Subject–object–verb word order
In linguistic typology, a subject–object–verb (SOV) language is one in which the subject, object, and verb of a sentence always or usually appear in that order. If English were SOV, "Sam water drank" would be an ordinary sentence, as opposed to the actual Standard English "Sam drank water" which is subject–verb–object (SVO).
The term is often loosely used for ergative languages like Adyghe and Basque that really have agents instead of subjects.
Incidence Edit
| Word order | English equivalent | Proportion of languages | Example languages | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SOV | "Cows grass eat." | 45% | Ancient Greek, Bengali, Burmese, Hindi/Urdu, Japanese, Korean, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Turkish, etc | |
| SVO | "Cows eat grass." | 42% | Chinese, English, French, Hausa, Hebrew, Arabic, Italian, Malay, Portuguese, Spanish, Swahili, Thai, Vietnamese, etc | |
| VSO | "Eat cows grass." | 9% | Biblical Hebrew, Classical Arabic, Filipino, Geʽez, Irish, Māori, Tuareg-Berber, Welsh | |
| VOS | "Eat grass cows." | 3% | Car, Fijian, Malagasy, Qʼeqchiʼ, Terêna | |
| OVS | "Grass eat cows." | 1% | Hixkaryana, Urarina | |
| OSV | "Grass cows eat." | 0% | Tobati, Warao | |
| Frequency distribution of word order in languages surveyed by Russell S. Tomlin in the 1980s[1][2] () | ||||
Among natural languages with a word order preference, SOV is the most common type (followed by subject–verb–object; the two types account for more than 87% of natural languages with a preferred order).[3]
Languages that have SOV structure include
- most Indo-Iranian languages (Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindustani, Marathi, Nepali, Pāli, Pashto, Persian, Punjabi, Sindhi, Sinhalese, Zazaki, Kurdish)
- Ainu
- Akkadian
- Amharic
- Armenian
- Assyrian
- Aymara
- Basque
- Burmese
- Burushaski
- Cherokee
- Dakota
- all Dravidian languages (Brahui, Duruwa, Gondi, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Tulu)
- Dogon languages
- Elamite
- Ancient Greek
- Hajong
- Hittite
- Hopi
- Ijoid languages
- Itelmen
- Japanese
- Hachijo
- Ryukyuan
- Korean
- Classical Latin
- Lakota
- Manchu
- Mande languages
- Meeteilon
- Mongolian
- Navajo
- Newari
- Nivkh
- Nobiin
- Omaha
- Quechua
- Senufo languages
- Seri
- Sicilian
- Sunuwar
- Somali and virtually all other Cushitic languages
- Sumerian
- Tibetan and nearly all other Tibeto-Burman languages
- Tigrinya
- Turkic languages
- almost all Uto-Aztecan languages
- Yukaghir
- Zazaki
- virtually all Caucasian languages.
Standard Mandarin is generally SVO but common constructions with verbal complements require SOV or OSV. Some Romance languages are SVO, but when the object is an enclitic pronoun, word order allows for SOV (see the examples below). German and Dutch are considered SVO in conventional typology and SOV in generative grammar. They can be considered SOV but with V2 word order as an overriding rule for the finite verb in main clauses, which results in SVO in some cases and SOV in others. For example, in German, a basic sentence such as "Ich sage etwas über Karl" ("I say something about Karl") is in SVO word order. Non-finite verbs are placed at the end, however, since V2 only applies to the finite verb: "Ich will etwas über Karl sagen" ("I want to say something about Karl"). In a subordinate clause, the finite verb is not affected by V2, and also appears at the end of the sentence, resulting in full SOV order: "Ich sage, dass Karl einen Gürtel gekauft hat." (Word-for-word: "I say that Karl a belt bought has.")
A rare example of SOV word order in English is "I (subject) thee (object) wed (verb)" in the wedding vow "With this ring, I thee wed."[4]
Properties Edit
SOV languages have a strong tendency to use postpositions rather than prepositions, to place auxiliary verbs after the action verb, to place genitive noun phrases before the possessed noun, to place a name before a title or honorific ("James Uncle" and "Johnson Doctor" rather than "Uncle James" and "Doctor Johnson") and to have subordinators appear at the end of subordinate clauses. They have a weaker but significant tendency to place demonstrative adjectives before the nouns they modify. Relative clauses preceding the nouns to which they refer usually signals SOV word order, but the reverse does not hold: SOV languages feature prenominal and postnominal relative clauses roughly equally. SOV languages also seem to exhibit a tendency towards using a time–manner–place ordering of adpositional phrases.
In linguistic typology, one can usefully distinguish two types of SOV languages in terms of their type of marking:
- dependent-marking has case markers to distinguish the subject and the object, which allows it to use the variant OSV word order without ambiguity. This type usually places adjectives and numerals before the nouns they modify, and is exclusively suffixing without prefixes. SOV languages of this first type include Japanese and Tamil.
- head-marking distinguishes subject and object by affixes on the verb rather than markers on the nouns. It also differs from the dependent-marking SOV language in using prefixes as well as suffixes, usually for tense and possession. Adjectives in this type are much more verb-like than in dependent-marking SOV languages, and hence they usually follow the nouns. In most SOV languages with a significant level of head-marking or verb-like adjectives, numerals and related quantifiers (like "all", "every") also follow the nouns they modify. Languages of this type include Navajo and Seri.
In practice, of course, the distinction between these two types is far from sharp. Many SOV languages are substantially double-marking and tend to exhibit properties intermediate between the two idealised types above.
Many languages that have shifted to SVO word order from earlier SOV retain (at least to an extent) the properties: for example, the Finnish language (high usage of postpositions etc.)
Examples Edit
Albanian Edit
This sequence (SOV) occurs only in the poetic language.
Agimi
Agimi
Subject
librin
the book
Object
e mori
took
Verb
Agimi took the book. (It was Agimi who took the book)
Azerbaijani Edit
Ümid
Umid
Subject
ağac
tree
Object
əkəcək
will plant
Verb
Umid will plant a tree.
Armenian Edit
Իմ
Im
my
անունը
anunə
name
Subject
Շուշանիկ
Šušanik
Shushanik
Object
է
ē
is
Verb
My name is Shushanik.
Basque Edit
Basque in short sentences, usually, subject or agent–object–verb; in long sentences, usually, subject or agent-verb-objects):
Enekok
Eneko (+ERG)
Agent
sagarra
the apple
Object
ekarri
brought (to bring)
Verb
du
AUX has
Eneko has brought the apple
Eneritzek
Eneritz (+ERG)
Parts
eskatu
asked for
Agent
du
AUX has
Verb
+ + +
+ + +
Objects
Eneritz requested the book nobody wanted to read
Bengali Edit
আমি
ami
ami
I.SUBJ
Subject
ভাত
bʰat
bhat
rice.OBJ
Object
খাই
kʰai
khai
eat.PRES
Verb
I eat rice.
Burmese Edit
Burmese is an analytic language.
ငါ
ŋà
nga
I
Subject
က
ɡa̰
ga.
SUBJ
ရေသန့်ဘူး
seʔkù bú
se'ku bu:
water bottle
Object
ကို
ɡò
gou
OBJ
ဖွင့်
pʰwìɴ
hpwin.
open
Verb
တယ်
dè
de
PRES
I open the water bottle.
Chinese Edit
Generally, Chinese varieties all feature SVO word order. However, especially in Standard Mandarin, SOV is tolerated as well. There is even a special particle 把 (bǎ) used to form an SOV sentence.[5]
The following example that uses 把 is controversially labelled as SOV. 把 may be interpreted as a verb, meaning "to hold". However, it does not mean to hold something literally or physically. Rather, the object is held figuratively, and then another verb is acted on the object.[citation needed]
SOV structure is widely used in railway contact in order to clarify the objective of the order.[6]
我
Wǒ
I
Subject
把
bǎ
sign for moving object before the verb
Sign
苹果
píngguǒ
apple
Object
吃了.
chīle.
ate
Verb
I ate the apple. (The apple we were talking about earlier)
Dutch Edit
Dutch is SOV combined with V2 word order. The non-finite verb (infinitive or participle) remains in final position, but the finite (i.e. inflected) verb is moved to the second position. Simple verbs look like SVO, non-finite verbs (participles, infinitives) and compound verbs follow this pattern:
Ik
I
subject
wil
want to
FIN.verb
je
you
object
helpen
help
NFIN.verb
I want to help you.
Pure SOV order is found in subordinate clauses:
Ik
I
subject
zei
said
FIN.verb
dat
that
SUBORD.CONJ
ik
I
subject
je
you
object
wil
want
FIN.verb
helpen
to help
NFIN.verb
I said that I want to help you.
French Edit
The French language usually uses a subject–verb–object structure but places proclitics before the verb when using most pronouns, which is sometimes mistaken for SOV word order.
Nous
We
Subject
les-avons.
them/those-have
Object-Verb
We have those/them
Georgian Edit
The Georgian language is not extremely rigid with regards to word order, but is typically either SOV or SVO.
მე
me
I
Subject
ლექსი
leksi
poem
Object
დავწერე.
davc'ere
[I]wrote
Verb
I wrote (a) poem.
German Edit
German is SOV combined with V2 word order. The non-finite verb (infinitive or participle) remains in final position, but the finite (i.e. inflected) verb is moved to the second position. Simple verbs look like SVO, compound verbs follow this pattern:
Er
He
Subject
hat
has
Auxiliary
einen
an
Apfel
apple
Object
gegessen.
eaten.
Verb
He has eaten an apple.
The word order changes also depending on whether the phrase is a main clause or a dependent clause. In dependent clauses, the word order is always entirely SOV (cf. also Inversion):
Weil
Because
Conjunction
Horst
Horst
Subject
einen
an
Apfel
apple
Object
gegessen
eaten
Verb
hat.
has.
Auxiliary
Because Horst has eaten an apple.
Gothic Edit
𐌲𐌿𐌼𐌰
Guma
man
Subject
𐌵𐌹𐌽𐍉𐌽
qinon
woman
Object
𐍆𐍂𐌹𐌾𐍉𐌸.
frijoþ.
loves.
Verb
The man loves the woman.
Greek (Classical) Edit
ὁ
ho
The
ανήρ
anḗr
man
Subject
τὸν
tòn
the
παĩδα
paîda
child
Object
φιλεῖ.
phileî
loves.
Verb
The man loves the child.
Hajong Edit
Moi
I
Subject
hugre'm
guava
re'
ACC
Object
kha
eat
sei.
PAST.IND
Verb
I ate the guava.
re is a particle that indicates the accusative case and 'sei' indicates past tense declarative. Here, e is pronounced as the 'i' in 'girl' and 'ei' is pronounced as the 'ay' in 'say'.
Hindi Edit
मैं
main
I
Subject
एक
ek
an
सेब
seb
apple
Object
खाता हूँ
khaataa hun
eat.PRES.M
Verb
I eat an apple.
Hungarian Edit
Hungarian word order is free, although the meaning slightly changes. Almost all permutations of the following sample are valid, but with stress on different parts of the meaning.
Pista
Pista
Subject
kenyeret
bread
Object
szeletel
slices
Verb
Pista slices bread.
Italian Edit
The Italian language usually uses a subject–verb–object structure, but when an enclitic pronoun is used, this comes before the verb and the auxiliary.
Io
I
Subject
lo
it
Object
sto
am
Auxiliary
mangiando
eating
Verb
I am eating it
Japanese Edit
The basic principle in Japanese word order is that modifiers come before what they modify. For example, in the sentence "こんな夢を見た。" (Konna yume o mita),[7] the direct object "こんな夢" (this sort of dream) modifies the verb "見た" (saw, or in this case had). Beyond this, the order of the elements in a sentence is relatively free. However, because the topic/subject is typically found in sentence-initial position and the verb is typically in sentence-final position, Japanese is considered an SOV language.[8]
ジョン
Jon
John
Subject
は
wa
TOP
台所
daidokoro
kitchen
で
de
LOC
本
hon
book
Object
を
o
ACC
読み
yomi
read
Verb
ました。
mashita
PAST
John read a book in the kitchen.
A closely related quality of the language is that it is broadly head-final.[10]
Kannada Edit
ನಾನು
Naanu
I
Subject
ಮನೆ
mane
the house
Object
ಕಟ್ಟಿದೆನು
kaTTidenu
built
Verb
I built the house.
Kashmiri Edit
Like German and Dutch, the Indo-Aryan language Kashmiri is SOV combined with V2 word order. The non-finite verb (infinitive or participle) remains in final position, but the finite (i.e. inflected) part of the verb appears in second position. Simple verbs look like SVO, whereas auxiliated verbs are discontinuous and adhere to this pattern:
کور
kuur
girl
Subject
چہے
chhi
is
Auxiliary
ثونٹہ
tsũũţh
apples
Object
کہیوان
khyevaan
eating
Verb
The girl is eating apples.
Given that Kashmiri is a V2 language, if the word tsũũţh 'apple' comes first then the subject kuur 'girl' must follow the auxiliary chhi 'is': tsũũţh chhi kuur khyevaan [Lit. "Apples is girl eating."]
Also, the word order changes depending on whether the phrase is in a main clause or in certain kinds of dependent clause. For instance, in relative clauses, the word order is SOVAux:
| Main clause + Subordinate Clause | میے ان سوہ کور یوس ثونٹہ کہیوان چہے | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transcription | => | mye | eny | swa kuur | => | ywas | tsũũţh | khyevaan | chhi |
| Gloss | => | I | brought | that girl | => | who | apples | eating | is |
| Parts | Main clause => | Subject | Verb | Object | Relative clause => | Subject | Object | Verb | Auxiliary |
| Translation | I brought the girl who is eating apples. | ||||||||
Kazakh Edit
Дастан
Dastan
Dastan
Subject
кітап
kitap
a book
Object
оқыды
oqıdı
read
Verb
Dastan read a book.
Like in Japanese, OSV is possible too. (Кітапті Дастан оқыды.)
Korean Edit
내–가
Nae-ga
I-SBJ
Subject
상자–를
sangja-reul
box-OBJ
Object
열–ㄴ–다.
yeonda.
open-PRES-IND
Verb
I open the box.
–가/–이 -ga/-i is a particle that indicates the subject. –를/–을 -(r)eul is a particle that indicates the object. 나 na "I" is changed to 내– nae- before –가 -ga, and the verb stem 열– yeol- is changed to 여– yeo- before –ㄴ다 -nda.
Kurdish (Kurmanci) Edit
Ez
I
Subject
xwarin
food
Object
dixwim
eat
Verb
I eat food.
Kurdish (Sorani) Edit
من
I
Subject
خواردن
food
Object
دەخۆم
eat
Verb
I eat food.
Kyrgyz Edit
Биз
Biz
We
Subject
алма
alma
apple
Object
жедик
jedik
ate
Verb
We ate an apple
Latin Edit
Classical Latin was an inflected language and had a very flexible word order and sentence structure, but the most usual word order in formal prose was SOV.
Servus
Slave.NOM
Subject
puellam
girl.ACC
Object
amat
loves
Verb
The slave loves the girl.
Again, there are multiple valid translations (such as "a slave") that do not affect the overall analysis.
Malayalam Edit
ഞാൻ
ñān
I
Subject
പുസ്തകം
pustakam̥
(the) book
Object
എ
(-e)
ACC
എടുത്തു
eṭuttu
took
Verb
I took the book.
- Pustakam̥ + -e = pustakatte (പുസ്തകത്തെ)
Manchu Edit
| Sentence | ᠪᡳ ᠪᡠᡩᠠ ᠪᡝ ᠵᡝᠮᠪᡳ |
|---|---|
| Gloss | ᠪᡳ bi I Subject ᠪᡠᡩᠠ buda meal Object ᠪᡝ be ACC
ᠵᡝᠮᠪᡳ jembi eat Verb I eat a meal. |
Marathi Edit
तो
Tō
he
Subject
बियाणे
biyāṇē
seeds
Object
पेरतो
pēratō
sows
Verb
He sows seeds.
Meitei Edit
ꯑꯩ
Ei
I
Subject
ꯐꯨꯠꯕꯣꯜ
football
football
Object
ꯁꯥꯅꯩ
sanei
play
Verb
I play football.
Mongolian Edit
Би ном уншив.
Би
Bi
I
Subject
ном
nom
a book
Object
уншив
unshiv
read
Verb
I read a book.
Nepali Edit
म
ma
I
Subject
किताब
kitāb
book
Object
पढ्छु
paḍhchhu
read.PRES
Verb
I read a book.
Odia Edit
ମୁଁ
mun
I
Subject
ଏକ
eka
an
ସେଓ
seo
apple
Object
ଖାଏ
khaae
eat.PRES.M
Verb
I eat an apple.
Ossetian Edit
Алан
Alan
Alan
Subject
чиныг
činyg
book
Object
кæсы
kæsy
reads
Verb
Alan reads a book.
Pashto Edit
زۀ
Zə
Subject
کار
kaar
Object
کوم
kawəm
Verb
I do the work.
Persian Edit
من
man
I
Subject
سیب
sib
apple
Object
میخورم
mikhoram
eat.1.PRES
Verb
I am eating an apple.
Portuguese Edit
Portuguese is an SVO language, but it has some SOV constructs.
In case of proclisis:
Todos
Everybody
Subject
aqui
here
te
you.PRCL
Object
amam
love
Verb
Everybody here loves you.
Aquilo
It/that
Subject
me
me.PRCL
Object
entristeceu
saddened
Verb
It saddened me.
When using a temporal adverb, optionally with the negative:
Nós
We
Subject
já
already
[não]
[not]
os
them.MASC
Object
temos
have
Verb
(Positive) We already have them.
(Negative) We do not have them anymore.
Nós
We
Subject
ainda
still
[não]
[not]
os
them.MASC
Object
temos
have
Verb
(Positive) We still have them.
(Negative) We do not have them yet.
There is a suffix construction for the future and conditional tenses:
Eu
I
Subject
fá-lo-ei
do-it-will
Object
amanhã
tomorrow
Verb
I will do it tomorrow.
SVO form: Eu hei-de fazê-lo amanhã or eu farei o mesmo amanhã
Punjabi Edit
Punjabi may be characterised as following a Subject—Object—Verb typology overall, but some flexibility is permitted, and this tendency does not follow in sentences involving personal pronouns. Examples are shown here in both Shahmukhi (top, right-to-left) and Gurmukhi (bottom, left-to-right). The word forms used reflect those typical of spoken language. For Shahmukhi, vocalised forms with vowel diacritics have been used to explicitly indicate the forms used; in typical writing these are omitted in most words where regular patterns allow this information to be inferred contextually.
The following sentence exhibits the typical SOV word order tendency. The verb phrase is in retrospective perfect participle form, indicating completion of the action, and takes on the feminine plural suffixes in agreement with the gender and number of the object. The subject here is a masculine plural form; in this context it does not require agreement from the verb.
چاچے
ਚਾਚੇ
cāce
Paternal uncles
Subject
چپھّیاں
ਜੱਫੀਆਂ
japphīā̃
hugs
Object
دِتِّیاں گِیاں
ਦਿੱਤੀਆਂ ਗੀਆਂ
dittīā̃ gīā̃
given gone
Verb Phrase
The paternal uncles have given hugs.
By contrast, in the following sentence the person involved, referred to by a first-person pronoun, is the object rather than the subject. The significance of people as a semantic category takes precedent over the SOV word order tendency, and the person is typically first even in sentences where that person is the object. The pronoun "mainū̃" has the postposition "nū̃" agglutinated to it, approximately meaning "to." Abstract concepts like desires and emotions typically come "to" people as agentive subjects.
مینُوں
ਮੈਨੂੰ
mainū̃
Me-to
Object
سیب
ਸੇਬ
seb
apple
Subject
چاہِیدا
ਚਾਹੀਦਾ
cāhīda
desiring
Verb
اے
ਏ
ae
exists
Copula
I want an apple.
The copula in Punjabi is extraverbal in function. While it can constitute the predicate of a sentence on its own, it does not enter the verb phrase when used alongside a full lexical verb. Instead, it acts as a marker of existence remote to or near to the situation. Some western dialects such as Pothohari have forms of the copula to indicate occurrence of a situation in the future.[11]
Quechua Edit
Quechuan languages have standard SOV word order. The following example is from Bolivian Quechua.
Ñuqa-qa
I-TOP
Subject
papa-ta
potato-ACC
Object
mikhu-rqa-ni
eat-PAST-1SG
Verb
I ate potatoes.
Sanskrit Edit
Sanskrit, like its predecessor, Vedic, is an inflected language and very flexible in word order; it allows all possible word combinations. However, it is generally considered a SOV language.
Somali Edit
Somali generally uses the subject–object–verb structure when speaking formally.
Aniga
I
Subject
baa
FOC
albaab(ka)
(the) door
Object
furay
opened
Verb
I opened the door
Spanish Edit
The Spanish language usually uses a subject–verb–object structure, but when an enclitic pronoun is used, this comes before the verb and the auxiliary. Sometimes, in dual-verb constructions involving the infinitive and the gerund, the enclitic pronoun can be put before both verbs, or attached to the end of the second verb.
Yo
I
Subject
lo
it
Object
como
eat
Verb
I eat it
Talysh Edit
Merd
Man
Subject
kitob
book
Object
handedə
reading
Verb
The man is reading a book.
Tamil Edit
Tamil being a strongly head-final language, the basic word-order is SOV. However, since it is highly inflected, word order is flexible and is used for pragmatic purposes. That is, fronting a word in a sentence adds emphasis on it; for instance, a VSO order would indicate greater emphasis on the verb, the action, than on the subject or the object. However, such word-orders are highly marked, and the basic order remains SOV.
நான்
Nān
I-NOM
Subject
பெட்டியை
peṭṭi-yai
box-ACC
Object
திறப்பேன்.
tiṟa-pp-ēn.
open-FUT-1SG
Verb
I will open the box.
Telugu Edit
నేను
Nēnu
I-NOM
Subject
ఇంటికి
iṇṭi-ki
home-DAT
Object
వెళ్తున్నాను
veḷ-tunnā-nu
go-PRES-1SG
Verb
I am going home.
Tigrinya Edit
The Tigrinya language usually uses a subject–verb–object structure.
ዳኒኤል
danī’ēli
Daniel
Subject
ኩዑሶ
ku‘uso
ball
Object
ቀሊዑ
k’elī‘u
kicked
Verb
Daniel kicked the ball.
Turkish Edit
Murat
Murat
Subject
elmayı
apple
Object
yedi
ate
Verb
Murat ate the apple.
Like all other Turkic languages, Turkish has flexibility in word order, so any order is possible. For example, in addition to the SOV order above, this sentence could also be constructed as OSV (Elmayı Murat yedi.), OVS (Elmayı yedi Murat.), VSO (Yedi Murat elmayı.), VOS (Yedi elmayı Murat.), or SVO (Murat yedi elmayı.), but these other orders carry a connotation of emphasis of importance on either the subject, object, or the verb. The SOV order is the "default" one that does not connote particular emphasis on any part of the sentence.
Udmurt Edit
мoн
mon
I
Subject
книгa
kniga
a book
Object
лыӟӥcькo.
lyjis'ko
to read
Verb
I am reading a book.
Urdu Edit
میں
main
I
Subject
نے
ne
ERG
اسے
use
him/her
Object
دیکھا
dekha
saw
Verb
I saw him/her.
Uzbek Edit
Anvar
Anvar.NOM
Subject
Xivaga
to Khiva.DAT
Object
ketdi.
went
Verb
Anvar went to Khiva.
The marker "ga" is a dative case marker for the object that precedes it. Due to flexibility in word order in Uzbek, it is possible to transform the sentence into OSV as well ("Xivaga Anvar ketdi" / "It was Anvar who went to Khiva").
Yi Edit
ꉢ
nga
I
Subject
ꌧꅪ
syp-hni
(an) apple
Object
ꋠ
zze.
(to) eat
Verb
I eat an apple.
Zazaki Edit
The Zazaki language usually uses a subject–object-verb structure,[12] but it sometimes uses subject-verb-object too.
O
He
Subject
ey
it
Object
kırışeno
carries
Verb
He carries it.
Zarma Edit
Hama
Hama
Subject
na
COMP
mo
rice
Object
ŋwa
eat
Verb
Hama ate rice.
See also Edit
References Edit
- ^ Meyer, Charles F. (2010). Introducing English Linguistics International (Student ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Tomlin, Russell S. (1986). Basic Word Order: Functional Principles. London: Croom Helm. p. 22. ISBN 9780709924999. OCLC 13423631.
- ^ Crystal, David (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55967-7.
- ^ Andreas Fischer, "'With this ring I thee wed': The verbs to wed and to marry in the history of English". Language History and Linguistic Modelling: A Festschrift for Jacek Fisiak on his 60th Birthday. Ed. Raymond Hickey and Stanislaw Puppel. Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 101 (Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997), pp.467-81
- ^ . ChineseBoost.com. 28 February 2015. Archived from the original on 2022-01-21.
- ^ 车机联控语言——铁路行车领域"共同语言"的研究 (in Chinese). from the original on 2020-12-18 – via Baidu.
- ^ Sōseki, Natsume (July 26, 1988) [First published July 25, 1908]. 夢十夜 [Ten Nights of Dreams] (in Japanese). Chikuma Shobō. ISBN 4-480-02170-1 – via Aozora Bunko.
- ^ Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (March 1999) [First published March 1986]. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. The Japan Times, Ltd. p. 16. ISBN 4-7890-0454-6.
- ^ Futagi, Yoko (October 2004). Japanese Focus Particles at the Syntax-Semantics Interface (PDF) (PhD). Rutgers University–New Brunswick. p. 23. OCLC 60853899. Retrieved 2021-08-01.
- ^ Siegel, Melanie; Bender, Emily M. (2004). "Head-Initial Constructions in Japanese" (PDF). In Müller, Stefan (ed.). Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Center for Computational Linguistics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications. pp. 244–260.
- ^ Mangat Rai Bhardwaj (2016). Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-79385-9. LCCN 2015042069. OCLC 948602857. OL 35828315M. Wikidata Q23831241.
- ^ Ahmadi, S. (2020, December). Building a Corpus for the Zaza–Gorani Language Family. In Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on NLP for Similar Languages, Varieties and Dialects (pp. 70-78).