, individuals, involved, persistent, social, interaction, large, social, group, sharing, same, spatial, social, territory, typically, subject, same, political, authority, dominant, cultural, expectations, soc. For other uses see Society disambiguation A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships social relations between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members In the social sciences a larger society often exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups Left to right a family in Savannakhet Laos a school of fish near Fiji a military parade on a Spanish national holiday a crowd shopping in Maharashtra India Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts as acceptable or unacceptable These patterns of behavior within a given society are known as societal norms Societies and their norms undergo gradual and perpetual changes So far as it is collaborative a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis both individual and social common benefits can thus be distinguished or in many cases found to overlap A society can also consist of like minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant larger society This is sometimes referred to as a subculture a term used extensively within criminology and also applied to distinctive subsections of a larger society More broadly and especially within structuralist thought a society may be illustrated as an economic social industrial or cultural infrastructure made up of yet distinct from a varied collection of individuals In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people rather than other people beyond the individual and their familiar social environment Contents 1 Etymology and usage 2 Conceptions 2 1 In sociology 3 Types 3 1 Pre industrial 3 1 1 Hunting and gathering 3 1 2 Pastoral 3 1 3 Horticultural 3 1 4 Agrarian 3 2 Industrial 3 3 Post industrial 4 Characteristics 4 1 Gender 4 2 Kinship 4 3 Ethnicity 4 4 Government and politics 4 5 Trade and economics 4 6 Conflict 5 Contemporary usage 5 1 Western 5 2 Information 5 3 Knowledge 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further readingEtymology and usage EditThe term society came from the 12th century French societe meaning company 1 This was in turn from the Latin word societas which in turn was derived from the noun socius comrade friend ally adjectival form socialis used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly or at least civil Without an article the term can refer to the entirety of humanity also society in general society at large etc although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be antisocial In the 1630s it was used in reference to people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community 2 However in the 18th century the Scottish economist Adam Smith taught that a society may subsist among different men as among different merchants from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection if only they refrain from doing injury to each other 3 Conceptions EditHumans fall between presocial and eusocial in the spectrum of animal ethology The great apes have always been more Bonobo Homo Pan or less Gorilla Pongo social animals According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier one critical novelty in society in contrast to humanity s closest biological relatives chimpanzees and bonobos is the parental role assumed by the males which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable 4 5 In sociology Edit The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis Both individual and social common goals can thus be distinguished and considered Ant formicidae social ethology Sociologist Peter L Berger defines society as a human product and nothing but a human product that yet continuously acts upon its producer s According to him society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day 6 Canis lupus social ethology Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology communication and economy 1 hunters and gatherers 2 simple agricultural 3 advanced agricultural 4 industrial and 5 special e g fishing societies or maritime societies 7 This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H Fried a conflict theorist and Elman Service an integration theorist who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state This system of classification contains four categories Hunter gatherer bands categorization of duties and responsibilities Then came the agricultural society Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige Stratified structures led by chieftains Civilizations with complex social hierarchies and organized institutional governments In addition to this there are Humanity humankind upon which rest all the elements of society including society s beliefs Virtual society a society based on online identity which is evolving in the information age Over time some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and control This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community Hunter gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages Villages grew to become towns and cities Cities turned into city states and nation states 8 Types EditSocieties are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources prestige or power Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth prestige or power Sociologists place societies in three broad categories pre industrial industrial and postindustrial 9 Pre industrial Edit Main article Pre industrial society In a pre industrial society food production which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor is the main economic activity These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food These subdivisions are hunting and gathering pastoral horticultural and agricultural 7 Hunting and gathering Edit Main article Hunter gatherer society San people in Botswana start a fire by hand The main form of food production in hunter gatherer societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals Hunter gatherers move around constantly in search of food 10 As a result they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes However some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources such as the people of Tlingit in North America lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies 11 Bands consist of 15 to 50 people related by kinship 12 Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal and decisions are reached through general agreement The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands Leadership is personal charismatic and used for special purposes only in tribal society There are no political offices containing real power and a chief is merely a person of influence 13 The family forms the main social unit with most members being related by birth or marriage 14 The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins described hunter gatherers as the original affluent society due to their extended leisure time 15 adults in foraging and horticultural societies work on average about 6 5 hours a day whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8 8 hours a day 16 Pastoral Edit Main article Pastoral society Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence Rather than searching for food on a daily basis members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs Pastoralists live a nomadic life moving their herds from one pasture to another 17 Because their food supply is far more reliable pastoral societies can support larger populations Since there are food surpluses fewer people are needed to produce food As a result the division of labor the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities becomes more complex 9 For example some people become craftworkers producing tools weapons and jewelry among other items of value The production of goods encourages trade This trade helps to create inequality as some families acquire more goods than others do These families often gain power through their increased wealth The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships the typical form of government in pastoral societies Horticultural Edit Main article Horticulturalist society Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies Historians use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 10 000 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals 18 Some horticultural groups use the slash and burn method to raise crops 19 The wild vegetation is cut and burned and ashes are used as fertilizers 20 Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons When the land becomes barren horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again By rotating their garden plots horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages 21 The size of a village s population depends on the amount of land available for farming thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000 As with pastoral societies surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople shamans religious leaders and traders 21 This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts As in pastoral societies surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life Agrarian Edit Main article Agrarian society Ploughing with oxen in the 15th century Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area According to Lenski the difference between horticultural and agrarian societies is the use of the plow 22 Increases in food supplies due to improved technology led to larger populations than in earlier communities This meant a greater surplus which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers educators craftspeople merchants and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies For example women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men In hunting and gathering societies women even gathered more food than men However as food stores improved and women took on different roles in providing food for the family men took an increasingly dominant role in society As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies A system of rulers with high social status also appeared This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion In this way the nobility managed to extract goods from lesser members of society Industrial Edit Main article Industrial society Between the 15th and 16th centuries a new economic system emerged Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market in which the means of production are privately owned Europe s exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism The introduction of foreign metals silks and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods 23 This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before Now the surplus was not just agricultural goods but also manufactured goods This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced Once again the population boomed 24 Increased productivity made more goods available to everyone However inequality became even greater than before The breakup of agricultural based societies caused many people to leave the land and seek employment in cities 25 This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages Post industrial Edit Main article Post industrial society See also Information revolution Post industrial societies are societies dominated by information services and high technology more than the production of goods 26 Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production The United States is the first country to have over half of its workforce employed in service industries Service industries include government research education health sales law and banking Characteristics EditGender Edit Main articles Gender and Gender role The division of humans into male and female gender roles has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of norms practices dress behavior rights duties privileges status and power Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children 27 Gender roles have varied historically and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies 28 29 Kinship Edit Main article Kinship All human societies organize recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents children and other descendants consanguinity and relations through marriage affinity There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children fictive These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship In many societies it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance 30 All societies have rules of incest taboo according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations 31 Ethnicity Edit Main article Ethnic group Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups These can be a common set of traditions ancestry language history society culture nation religion or social treatment within their residing area 32 33 Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race which is based on physical characteristics although both are socially constructed 34 Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level 35 Also there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group 36 Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries 37 38 39 Government and politics Edit Main articles Government and Politics The United Nations Headquarters in New York City which houses one of the world s largest political organizations The early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water fertile soil and temperate climate of different locations 40 As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities interactions between these different groups increased This led to the development of governance within and between the communities 41 As communities got bigger the need for some form of governance increased as all large societies without a government have struggled to function 42 Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily including previously strong political alliances if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages 43 This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances 44 Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern There have been multiple forms of government throughout human history each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population 45 As of 2017 more than half of all national governments are democracies with 13 being autocracies and 28 containing elements of both 46 Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states 47 Trade and economics Edit Main articles Trade and Economics The Silk Road red and spice trade routes blue Trade the voluntary exchange of goods and services is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids 48 Evidence suggests early H sapiens made use of long distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals 49 50 Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian 51 The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods 52 Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system 53 Early money consisted of commodities the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells 54 Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins paper and electronic money 54 Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people 55 There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans the eight richest humans are worth the same net monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population 56 Conflict Edit See also War and Violence Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates but kill adult humans at a high rate with infanticide being more common among other animals 57 It is predicted that 2 of early H sapiens would be killed rising to 12 during the medieval period before dropping to below 2 in modern times 58 There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0 01 59 The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict i e war has long been the subject of debate One school of thought is that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors and has always been an innate human characteristic Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and appeared due to changing social conditions 60 While not settled the current evidence suggests warlike predispositions only became common about 10 000 years ago and in many places much more recently than that 60 War has had a high cost on human life it is estimated that during the 20th century between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war 61 Contemporary usage EditThe term society is currently used to cover both a number of political and scientific connotations as well as a variety of associations Western Edit Main article Western world The development of the Western world has brought with it the emerging concepts of Western culture politics and ideas often referred to simply as Western society Geographically it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe North America Australia and New Zealand It sometimes also includes Eastern Europe South America and Israel The cultures and lifestyles of all of these stem from Western Europe They all enjoy relatively strong economies and stable governments allow freedom of religion have chosen democracy as a form of governance favor capitalism and international trade are heavily influenced by Judeo Christian values and have some form of political and military alliance or cooperation 62 Information Edit World Summit on the Information Society Geneva Main article Information society Although the concept of information society has been under discussion since the 1930s in the modern world it is almost always applied to the manner in which information technologies have impacted society and culture It therefore covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home the workplace schools government and various communities and organizations as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace 63 One of the European Union s areas of interest is the information society Here policies are directed towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy research into information and communication technologies as well as their application to improve social inclusion public services and quality of life 64 The International Telecommunication Union s World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva and Tunis 2003 and 2005 has led to a number of policy and application areas where action is envisaged 65 Knowledge Edit Main article Knowledge society The Seoul Cyworld control room As the access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society An analysis by the Irish government stated The capacity to manipulate store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge 66 See also Edit Society portalCivil society Club organization Consumer society Community outline Culture outline Eusociality Family High society group Mass society Open society Outline of society Presociality Professional society Religion outline Scientific society Secret societies Sociology Sociobiology Social actions Social capital Social cohesion Societal collapse Social contract Social disintegration Social order Social solidarity Social structure Social system Social work Structure and agencyNotes Edit Society Merriam webster dictionary Archived from the original on 7 May 2021 Retrieved 6 May 2021 Society n Online Etymological Dictionary Archived from the original on 30 July 2022 Retrieved 6 May 2021 Briggs 2000 p 9 Godelier Maurice 2004 Metamorphoses de la parente Jack Goody The Labyrinth of Kinship New Left Review Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 Retrieved 24 July 2007 Berger Peter L 1967 The Scared Canopy Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion Garden City NYC Doubleday amp Company Inc p 3 a b Lenski 1974 p 96 Effland R 1998 The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Archived 15 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive a b OpenStax 2021 p 99 Lenski 1974 p 135 Lenski 1974 p 134 Lee Richard B Daly Richard 1999 Introduction Foragers amp Others The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters amp Gatherers Cambridge University Press p 3 ISBN 052157109X Lenski 1974 p 146 Lenski 1974 p 142 Sahlins M 1968 Notes on the Original Affluent Society Man the Hunter By Lee R B DeVore I New York Aldine Publishing Company pp 85 89 ISBN 020233032X See also Lewis Jerome 2008 Managing abundance not chasing scarcity PDF Radical Anthropology 2 Archived from the original PDF on 13 May 2013 and Gowdy John 2005 Hunter Gatherers and the Mythology of the Market Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers By Lee Richard B Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Sackett Ross 1996 Time energy and the indolent savage A quantitative cross cultural test of the primitive affluence hypothesis PhD University of California Los Angeles S2CID 146347757 Archived from the original on 10 April 2022 via Semantic Scholar Corpus ID 146347757 Lenski 1974 p 267 Bulliet et al 2015 p 14 Lenski 1974 p 186 Lenski 1974 p 187 a b Lenski 1974 p 165 Lenski 1974 p 207 Lenski 1974 p 315 Lenski 1974 p 319 Lenski 1974 p 328 OpenStax 2021 p 102 Ridgeway CL 2001 International Encyclopedia of the Social amp Behavioral Sciences ISBN 978 0080430768 Alters S Schiff W 2009 Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Jones amp Bartlett Publishers p 143 ISBN 978 0763756413 Retrieved 3 January 2018 Fortin N 2005 Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries Oxford Review of Economic Policy 21 3 416 438 doi 10 1093 oxrep gri024 The Nature of Kinship Overview www2 palomar edu Archived from the original on 3 December 2020 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Itao K Kaneko K February 2020 Evolution of kinship structures driven by marriage tie and competition Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117 5 2378 2384 Bibcode 2020PNAS 117 2378I doi 10 1073 pnas 1917716117 PMC 7007516 PMID 31964846 Chandra K 2012 Constructivist theories of ethnic politics Oxford University Press pp 69 70 ISBN 978 0199893157 OCLC 829678440 Archived from the original on 30 July 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 People J Bailey G 2010 Humanity An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology 9th ed Wadsworth Cengage learning p 389 In essence an ethnic group is a named social category of people based on perceptions of shared social experience or one s ancestors experiences Members of the ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions and history that distinguish them from other groups Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of us and them In contrast to social stratification which divides and unifies people along a series of horizontal axes based on socioeconomic factors ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes Thus ethnic groups at least theoretically cut across socioeconomic class differences drawing members from all strata of the population Blackmore E 22 February 2019 Race and ethnicity How are they different Culture Archived from the original on 22 October 2020 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Race Ethnicity and Genetics Working Group October 2005 The use of racial ethnic and ancestral categories in human genetics research American Journal of Human Genetics 77 4 519 32 doi 10 1086 491747 PMC 1275602 PMID 16175499 Chandra K 2006 What is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter Annual Review of Political Science 9 1 397 424 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 9 062404 170715 ISSN 1094 2939 Archived from the original on 22 April 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 Smith AD 1999 Myths and Memories of the Nation Oxford University Press pp 4 7 Banton M 2007 Max Weber on ethnic communities a critique Nations and Nationalism 13 1 19 35 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8129 2007 00271 x Delanty G Kumar K 2006 The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism London SAGE p 171 ISBN 978 1412901017 Holslag J A political history of the world three thousand years of war and peace pp 24 25 ISBN 978 0241384664 OCLC 1080190517 Christian D 2004 Maps of Time University of California Press ISBN 978 0520244764 Nuwer R Why governments are broken and how to fix them www bbc com Archived from the original on 31 January 2021 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Cronk L Leech BL 20 September 2017 How Did Humans Get So Good at Politics SAPIENS Archived from the original on 7 August 2020 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Zmigrod L Rentfrow PJ Robbins TW May 2018 Cognitive underpinnings of nationalistic ideology in the context of Brexit Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115 19 E4532 E4540 Bibcode 2018PNAS 115E4532Z doi 10 1073 pnas 1708960115 PMC 5948950 PMID 29674447 S2CID 4993139 Melina R 14 February 2011 What Are the Different Types of Governments livescience com Archived from the original on 1 February 2021 Retrieved 24 October 2020 DeSilver D Despite global concerns about democracy more than half of countries are democratic Pew Research Center Archived from the original on 27 February 2021 Retrieved 24 October 2020 National Geographic Society 23 December 2012 international organization National Geographic Society Archived from the original on 27 April 2017 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Horan RD Bulte E Shogren JF 1 September 2005 How trade saved humanity from biological exclusion an economic theory of Neanderthal extinction Journal of Economic Behavior amp Organization 58 1 1 29 doi 10 1016 j jebo 2004 03 009 ISSN 0167 2681 Gibbons J 11 August 2015 Why did Neanderthals go extinct Smithsonian Insider Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 Retrieved 11 October 2020 University of Wyoming 24 March 2005 Did Use of Free Trade Cause Neanderthal Extinction www newswise com Archived from the original on 1 February 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2020 Polianskaya A 15 March 2018 Humans may have been trading with each for as long as 300 000 years inews co uk Archived from the original on 23 January 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2020 Henriques M How spices changed the ancient world www bbc com Archived from the original on 25 January 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2020 Strauss IE 26 February 2016 The Myth of the Barter Economy The Atlantic Archived from the original on 15 February 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2020 a b The History of Money www pbs org Archived from the original on 29 November 2020 Retrieved 11 October 2020 Why do we need economists and the study of economics Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 Retrieved 23 October 2020 Sheskin M The inequality delusion Why we ve got the wealth gap all wrong New Scientist Archived from the original on 3 February 2021 Retrieved 24 October 2020 Yong E 28 September 2016 Humans Unusually Murderous Mammals Typically Murderous Primates The Atlantic Archived from the original on 7 May 2021 Retrieved 7 May 2021 Gomez JM Verdu M Gonzalez Megias A Mendez M October 2016 The phylogenetic roots of human lethal violence Nature 538 7624 233 237 Bibcode 2016Natur 538 233G doi 10 1038 nature19758 PMID 27680701 S2CID 4454927 Pagel M October 2016 Animal behaviour Lethal violence deep in the human lineage PDF Nature 538 7624 180 181 Bibcode 2016Natur 538 180P doi 10 1038 nature19474 PMID 27680700 S2CID 4459560 Archived PDF from the original on 20 May 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 a b Ferguson RB 1 September 2018 War Is Not Part of Human Nature Scientific American Archived from the original on 30 January 2021 Retrieved 1 June 2022 Ferguson N September October 2006 The Next War of the World Foreign Affairs Archived from the original on 25 April 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 John P McKay Bennett D Hill John Buckler Clare Haru Crowston Merry E Wiesner Hanks 2009 Western Society A Brief History Palgrave Macmillan Archived from the original on 1 January 2011 Retrieved 20 October 2009 The Information Society Indiana University Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 20 October 2009 Information Society Policies at a Glance Europa eu Archived from the original on 24 March 2010 Retrieved 20 October 2009 WSIS Implementation by Action Line ITU int Archived from the original on 26 March 2012 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Building the Knowledge Society Report to Government PDF Information Society Commission Ireland December 2002 Archived from the original PDF on 21 November 2007 Retrieved 20 October 2009 References EditBoyd Robert Richerson Peter J 12 November 2009 Culture and the evolution of human cooperation Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 364 1533 3281 3288 doi 10 1098 rstb 2009 0134 PMC 2781880 PMID 19805434 Bicchieri Cristina Muldoon Ryan Sontuoso Alessandro 1 March 2011 Social Norms Briggs Asa 2000 The Age of Improvement 2nd ed Longman ISBN 978 0582369597 Bulliet Richard Crossley Pamela Headrick Daniel Hirsch Steven Johnson Lyman 2015 The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History Vol 1 6th ed Cengage Learning ISBN 978 1285445670 Clutton Brock T West S Ratnieks F Foley R 12 November 2009 The evolution of society Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 364 1533 3127 3133 doi 10 1098 rstb 2009 0207 PMC 2781882 PMID 19805421 Dunfey Theo Spanos 29 May 2019 What is Social Change and Why Should We Care Southern New Hampshire University Lenski Gerhard E 1974 Human Societies An Introduction to Macrosociology New York McGraw Hill Inc ISBN 978 0070371729 OpenStax 2021 Introduction to Sociology 3rd edition PDF Rice University p 99 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Rummel R J 1976 The State Political System and Society Understanding Conflict and War Vol 2 The Conflict Helix Further reading Edit Look up Society in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society Wikiquote has quotations related to Society Althusser Louis Balibar Etienne 2009 Reading Capital London Verso Bottomore Tom ed 1991 A Dictionary of Marxist Thought 2nd ed Malden MA Blackwell Publishing pp 45 48 Calhoun Craig ed 2002 Dictionary of the Social Sciences Oxford University Press Griffen Leonid 2021 The Society as a Superorganism PDF The Scientific Heritage 5 67 51 60 Archived from the original PDF on 21 September 2021 Hall Stuart 1977 Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor In Bloomfield J ed Papers on Class Hegemony and Party London Lawrence amp Wishart Harman Chris Summer 1986 Base and Superstructure International Socialism 2 32 3 44 Archived from the original on 27 June 2015 Harvey David 2010 A Companion to Marx s Capital London Verso Jenkins Richard 2002 Foundations of Sociology London Palgrave MacMillan ISBN 978 0333960509 Larrain Jorge 1983 Marxism and Ideology Atlantic Highlands NJ Humanities Press Lukacs Georg 1972 History and Class Consciousness Cambridge MA MIT Press Postone Moishe 1993 Time Labour and Social Domination A Reinterpretation of Marx s Critical Theory Cambridge England Cambridge University Press Williams Raymond 1976 Keywords A Vocabulary of Culture and Society Fontana 1977 Marxism and Literature Oxford Oxford University Press Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Society amp oldid 1151294894, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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