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Poetry

March 14, 2023

This article is about the art form. For other uses, see Poetry (disambiguation) and Poem (disambiguation).
"Love poem" redirects here. For the EP, see Love Poem (EP). For the IU song, see Love Poem (song).

Poetry (derived from the Greek poiesis, "making"), also called verse,[note 1] is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic[1][2][3] qualities of language − such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre − to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, a prosaic ostensible meaning. A poem is a literary composition, written by a poet, using this principle.

The Parnassus (1511) by Raphael – atop Mount Parnassus, 18 ancient and modern poets recite in the company of the nine Muses.

Poetry has a long and varied history, evolving differentially across the globe. It dates back at least to prehistoric times with hunting poetry in Africa and to panegyric and elegiac court poetry of the empires of the Nile, Niger, and Volta River valleys.[4] Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa occurs among the Pyramid Texts written during the 25th century BCE. The earliest surviving Western Asian epic poetry, the Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in Sumerian.

Early poems in the Eurasian continent evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, as well as religious hymns (the Sanskrit Rigveda, the Zoroastrian Gathas, the Hurrian songs, and the Hebrew Psalms); or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Egyptian Story of Sinuhe, the Indian epic poetry, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient Greek attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song, and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form, and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from more objectively-informative prosaic writing.

Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretations of words, or to evoke emotive responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia, and rhythm may convey musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony, and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, and metonymy[5] establish a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.

Some poetry types are unique to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz, or Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter. There are, however, traditions, such as Biblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,[6] testing the principle of euphony itself or altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.[7][8] In an increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles, and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Poets have contributed to the evolution of the linguistic, expressive, and utilitarian qualities of their languages.

A Western cultural tradition (extending at least from Homer to Rilke) associates the production of poetry with inspiration – often by a Muse (either classical or contemporary).

In many poems, the lyrics are spoken by a character, who is called the speaker. This concept differentiates the speaker (character) from the poet (author), which is usually an important distinction: for example, if the poem runs "I killed a man in Reno", it is the speaker who is the murderer, not the poet himself.

History

Main articles: History of poetry and Literary theory

Early works

Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, and developed from folk epics and other oral genres.[9][10] Others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing.[11]

The oldest surviving epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, dates from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq), and was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, on papyrus.[12] The Istanbul tablet #2461, dating to c. 2000 BCE, describes an annual rite in which the king symbolically married and mated with the goddess Inanna to ensure fertility and prosperity; some have labelled it the world's oldest love poem.[13][14] An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe (c. 1800 BCE).[15]

Other ancient epics includes the Greek Iliad and the Odyssey; the Persian Avestan books (the Yasna); the Roman national epic, Virgil's Aeneid (written between 29 and 19 BCE); and the Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Epic poetry appears to have been composed in poetic form as an aid to memorization and oral transmission in ancient societies.[11][16]

Other forms of poetry, including such ancient collections of religious hymns as the Indian Sanskrit-language Rigveda, the Avestan Gathas, the Hurrian songs, and the Hebrew Psalms, possibly developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the Classic of Poetry (Shijing), were initially lyrics.[17] The Shijing, with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopher Confucius and is considered to be one of the official Confucian classics. His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source in ancient music theory.[18]

The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry.[19] Some ancient societies, such as China's through the Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance.[20] More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in content spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap.[21]

Until recently, the earliest examples of stressed poetry had been thought to be works composed by Romanos the Melodist (fl. 6th century CE). In 2021, however, Tim Whitmarsh wrote that an inscribed Greek poem that he had been studying predated Romanos' stressed poetry. [22][23][24]

  •  

    The oldest known love poem. Sumerian terracotta tablet #2461 from Nippur, Iraq. Ur III period, 2037–2029 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul

  •  

    The philosopher Confucius was influential in the developed approach to poetry and ancient music theory.

  •  

    An early Chinese poetics, the Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn (孔子詩論), discussing the Shijing (Classic of Poetry)

Western traditions

Classical thinkers in the West employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry—the epic, the comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the perceived underlying purposes of the genre.[25] Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry.[26]

Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age,[27] as well as in Europe during the Renaissance.[28] Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to prose, which they generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure.[29]

This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought-process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic "negative capability".[30] This "romantic" approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the 20th century.[31]

During the 18th and 19th centuries, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade.[32] In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered.[33]

20th-century and 21st-century disputes

Some 20th-century literary theorists rely less on the ostensible opposition of prose and poetry, instead focusing on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates.[34] The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media. Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided.[35]

The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the 20th century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic poetry. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.[36]

Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text (hermeneutics), and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read.[37] Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that once made sense within a tradition such as the Western canon.[38]

The early 21st-century poetic tradition appears to continue to strongly orient itself to earlier precursor poetic traditions such as those initiated by Whitman, Emerson, and Wordsworth. The literary critic Geoffrey Hartman (1929–2016) used the phrase "the anxiety of demand" to describe the contemporary response to older poetic traditions as "being fearful that the fact no longer has a form",[39] building on a trope introduced by Emerson. Emerson had maintained that in the debate concerning poetic structure where either "form" or "fact" could predominate, that one need simply "Ask the fact for the form." This has been challenged at various levels by other literary scholars such as Harold Bloom (1930–2019), who has stated: "The generation of poets who stand together now, mature and ready to write the major American verse of the twenty-first century, may yet be seen as what Stevens called 'a great shadow's last embellishment,' the shadow being Emerson's."[40]

Elements

Prosody

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related.[41] Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter.[42]

Rhythm

Main articles: Timing (linguistics), tone (linguistics), and Pitch accent

The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed language. Latin, Catalan, French, Leonese, Galician and Spanish are called syllable-timed languages. Stress-timed languages include English, Russian and, generally, German.[43] Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages can rely on either pitch or tone. Some languages with a pitch accent are Vedic Sanskrit or Ancient Greek. Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese and most Subsaharan languages.[44]

Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided).[45] In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter.[46] Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.[47]

The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences.[48] Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm.[49]

Classical Chinese poetics, based on the tone system of Middle Chinese, recognized two kinds of tones: the level (平 píng) tone and the oblique (仄 zè) tones, a category consisting of the rising (上 sháng) tone, the departing (去 qù) tone and the entering (入 rù) tone. Certain forms of poetry placed constraints on which syllables were required to be level and which oblique.

The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence rather than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry.[50] Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm.[51]

Meter

Main article: Scansion
 
Attic red-figure kathalos painting of Sappho from c. 470 BCE[52]

In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line.[53] The number of metrical feet in a line are described using Greek terminology: tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet, for example.[54] Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb". This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter", comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl". Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod.[55] Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a number of poets, including William Shakespeare and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, respectively.[56] The most common metrical feet in English are:[57]

 
Homer: Roman bust, based on Greek original[58]
  • iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. des-cribe, in-clude, re-tract)
  • trochee—one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. pic-ture, flow-er)
  • dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g. an-no-tate, sim-i-lar)
  • anapaest—two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. com-pre-hend)
  • spondee—two stressed syllables together (e.g. heart-beat, four-teen)
  • pyrrhic—two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)

There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb, a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry.[55] Languages which use vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.[59]

Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse.[60] Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables.[61]

There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language.[62] Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress.[63]

Metrical patterns

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearean iambic pentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to the anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular.[64] Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur, or occurs to a much lesser extent, in English.[65]

Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:

Rhyme, alliteration, assonance

Main articles: Rhyme, Alliterative verse, and Assonance

Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element.[71] They can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic.[72]

Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme.[73] The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.[74]

Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of words. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures.

Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry but goes back to the Homeric epic.[75] Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry.[76] Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element.[74]

Rhyming schemes

Main article: Rhyme scheme
 
Divine Comedy: Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light.

In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme.[77] Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain).[78] Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas.[79] Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.[80]

Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line do not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "aa-ba" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form.[81] Similarly, an "a-bb-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet.[82] Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-bc" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima.[83] The types and use of differing rhyming schemes are discussed further in the main article.

Form in poetry

Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognizable structures or forms and write in free verse. Free verse is, however, not "formless" but composed of a series of more subtle, more flexible prosodic elements.[84] Thus poetry remains, in all its styles, distinguished from prose by form;[85] some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in all varieties of free verse, however much such structures may appear to have been ignored.[86] Similarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect.[87]

Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and calligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see the following section), as in the sonnet.

Lines and stanzas

Main articles: Line (poetry) and Stanza

Poetry is often separated into lines on a page, in a process known as lineation. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone.[88] See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines.

Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone.[89]

 
Blok's Russian poem, "Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" ("Night, street, lamp, drugstore"), on a wall in Leiden

Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form.[90] Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.[91]

In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas.[92]

In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd-numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.[93]

Visual presentation

Main article: Visual poetry

Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem.[94] In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems.[95]

With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition. At times, this complements the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing.[96][97]

Diction

Main article: Poetic diction

Poetic diction treats the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form.[98] Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry.[99][100] Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns, as favoured in much late-20th-century prosody,[101] through to highly ornate uses of language, as in medieval and Renaissance poetry.[102]

Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor."[103] Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone.[104] On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.[105]

Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the West during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 BCE, are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages.[106] Other notables examples include the Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory.[107]

Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku.[108] Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes.[109]

Forms

See also: Category: Poetic forms
 
Statue of runic singer Petri Shemeikka at Kolmikulmanpuisto Park in Sortavala, Karelia

Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle.[110] Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of the poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the glossary.

Sonnet

Main article: Sonnet

Among the most common forms of poetry, popular from the Late Middle Ages on, is the sonnet, which by the 13th century had become standardized as fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. By the 14th century and the Italian Renaissance, the form had further crystallized under the pen of Petrarch, whose sonnets were translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt, who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature.[111] A traditional Italian or Petrarchan sonnet follows the rhyme scheme ABBA, ABBA, CDECDE, though some variation, perhaps the most common being CDCDCD, especially within the final six lines (or sestet), is common.[112] The English (or Shakespearean) sonnet follows the rhyme scheme ABAB, CDCD, EFEF, GG, introducing a third quatrain (grouping of four lines), a final couplet, and a greater amount of variety in rhyme than is usually found in its Italian predecessors. By convention, sonnets in English typically use iambic pentameter, while in the Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters.

Sonnets of all types often make use of a volta, or "turn," a point in the poem at which an idea is turned on its head, a question is answered (or introduced), or the subject matter is further complicated. This volta can often take the form of a "but" statement contradicting or complicating the content of the earlier lines. In the Petrarchan sonnet, the turn tends to fall around the division between the first two quatrains and the sestet, while English sonnets usually place it at or near the beginning of the closing couplet.

Sonnets are particularly associated with high poetic diction, vivid imagery, and romantic love, largely due to the influence of Petrarch as well as of early English practitioners such as Edmund Spenser (who gave his name to the Spenserian sonnet), Michael Drayton, and Shakespeare, whose sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with twenty being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse.[113] However, the twists and turns associated with the volta allow for a logical flexibility applicable to many subjects.[114] Poets from the earliest centuries of the sonnet to the present have used the form to address topics related to politics (John Milton, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Claude McKay), theology (John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins), war (Wilfred Owen, e.e. cummings), and gender and sexuality (Carol Ann Duffy). Further, postmodern authors such as Ted Berrigan and John Berryman have challenged the traditional definitions of the sonnet form, rendering entire sequences of "sonnets" that often lack rhyme, a clear logical progression, or even a consistent count of fourteen lines.

Shi

Main article: Shi (poetry)
 
Du Fu, "On Visiting the Temple of Laozi"

Shi (simplified Chinese: 诗; traditional Chinese: 詩; pinyin: shī; Wade–Giles: shih) Is the main type of Classical Chinese poetry.[115] Within this form of poetry the most important variations are "folk song" styled verse (yuefu), "old style" verse (gushi), "modern style" verse (jintishi). In all cases, rhyming is obligatory. The Yuefu is a folk ballad or a poem written in the folk ballad style, and the number of lines and the length of the lines could be irregular. For the other variations of shi poetry, generally either a four line (quatrain, or jueju) or else an eight-line poem is normal; either way with the even numbered lines rhyming. The line length is scanned by an according number of characters (according to the convention that one character equals one syllable), and are predominantly either five or seven characters long, with a caesura before the final three syllables. The lines are generally end-stopped, considered as a series of couplets, and exhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device.[116] The "old style" verse (Gushi) is less formally strict than the jintishi, or regulated verse, which, despite the name "new style" verse actually had its theoretical basis laid as far back as Shen Yue (441–513 CE), although not considered to have reached its full development until the time of Chen Zi'ang (661–702 CE).[117] A good example of a poet known for his Gushi poems is Li Bai (701–762 CE). Among its other rules, the jintishi rules regulate the tonal variations within a poem, including the use of set patterns of the four tones of Middle Chinese. The basic form of jintishi (sushi) has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics.[118][119] One of the masters of the form was Du Fu (712–770 CE), who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century).[120]

Villanelle

Main article: Villanelle

The villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme.[121] The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late 19th century by such poets as Dylan Thomas,[122] W. H. Auden,[123] and Elizabeth Bishop.[124]

Limerick

Main article: Limerick (poetry)

A limerick is a poem that consists of five lines and is often humorous. Rhythm is very important in limericks for the first, second and fifth lines must have seven to ten syllables. However, the third and fourth lines only need five to seven. Lines 1, 2 and 5 rhyme with each other, and lines 3 and 4 rhyme with each other. Practitioners of the limerick included Edward Lear, Lord Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Robert Louis Stevenson.[125]

Tanka

Main article: Tanka

Tanka is a form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, with five sections totalling 31 on (phonological units identical to morae), structured in a 5-7-5-7-7 pattern.[126] There is generally a shift in tone and subject matter between the upper 5-7-5 phrase and the lower 7-7 phrase. Tanka were written as early as the Asuka period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (fl. late 7th century), at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form.[127] Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry (which was generally referred to as "waka"), and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. By the tenth century, tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, to the point where the originally general term waka ("Japanese poetry") came to be used exclusively for tanka. Tanka are still widely written today.[128]

Haiku

Main article: Haiku

Haiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, which evolved in the 17th century from the hokku, or opening verse of a renku.[129] Generally written in a single vertical line, the haiku contains three sections totalling 17 on (morae), structured in a 5-7-5 pattern. Traditionally, haiku contain a kireji, or cutting word, usually placed at the end of one of the poem's three sections, and a kigo, or season-word.[130] The most famous exponent of the haiku was Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694). An example of his writing:[131]

富士の風や扇にのせて江戸土産
fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage
the wind of Mt. Fuji
I've brought on my fan!
a gift from Edo

Khlong

Main article: Thai poetry

The khlong (โคลง, [kʰlōːŋ]) is among the oldest Thai poetic forms. This is reflected in its requirements on the tone markings of certain syllables, which must be marked with mai ek (ไม้เอก, Thai pronunciation: [máj èːk], ◌่) or mai tho (ไม้โท, [máj tʰōː], ◌้). This was likely derived from when the Thai language had three tones (as opposed to today's five, a split which occurred during the Ayutthaya Kingdom period), two of which corresponded directly to the aforementioned marks. It is usually regarded as an advanced and sophisticated poetic form.[132]

In khlong, a stanza (bot, บท, Thai pronunciation: [bòt]) has a number of lines (bat, บาท, Thai pronunciation: [bàːt], from Pali and Sanskrit pāda), depending on the type. The bat are subdivided into two wak (วรรค, Thai pronunciation: [wák], from Sanskrit varga).[note 2] The first wak has five syllables, the second has a variable number, also depending on the type, and may be optional. The type of khlong is named by the number of bat in a stanza; it may also be divided into two main types: khlong suphap (โคลงสุภาพ, [kʰlōːŋ sù.pʰâːp]) and khlong dan (โคลงดั้น, [kʰlōːŋ dân]). The two differ in the number of syllables in the second wak of the final bat and inter-stanza rhyming rules.[132]

Khlong si suphap

The khlong si suphap (โคลงสี่สุภาพ, [kʰlōːŋ sìː sù.pʰâːp]) is the most common form still currently employed. It has four bat per stanza (si translates as four). The first wak of each bat has five syllables. The second wak has two or four syllables in the first and third bat, two syllables in the second, and four syllables in the fourth. Mai ek is required for seven syllables and Mai tho is required for four, as shown below. "Dead word" syllables are allowed in place of syllables which require mai ek, and changing the spelling of words to satisfy the criteria is usually acceptable.

Ode

Main article: Ode

Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as Pindar, and Latin, such as Horace. Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins.[133] The ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. The strophe and the antistrophe of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode.[134] Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Arabic poetry.[135]

Ghazal

Main article: Ghazal

The ghazal (also ghazel, gazel, gazal, or gozol) is a form of poetry common in Arabic, Bengali, Persian and Urdu. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line. This refrain may be of one or several syllables and is preceded by a rhyme. Each line has an identical meter. The ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity.[136]

As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu.[137] Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well.[138] Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet.[139] One of the most famous poet in this type of poetry is Hafez, whose poems often include the theme of exposing hypocrisy. His life and poems have been the subject of much analysis, commentary and interpretation, influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing more than any other author.[140][141] The West-östlicher Diwan of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, a collection of lyrical poems, is inspired by the Persian poet Hafez.[142][143][144]

Genres

In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics.[145] Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.[146]

Narrative poetry

Main article: Narrative poetry

Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to human interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed of compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes. Much narrative poetry—such as Scottish and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales.[147]

Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, William Langland, Chaucer, Fernando de Rojas, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe, Alfred Tennyson, and Anne Carson.

Lyric poetry

Main article: Lyric poetry

Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Poems in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions.[148] Notable poets in this genre include Christine de Pizan, John Donne, Charles Baudelaire, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Antonio Machado, and Edna St. Vincent Millay.

Epic poetry

Main article: Epic poetry

Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons.[149] Examples of epic poems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied, Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, the Cantar de Mio Cid, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Lönnrot's Kalevala, Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, Nizami (or Nezami)'s Khamse (Five Books), and the Epic of King Gesar. While the composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be written. The Cantos by Ezra Pound, Helen in Egypt by H.D., and Paterson by William Carlos Williams are examples of modern epics. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize in 1992 to a great extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros.[150]

Satirical poetry

Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal's satires.[151]

The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a reference to Thomas Shadwell).[152] Satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki, Azerbaijan's Sabir, Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, and Korea's Kim Kirim, especially noted for his Gisangdo.

Elegy

Main article: Elegy

An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term "elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poem of mourning. An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry.[153][154]

Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius, Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, Chidiock Tichborne, Edmund Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Milton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Smith, William Cullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Evgeny Baratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, Walt Whitman, Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, William Butler Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.

Verse fable

Main article: Fable

The fable is an ancient literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphised animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns.[155]

Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, Vishnu Sarma, Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson, Biernat of Lublin, Jean de La Fontaine, Ignacy Krasicki, Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás de Iriarte, Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce.

Dramatic poetry

Main articles: Verse drama and dramatic verse, Theatre of ancient Greece, Sanskrit drama, Chinese Opera, and Noh

Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. Greek tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B.C., and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama,[156] just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bianwen verse dramas in China, forerunners of Chinese Opera.[157] East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh. Examples of dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nizami's two famous dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin, Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab, Rumi's Masnavi, Gorgani's tragedy of Vis and Ramin, and Vahshi's tragedy of Farhad. American poets of 20th century revive dramatic poetry, including Ezra Pound in “Sestina: Altaforte,”[158] T.S. Eliot with “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,”.[159][160]

Speculative poetry

Main article: Speculative poetry
 
Poe

Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major sub-classification), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are "beyond reality", whether via extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes seen as the "father of speculative poetry".[161] Poe's most remarkable achievement in the genre was his anticipation, by three-quarters of a century, of the Big Bang theory of the universe's origin, in his then much-derided 1848 essay (which, due to its very speculative nature, he termed a "prose poem"), Eureka: A Prose Poem.[162][163]

Prose poetry

Main article: Prose poetry

Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (a.k.a. the "short short story", "flash fiction"). While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Arthur Rimbaud.[164] Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals, such as The Prose Poem: An International Journal,[165] Contemporary Haibun Online,[166] and Haibun Today[167] devoted to that genre and its hybrids. Latin American poets of the 20th century who wrote prose poems include Octavio Paz and Alejandra Pizarnik.

Light poetry

Main article: Light poetry

Light poetry, or light verse, is poetry that attempts to be humorous. Poems considered "light" are usually brief, and can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often feature word play, including puns, adventurous rhyme and heavy alliteration. Although a few free verse poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition, light verse in English usually obeys at least some formal conventions. Common forms include the limerick, the clerihew, and the double dactyl.

While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel, or thought of as poetry composed casually, humor often makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way. Many of the most renowned "serious" poets have also excelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry include Lewis Carroll, Ogden Nash, X. J. Kennedy, Willard R. Espy, Shel Silverstein, and Wendy Cope.

Slam poetry

Main article: Poetry slam

Slam poetry as a genre originated in 1986 in Chicago, Illinois, when Marc Kelly Smith organized the first slam.[168][169] Slam performers comment emotively, aloud before an audience, on personal, social, or other matters. Slam focuses on the aesthetics of word play, intonation, and voice inflection. Slam poetry is often competitive, at dedicated "poetry slam" contests.[170]

Performance poetry

Main article: Performance poetry

Performance poetry, similar to slam in that it occurs before an audience, is a genre of poetry that may fuse a variety of disciplines in a performance of a text, such as dance, music, and other aspects of performance art.[171][172]

Language happenings

The term happening was popularized by the avante garde movements in the 1950s and regard spontaneous, site-specific performances.[173] Language happenings, termed from the poetics collective OBJECT:PARADISE in 2018, are events which focus less on poetry as a prescriptive literary genre, but more as a descriptive linguistic act and performance, often incorporating broader forms of performance art while poetry is read or created in that moment.[174][175]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ A synecdoche, assuming the poetic element of verse as representative of the entire art form. It is often used when comparing poetry to prose.
  2. ^ In literary studies, line in western poetry is translated as bat. However, in some forms, the unit is more equivalent to wak. To avoid confusion, this article will refer to wak and bat instead of line, which may refer to either.

References

Citations

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Bibliography

Further reading

 
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Anthologies

Main article: List of poetry anthologies

March 14, 2023
poetry, this, article, about, form, other, uses, disambiguation, poem, disambiguation, love, poem, redirects, here, love, poem, song, love, poem, song, derived, from, greek, poiesis, making, also, called, verse, note, form, literature, that, uses, aesthetic, o. This article is about the art form For other uses see Poetry disambiguation and Poem disambiguation Love poem redirects here For the EP see Love Poem EP For the IU song see Love Poem song Poetry derived from the Greek poiesis making also called verse note 1 is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic 1 2 3 qualities of language such as phonaesthetics sound symbolism and metre to evoke meanings in addition to or in place of a prosaic ostensible meaning A poem is a literary composition written by a poet using this principle The Parnassus 1511 by Raphael atop Mount Parnassus 18 ancient and modern poets recite in the company of the nine Muses Poetry has a long and varied history evolving differentially across the globe It dates back at least to prehistoric times with hunting poetry in Africa and to panegyric and elegiac court poetry of the empires of the Nile Niger and Volta River valleys 4 Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa occurs among the Pyramid Texts written during the 25th century BCE The earliest surviving Western Asian epic poetry the Epic of Gilgamesh was written in Sumerian Early poems in the Eurasian continent evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing as well as religious hymns the Sanskrit Rigveda the Zoroastrian Gathas the Hurrian songs and the Hebrew Psalms or from a need to retell oral epics as with the Egyptian Story of Sinuhe the Indian epic poetry and the Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey Ancient Greek attempts to define poetry such as Aristotle s Poetics focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric drama song and comedy Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition verse form and rhyme and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from more objectively informative prosaic writing Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretations of words or to evoke emotive responses Devices such as assonance alliteration onomatopoeia and rhythm may convey musical or incantatory effects The use of ambiguity symbolism irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations Similarly figures of speech such as metaphor simile and metonymy 5 establish a resonance between otherwise disparate images a layering of meanings forming connections previously not perceived Kindred forms of resonance may exist between individual verses in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm Some poetry types are unique to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante Goethe Mickiewicz or Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter There are however traditions such as Biblical poetry that use other means to create rhythm and euphony Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition 6 testing the principle of euphony itself or altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm 7 8 In an increasingly globalized world poets often adapt forms styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages Poets have contributed to the evolution of the linguistic expressive and utilitarian qualities of their languages A Western cultural tradition extending at least from Homer to Rilke associates the production of poetry with inspiration often by a Muse either classical or contemporary In many poems the lyrics are spoken by a character who is called the speaker This concept differentiates the speaker character from the poet author which is usually an important distinction for example if the poem runs I killed a man in Reno it is the speaker who is the murderer not the poet himself Contents 1 History 1 1 Early works 1 2 Western traditions 1 3 20th century and 21st century disputes 2 Elements 2 1 Prosody 2 1 1 Rhythm 2 1 2 Meter 2 1 3 Metrical patterns 2 2 Rhyme alliteration assonance 2 2 1 Rhyming schemes 2 3 Form in poetry 2 3 1 Lines and stanzas 2 3 2 Visual presentation 2 4 Diction 3 Forms 3 1 Sonnet 3 2 Shi 3 3 Villanelle 3 4 Limerick 3 5 Tanka 3 6 Haiku 3 7 Khlong 3 7 1 Khlong si suphap 3 8 Ode 3 9 Ghazal 4 Genres 4 1 Narrative poetry 4 2 Lyric poetry 4 3 Epic poetry 4 4 Satirical poetry 4 5 Elegy 4 6 Verse fable 4 7 Dramatic poetry 4 8 Speculative poetry 4 9 Prose poetry 4 10 Light poetry 4 11 Slam poetry 4 12 Performance poetry 4 13 Language happenings 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7 1 Citations 8 Bibliography 9 Further reading 9 1 AnthologiesHistory EditMain articles History of poetry and Literary theory Early works Edit Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy and developed from folk epics and other oral genres 9 10 Others however suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing 11 The oldest surviving epic poem the Epic of Gilgamesh dates from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer in Mesopotamia present day Iraq and was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and later on papyrus 12 The Istanbul tablet 2461 dating to c 2000 BCE describes an annual rite in which the king symbolically married and mated with the goddess Inanna to ensure fertility and prosperity some have labelled it the world s oldest love poem 13 14 An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe c 1800 BCE 15 Other ancient epics includes the Greek Iliad and the Odyssey the Persian Avestan books the Yasna the Roman national epic Virgil s Aeneid written between 29 and 19 BCE and the Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata Epic poetry appears to have been composed in poetic form as an aid to memorization and oral transmission in ancient societies 11 16 Other forms of poetry including such ancient collections of religious hymns as the Indian Sanskrit language Rigveda the Avestan Gathas the Hurrian songs and the Hebrew Psalms possibly developed directly from folk songs The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry the Classic of Poetry Shijing were initially lyrics 17 The Shijing with its collection of poems and folk songs was heavily valued by the philosopher Confucius and is considered to be one of the official Confucian classics His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source in ancient music theory 18 The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form and what distinguishes good poetry from bad resulted in poetics the study of the aesthetics of poetry 19 Some ancient societies such as China s through the Shijing developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance 20 More recently thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer s Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō s Oku no Hosomichi as well as differences in content spanning Tanakh religious poetry love poetry and rap 21 Until recently the earliest examples of stressed poetry had been thought to be works composed by Romanos the Melodist fl 6th century CE In 2021 however Tim Whitmarsh wrote that an inscribed Greek poem that he had been studying predated Romanos stressed poetry 22 23 24 The oldest known love poem Sumerian terracotta tablet 2461 from Nippur Iraq Ur III period 2037 2029 BCE Ancient Orient Museum Istanbul The philosopher Confucius was influential in the developed approach to poetry and ancient music theory An early Chinese poetics the Kǒngzǐ Shilun 孔子詩論 discussing the Shijing Classic of Poetry Western traditions Edit Aristotle Classical thinkers in the West employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry Notably the existing fragments of Aristotle s Poetics describe three genres of poetry the epic the comic and the tragic and develop rules to distinguish the highest quality poetry in each genre based on the perceived underlying purposes of the genre 25 Later aestheticians identified three major genres epic poetry lyric poetry and dramatic poetry treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry 26 John Keats Aristotle s work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age 27 as well as in Europe during the Renaissance 28 Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from and defined it in opposition to prose which they generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure 29 This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic negative capability 30 This romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic This approach remained influential into the 20th century 31 During the 18th and 19th centuries there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade 32 In addition to a boom in translation during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered 33 20th century and 21st century disputes Edit Archibald MacLeish Some 20th century literary theorists rely less on the ostensible opposition of prose and poetry instead focusing on the poet as simply one who creates using language and poetry as what the poet creates 34 The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words and creative acts in other media Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided 35 The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the 20th century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic poetry Numerous modernist poets have written in non traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non metrical means While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures 36 Postmodernism goes beyond modernism s emphasis on the creative role of the poet to emphasize the role of the reader of a text hermeneutics and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read 37 Today throughout the world poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past further confounding attempts at definition and classification that once made sense within a tradition such as the Western canon 38 The early 21st century poetic tradition appears to continue to strongly orient itself to earlier precursor poetic traditions such as those initiated by Whitman Emerson and Wordsworth The literary critic Geoffrey Hartman 1929 2016 used the phrase the anxiety of demand to describe the contemporary response to older poetic traditions as being fearful that the fact no longer has a form 39 building on a trope introduced by Emerson Emerson had maintained that in the debate concerning poetic structure where either form or fact could predominate that one need simply Ask the fact for the form This has been challenged at various levels by other literary scholars such as Harold Bloom 1930 2019 who has stated The generation of poets who stand together now mature and ready to write the major American verse of the twenty first century may yet be seen as what Stevens called a great shadow s last embellishment the shadow being Emerson s 40 Elements EditProsody Edit Main article Meter poetry Prosody is the study of the meter rhythm and intonation of a poem Rhythm and meter are different although closely related 41 Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse such as iambic pentameter while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter 42 Rhythm Edit Main articles Timing linguistics tone linguistics and Pitch accent Robinson Jeffers The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents syllables or moras depending on how rhythm is established though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches Japanese is a mora timed language Latin Catalan French Leonese Galician and Spanish are called syllable timed languages Stress timed languages include English Russian and generally German 43 Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived Languages can rely on either pitch or tone Some languages with a pitch accent are Vedic Sanskrit or Ancient Greek Tonal languages include Chinese Vietnamese and most Subsaharan languages 44 Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables alone or elided 45 In the classical languages on the other hand while the metrical units are similar vowel length rather than stresses define the meter 46 Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line 47 Marianne Moore The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry including many of the psalms was parallelism a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure sound structure notional content or all three Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call and response performance which could also be reinforced by intonation Thus Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines phrases and sentences 48 Some classical poetry forms such as Venpa of the Tamil language had rigid grammars to the point that they could be expressed as a context free grammar which ensured a rhythm 49 Classical Chinese poetics based on the tone system of Middle Chinese recognized two kinds of tones the level 平 ping tone and the oblique 仄 ze tones a category consisting of the rising 上 shang tone the departing 去 qu tone and the entering 入 ru tone Certain forms of poetry placed constraints on which syllables were required to be level and which oblique The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry In the case of free verse rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence rather than a regular meter Robinson Jeffers Marianne Moore and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry 50 Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm 51 Meter Edit Main article Scansion Attic red figure kathalos painting of Sappho from c 470 BCE 52 In the Western poetic tradition meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line 53 The number of metrical feet in a line are described using Greek terminology tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet for example 54 Thus iambic pentameter is a meter comprising five feet per line in which the predominant kind of foot is the iamb This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho and by the great tragedians of Athens Similarly dactylic hexameter comprises six feet per line of which the dominant kind of foot is the dactyl Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod 55 Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a number of poets including William Shakespeare and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow respectively 56 The most common metrical feet in English are 57 Homer Roman bust based on Greek original 58 iamb one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable e g des cribe in clude re tract trochee one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable e g pic ture flow er dactyl one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables e g an no tate sim i lar anapaest two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable e g com pre hend spondee two stressed syllables together e g heart beat four teen pyrrhic two unstressed syllables together rare usually used to end dactylic hexameter There are a wide range of names for other types of feet right up to a choriamb a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry 55 Languages which use vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds 59 Each of these types of feet has a certain feel whether alone or in combination with other feet The iamb for example is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language and generally produces a subtle but stable verse 60 Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse but does not show the varying degrees of stress as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables 61 There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different feet is in describing meter For example Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests feet which he considers natural to the language 62 Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words and suggested that the term scud be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress 63 Metrical patterns Edit Main article Meter poetry Lewis Carroll s The Hunting of the Snark 1876 is mainly in anapestic tetrameter Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters ranging from the Shakespearean iambic pentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to the anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes However a number of variations to the established meter are common both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition For example the stress in a foot may be inverted a caesura or pause may be added sometimes in place of a foot or stress or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop Some patterns such as iambic pentameter tend to be fairly regular while other patterns such as dactylic hexameter tend to be highly irregular 64 Regularity can vary between language In addition different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages so that for example iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter which does not occur or occurs to a much lesser extent in English 65 Alexander Pushkin Some common metrical patterns with notable examples of poets and poems who use them include Iambic pentameter John Milton Paradise Lost William Shakespeare Sonnets 66 Dactylic hexameter Homer Iliad Virgil Aeneid 67 Iambic tetrameter Andrew Marvell To His Coy Mistress Alexander Pushkin Eugene Onegin Robert Frost Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening 68 Trochaic octameter Edgar Allan Poe The Raven 69 Trochaic tetrameter Henry Wadsworth Longfellow The Song of Hiawatha the Finnish national epic The Kalevala is also in trochaic tetrameter the natural rhythm of Finnish and Estonian Alexandrin Jean Racine Phedre 70 Rhyme alliteration assonance Edit Main articles Rhyme Alliterative verse and Assonance The Old English epic poem Beowulf is in alliterative verse Rhyme alliteration assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem to reinforce rhythmic patterns or as an ornamental element 71 They can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created For example Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic 72 Rhyme consists of identical hard rhyme or similar soft rhyme sounds placed at the ends of lines or at locations within lines internal rhyme Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures Italian for example has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms English with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages is less rich in rhyme 73 The degree of richness of a language s rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language 74 Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter sounds at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other or at short intervals or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of words Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic Norse and Old English forms of poetry The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures Assonance where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word was widely used in skaldic poetry but goes back to the Homeric epic 75 Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry 76 Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element 74 Rhyming schemes Edit Main article Rhyme scheme Divine Comedy Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light In many languages including modern European languages and Arabic poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms such as ballads sonnets and rhyming couplets However the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme 77 Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus modern Spain 78 Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century as in their long rhyming qasidas 79 Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language culture or period while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages cultures or time periods Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well defined rhyming scheme such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes 80 Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes so if the first second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line do not rhyme the quatrain is said to have an aa ba rhyme scheme This rhyme scheme is the one used for example in the rubaiyat form 81 Similarly an a bb a quatrain what is known as enclosed rhyme is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet 82 Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own separate from the a bc convention such as the ottava rima and terza rima 83 The types and use of differing rhyming schemes are discussed further in the main article Form in poetry Edit Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post modernist poetry and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras Many modern poets eschew recognizable structures or forms and write in free verse Free verse is however not formless but composed of a series of more subtle more flexible prosodic elements 84 Thus poetry remains in all its styles distinguished from prose by form 85 some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in all varieties of free verse however much such structures may appear to have been ignored 86 Similarly in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect 87 Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line the stanza or verse paragraph and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and calligraphy These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures called poetic forms or poetic modes see the following section as in the sonnet Lines and stanzas Edit Main articles Line poetry and Stanza Poetry is often separated into lines on a page in a process known as lineation These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines Lines may serve other functions particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern Lines can separate compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units or can highlight a change in tone 88 See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas which are denominated by the number of lines included Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet or distich three lines a triplet or tercet four lines a quatrain and so on These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm For example a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone 89 Blok s Russian poem Noch ulitsa fonar apteka Night street lamp drugstore on a wall in Leiden Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms alliterations and rhymes established in paragraph form 90 Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used 91 In many forms of poetry stanzas are interlocking so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas Examples of such interlocking stanzas include for example the ghazal and the villanelle where a refrain or in the case of the villanelle refrains is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem For example the strophe antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas 92 In some cases particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined In skaldic poetry the drottkvaett stanza had eight lines each having three lifts produced with alliteration or assonance In addition to two or three alliterations the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels not necessarily at the beginning of the word the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables not necessarily at the end of the word Each half line had exactly six syllables and each line ended in a trochee The arrangement of drottkvaetts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual drottkvaetts 93 Visual presentation Edit Main article Visual poetry Even before the advent of printing the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem 94 In Arabic Hebrew and Chinese poetry the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems 95 With the advent of printing poets gained greater control over the mass produced visual presentations of their work Visual elements have become an important part of the poet s toolbox and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem s composition At times this complements the poem s rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning ambiguity or irony or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form In its most extreme form this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing 96 97 Diction Edit Main article Poetic diction Poetic diction treats the manner in which language is used and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form 98 Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry 99 100 Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns as favoured in much late 20th century prosody 101 through to highly ornate uses of language as in medieval and Renaissance poetry 102 Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor as well as tones of voice such as irony Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor 103 Since the rise of Modernism some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de emphasizes rhetorical devices attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone 104 On the other hand Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits making frequent use of catachresis 105 Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures and were prominent in the West during classical times the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance Aesop s Fables repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 BCE are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages 106 Other notables examples include the Roman de la Rose a 13th century French poem William Langland s Piers Ploughman in the 14th century and Jean de la Fontaine s Fables influenced by Aesop s in the 17th century Rather than being fully allegorical however a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory 107 Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is for example a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku 108 Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect either a short phrase such as Homer s rosy fingered dawn or the wine dark sea or a longer refrain Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes 109 Forms EditSee also Category Poetic forms Statue of runic singer Petri Shemeikka at Kolmikulmanpuisto Park in Sortavala Karelia Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures In more developed closed or received poetic forms the rhyming scheme meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle 110 Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of the poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the glossary Sonnet Edit Main article Sonnet William Shakespeare Among the most common forms of poetry popular from the Late Middle Ages on is the sonnet which by the 13th century had become standardized as fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure By the 14th century and the Italian Renaissance the form had further crystallized under the pen of Petrarch whose sonnets were translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature 111 A traditional Italian or Petrarchan sonnet follows the rhyme scheme ABBA ABBA CDECDE though some variation perhaps the most common being CDCDCD especially within the final six lines or sestet is common 112 The English or Shakespearean sonnet follows the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG introducing a third quatrain grouping of four lines a final couplet and a greater amount of variety in rhyme than is usually found in its Italian predecessors By convention sonnets in English typically use iambic pentameter while in the Romance languages the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters Sonnets of all types often make use of a volta or turn a point in the poem at which an idea is turned on its head a question is answered or introduced or the subject matter is further complicated This volta can often take the form of a but statement contradicting or complicating the content of the earlier lines In the Petrarchan sonnet the turn tends to fall around the division between the first two quatrains and the sestet while English sonnets usually place it at or near the beginning of the closing couplet Carol Ann Duffy Sonnets are particularly associated with high poetic diction vivid imagery and romantic love largely due to the influence of Petrarch as well as of early English practitioners such as Edmund Spenser who gave his name to the Spenserian sonnet Michael Drayton and Shakespeare whose sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry with twenty being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse 113 However the twists and turns associated with the volta allow for a logical flexibility applicable to many subjects 114 Poets from the earliest centuries of the sonnet to the present have used the form to address topics related to politics John Milton Percy Bysshe Shelley Claude McKay theology John Donne Gerard Manley Hopkins war Wilfred Owen e e cummings and gender and sexuality Carol Ann Duffy Further postmodern authors such as Ted Berrigan and John Berryman have challenged the traditional definitions of the sonnet form rendering entire sequences of sonnets that often lack rhyme a clear logical progression or even a consistent count of fourteen lines Shi Edit Main article Shi poetry Du Fu On Visiting the Temple of Laozi Shi simplified Chinese 诗 traditional Chinese 詩 pinyin shi Wade Giles shih Is the main type of Classical Chinese poetry 115 Within this form of poetry the most important variations are folk song styled verse yuefu old style verse gushi modern style verse jintishi In all cases rhyming is obligatory The Yuefu is a folk ballad or a poem written in the folk ballad style and the number of lines and the length of the lines could be irregular For the other variations of shi poetry generally either a four line quatrain or jueju or else an eight line poem is normal either way with the even numbered lines rhyming The line length is scanned by an according number of characters according to the convention that one character equals one syllable and are predominantly either five or seven characters long with a caesura before the final three syllables The lines are generally end stopped considered as a series of couplets and exhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device 116 The old style verse Gushi is less formally strict than the jintishi or regulated verse which despite the name new style verse actually had its theoretical basis laid as far back as Shen Yue 441 513 CE although not considered to have reached its full development until the time of Chen Zi ang 661 702 CE 117 A good example of a poet known for his Gushi poems is Li Bai 701 762 CE Among its other rules the jintishi rules regulate the tonal variations within a poem including the use of set patterns of the four tones of Middle Chinese The basic form of jintishi sushi has eight lines in four couplets with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction full of allusion and can have a wide range of subject including history and politics 118 119 One of the masters of the form was Du Fu 712 770 CE who wrote during the Tang Dynasty 8th century 120 Villanelle Edit Main article Villanelle W H Auden The villanelle is a nineteen line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain the poem is characterized by having two refrains initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain which is concluded by the two refrains The remaining lines of the poem have an a b alternating rhyme 121 The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late 19th century by such poets as Dylan Thomas 122 W H Auden 123 and Elizabeth Bishop 124 Limerick Edit Main article Limerick poetry A limerick is a poem that consists of five lines and is often humorous Rhythm is very important in limericks for the first second and fifth lines must have seven to ten syllables However the third and fourth lines only need five to seven Lines 1 2 and 5 rhyme with each other and lines 3 and 4 rhyme with each other Practitioners of the limerick included Edward Lear Lord Alfred Tennyson Rudyard Kipling Robert Louis Stevenson 125 Tanka Edit Main article Tanka Kakinomoto no Hitomaro Tanka is a form of unrhymed Japanese poetry with five sections totalling 31 on phonological units identical to morae structured in a 5 7 5 7 7 pattern 126 There is generally a shift in tone and subject matter between the upper 5 7 5 phrase and the lower 7 7 phrase Tanka were written as early as the Asuka period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro fl late 7th century at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form 127 Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry which was generally referred to as waka and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes By the tenth century tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry to the point where the originally general term waka Japanese poetry came to be used exclusively for tanka Tanka are still widely written today 128 Haiku Edit Main article Haiku Haiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry which evolved in the 17th century from the hokku or opening verse of a renku 129 Generally written in a single vertical line the haiku contains three sections totalling 17 on morae structured in a 5 7 5 pattern Traditionally haiku contain a kireji or cutting word usually placed at the end of one of the poem s three sections and a kigo or season word 130 The most famous exponent of the haiku was Matsuo Bashō 1644 1694 An example of his writing 131 富士の風や扇にのせて江戸土産 fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage the wind of Mt Fuji I ve brought on my fan a gift from EdoKhlong Edit Main article Thai poetry The khlong okhlng kʰlōːŋ is among the oldest Thai poetic forms This is reflected in its requirements on the tone markings of certain syllables which must be marked with mai ek imexk Thai pronunciation maj eːk or mai tho imoth maj tʰōː This was likely derived from when the Thai language had three tones as opposed to today s five a split which occurred during the Ayutthaya Kingdom period two of which corresponded directly to the aforementioned marks It is usually regarded as an advanced and sophisticated poetic form 132 In khlong a stanza bot bth Thai pronunciation bot has a number of lines bat bath Thai pronunciation baːt from Pali and Sanskrit pada depending on the type The bat are subdivided into two wak wrrkh Thai pronunciation wak from Sanskrit varga note 2 The first wak has five syllables the second has a variable number also depending on the type and may be optional The type of khlong is named by the number of bat in a stanza it may also be divided into two main types khlong suphap okhlngsuphaph kʰlōːŋ su pʰaːp and khlong dan okhlngdn kʰlōːŋ dan The two differ in the number of syllables in the second wak of the final bat and inter stanza rhyming rules 132 Khlong si suphap Edit The khlong si suphap okhlngsisuphaph kʰlōːŋ siː su pʰaːp is the most common form still currently employed It has four bat per stanza si translates as four The first wak of each bat has five syllables The second wak has two or four syllables in the first and third bat two syllables in the second and four syllables in the fourth Mai ek is required for seven syllables and Mai tho is required for four as shown below Dead word syllables are allowed in place of syllables which require mai ek and changing the spelling of words to satisfy the criteria is usually acceptable Ode Edit Main article Ode Horace Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek such as Pindar and Latin such as Horace Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins 133 The ode generally has three parts a strophe an antistrophe and an epode The strophe and the antistrophe of the ode possess similar metrical structures and depending on the tradition similar rhyme structures In contrast the epode is written with a different scheme and structure Odes have a formal poetic diction and generally deal with a serious subject The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different often conflicting perspectives with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses or individuals with the first reciting the strophe the second the antistrophe and both together the epode 134 Over time differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode One non Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Arabic poetry 135 Ghazal Edit Main article Ghazal The ghazal also ghazel gazel gazal or gozol is a form of poetry common in Arabic Bengali Persian and Urdu In classic form the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line This refrain may be of one or several syllables and is preceded by a rhyme Each line has an identical meter The ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity 136 As with other forms with a long history in many languages many variations have been developed including forms with a quasi musical poetic diction in Urdu 137 Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect which complements Sufi mystical themes well 138 Among the masters of the form is Rumi a 13th century Persian poet 139 One of the most famous poet in this type of poetry is Hafez whose poems often include the theme of exposing hypocrisy His life and poems have been the subject of much analysis commentary and interpretation influencing post fourteenth century Persian writing more than any other author 140 141 The West ostlicher Diwan of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe a collection of lyrical poems is inspired by the Persian poet Hafez 142 143 144 Genres EditIn addition to specific forms of poems poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter style or other broader literary characteristics 145 Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works 146 Narrative poetry Edit Main article Narrative poetry Chaucer Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story Broadly it subsumes epic poetry but the term narrative poetry is often reserved for smaller works generally with more appeal to human interest Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed of compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes Much narrative poetry such as Scottish and English ballads and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose such as meter alliteration and kennings once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales 147 Notable narrative poets have included Ovid Dante Juan Ruiz William Langland Chaucer Fernando de Rojas Luis de Camoes Shakespeare Alexander Pope Robert Burns Adam Mickiewicz Alexander Pushkin Edgar Allan Poe Alfred Tennyson and Anne Carson Lyric poetry Edit Main article Lyric poetry Christine de Pizan left Lyric poetry is a genre that unlike epic and dramatic poetry does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature Poems in this genre tend to be shorter melodic and contemplative Rather than depicting characters and actions it portrays the poet s own feelings states of mind and perceptions 148 Notable poets in this genre include Christine de Pizan John Donne Charles Baudelaire Gerard Manley Hopkins Antonio Machado and Edna St Vincent Millay Epic poetry Edit Main article Epic poetry Camoes Epic poetry is a genre of poetry and a major form of narrative literature This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time It recounts in a continuous narrative the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons 149 Examples of epic poems are Homer s Iliad and Odyssey Virgil s Aeneid the Nibelungenlied Luis de Camoes Os Lusiadas the Cantar de Mio Cid the Epic of Gilgamesh the Mahabharata Lonnrot s Kalevala Valmiki s Ramayana Ferdowsi s Shahnama Nizami or Nezami s Khamse Five Books and the Epic of King Gesar While the composition of epic poetry and of long poems generally became less common in the west after the early 20th century some notable epics have continued to be written The Cantos by Ezra Pound Helen in Egypt by H D and Paterson by William Carlos Williams are examples of modern epics Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize in 1992 to a great extent on the basis of his epic Omeros 150 Satirical poetry Edit John Wilmot Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry often written for political purposes A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal s satires 151 The same is true of the English satirical tradition John Dryden a Tory the first Poet Laureate produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe subtitled A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet T S a reference to Thomas Shadwell 152 Satirical poets outside England include Poland s Ignacy Krasicki Azerbaijan s Sabir Portugal s Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage and Korea s Kim Kirim especially noted for his Gisangdo Elegy Edit Main article Elegy Thomas Gray An elegy is a mournful melancholy or plaintive poem especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song The term elegy which originally denoted a type of poetic meter elegiac meter commonly describes a poem of mourning An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious The elegy as a reflection on a death on a sorrow more generally or on something mysterious may be classified as a form of lyric poetry 153 154 Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius Jorge Manrique Jan Kochanowski Chidiock Tichborne Edmund Spenser Ben Jonson John Milton Thomas Gray Charlotte Smith William Cullen Bryant Percy Bysshe Shelley Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Evgeny Baratynsky Alfred Tennyson Walt Whitman Antonio Machado Juan Ramon Jimenez William Butler Yeats Rainer Maria Rilke and Virginia Woolf Verse fable Edit Main article Fable Krasicki The fable is an ancient literary genre often though not invariably set in verse It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphised animals legendary creatures plants inanimate objects or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson a moral Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns 155 Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop Vishnu Sarma Phaedrus Marie de France Robert Henryson Biernat of Lublin Jean de La Fontaine Ignacy Krasicki Felix Maria de Samaniego Tomas de Iriarte Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce Dramatic poetry Edit Main articles Verse drama and dramatic verse Theatre of ancient Greece Sanskrit drama Chinese Opera and Noh Goethe Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung and appears in varying sometimes related forms in many cultures Greek tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B C and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama 156 just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bianwen verse dramas in China forerunners of Chinese Opera 157 East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh Examples of dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nizami s two famous dramatic works Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin Ferdowsi s tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab Rumi s Masnavi Gorgani s tragedy of Vis and Ramin and Vahshi s tragedy of Farhad American poets of 20th century revive dramatic poetry including Ezra Pound in Sestina Altaforte 158 T S Eliot with The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock 159 160 Speculative poetry Edit Main article Speculative poetry Poe Speculative poetry also known as fantastic poetry of which weird or macabre poetry is a major sub classification is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are beyond reality whether via extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes seen as the father of speculative poetry 161 Poe s most remarkable achievement in the genre was his anticipation by three quarters of a century of the Big Bang theory of the universe s origin in his then much derided 1848 essay which due to its very speculative nature he termed a prose poem Eureka A Prose Poem 162 163 Prose poetry Edit Main article Prose poetry Baudelaire Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry It may be indistinguishable from the micro story a k a the short short story flash fiction While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th century France where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand Charles Baudelaire Stephane Mallarme and Arthur Rimbaud 164 Since the late 1980s especially prose poetry has gained increasing popularity with entire journals such as The Prose Poem An International Journal 165 Contemporary Haibun Online 166 and Haibun Today 167 devoted to that genre and its hybrids Latin American poets of the 20th century who wrote prose poems include Octavio Paz and Alejandra Pizarnik Light poetry Edit Main article Light poetry Lewis Carroll Light poetry or light verse is poetry that attempts to be humorous Poems considered light are usually brief and can be on a frivolous or serious subject and often feature word play including puns adventurous rhyme and heavy alliteration Although a few free verse poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition light verse in English usually obeys at least some formal conventions Common forms include the limerick the clerihew and the double dactyl While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel or thought of as poetry composed casually humor often makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way Many of the most renowned serious poets have also excelled at light verse Notable writers of light poetry include Lewis Carroll Ogden Nash X J Kennedy Willard R Espy Shel Silverstein and Wendy Cope Slam poetry Edit Main article Poetry slam Smith Slam poetry as a genre originated in 1986 in Chicago Illinois when Marc Kelly Smith organized the first slam 168 169 Slam performers comment emotively aloud before an audience on personal social or other matters Slam focuses on the aesthetics of word play intonation and voice inflection Slam poetry is often competitive at dedicated poetry slam contests 170 Performance poetry Edit Main article Performance poetry Performance poetry similar to slam in that it occurs before an audience is a genre of poetry that may fuse a variety of disciplines in a performance of a text such as dance music and other aspects of performance art 171 172 Language happenings Edit The term happening was popularized by the avante garde movements in the 1950s and regard spontaneous site specific performances 173 Language happenings termed from the poetics collective OBJECT PARADISE in 2018 are events which focus less on poetry as a prescriptive literary genre but more as a descriptive linguistic act and performance often incorporating broader forms of performance art while poetry is read or created in that moment 174 175 See also Edit Poetry portalAnti poetry Digital poetry Glossary of poetry terms Improvisation List of poetry groups and movements Oral poetry Outline of poetry Persona poetry Phonestheme Phono semantic matching Poetry reading Rhapsode Semantic differential Spoken wordNotes Edit A synecdoche assuming the poetic element of verse as representative of the entire art form It is often used when comparing poetry to prose In literary studies line in western poetry is translated as bat However in some forms the unit is more equivalent to wak To avoid confusion this article will refer to wak and bat instead of line which may refer to either References EditCitations Edit Poetry Oxford Dictionaries Oxford University Press 2013 Archived from the original on 18 June 2013 poetry Literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm poems collectively or as a genre of literature Poetry Merriam Webster Merriam Webster Inc 2013 poetry 2 writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning sound and rhythm Poetry Dictionary com Dictionary com LLC 2013 poetry 1 the art of rhythmical composition written or spoken for exciting pleasure by beautiful imaginative or elevated thoughts Ruth Finnegan Oral Literature in Africa Open Book Publishers 2012 Strachan John R Terry Richard G 2000 Poetry an introduction Edinburgh University Press p 119 ISBN 978 0 8147 9797 6 Eliot T S 1999 1923 The Function of Criticism Selected Essays Faber amp Faber pp 13 34 ISBN 978 0 15 180387 3 Longenbach James 1997 Modern Poetry After Modernism Oxford University Press p 9 103 ISBN 978 0 19 510178 2 Schmidt Michael ed 1999 The Harvill Book of Twentieth Century Poetry in English Harvill Press pp xxvii xxxiii ISBN 978 1 86046 735 6 Hoivik Susan Luger Kurt 3 June 2009 Folk Media for Biodiversity Conservation A Pilot Project from the Himalaya Hindu Kush International Communication Gazette 71 4 321 346 doi 10 1177 1748048509102184 S2CID 143947520 Goody Jack 1987 The Interface Between the Written and the Oral Cambridge University Press p 78 ISBN 978 0 521 33794 6 poetry tales recitations of various kinds existed long before writing was introduced and these oral forms continued in modified oral forms even after the establishment of a written literature a b Goody Jack 1987 The Interface Between the Written and the Oral Cambridge University Press p 98 ISBN 978 0 521 33794 6 The Epic of Gilgamesh Translated by Sanders N K Revised ed Penguin Books 1972 pp 7 8 Mark Joshua J 13 August 2014 The World s Oldest Love Poem What I held in my hand was one of the oldest love songs written down by the hand of man Arsu Sebnem 14 February 2006 Oldest Line in the World The New York Times Retrieved 1 May 2015 A small tablet in a special display this month in the Istanbul Museum of the Ancient Orient is thought to be the oldest love poem ever found the words of a lover from more than 4 000 years ago Chyla Julia Rosinska Balik Karolina Debowska Ludwin Joanna 30 June 2017 Current Research in Egyptology 17 Oxbow Books pp 159 161 ISBN 978 1 78570 603 5 Ahl Frederick Roisman Hanna M 1996 The Odyssey Re Formed Cornell University Press pp 1 26 ISBN 978 0 8014 8335 6 Ebrey Patricia 1993 Chinese Civilisation A Sourcebook 2nd ed The Free Press pp 11 13 ISBN 978 0 02 908752 7 Cai Zong qi July 1999 In Quest of Harmony Plato and Confucius on Poetry Philosophy East and West 49 3 317 345 doi 10 2307 1399898 JSTOR 1399898 Abondolo Daniel 2001 A poetics handbook verbal art in the European tradition Curzon pp 52 53 ISBN 978 0 7007 1223 6 Gentz Joachim 2008 Ritual Meaning of Textual Form Evidence from Early Commentaries of the Historiographic and Ritual Traditions In Kern Martin ed Text and Ritual in Early China University of Washington Press pp 124 48 ISBN 978 0 295 98787 3 Habib Rafey 2005 A history of literary criticism John Wiley amp Sons pp 607 09 620 ISBN 978 0 631 23200 1 JARRETT A LOBELL April 2022 Poetic License www archaeology org Alison Flood September 2021 I don t care text shows modern poetry began much earlier than believed www theguardian com Tim Whitmarsh August 2021 LESS CARE MORE STRESS A RHYTHMIC POEM FROM THE ROMAN EMPIRE www cambridge org Heath Malcolm ed 1997 Aristotle sPoetics Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 044636 4 Frow John 2007 Genre Reprint ed Routledge pp 57 59 ISBN 978 0 415 28063 1 Boggess William F 1968 Hermannus Alemannus Latin Anthology of Arabic Poetry Journal of the American Oriental Society 88 4 657 70 doi 10 2307 598112 JSTOR 598112 Burnett Charles 2001 Learned Knowledge of Arabic Poetry Rhymed Prose and Didactic Verse from Petrus Alfonsi to Petrarch Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages A Festschrift for Peter Dronke Brill Academic Publishers pp 29 62 ISBN 978 90 04 11964 2 Grendler Paul F 2004 The Universities of the Italian Renaissance Johns Hopkins University Press p 239 ISBN 978 0 8018 8055 1 Kant Immanuel 1914 Critique of Judgment Translated by Bernard J H Macmillan p 131 Kant argues that the nature of poetry as a self consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbal arts with tone or music following it and only after that the more logical and narrative prose Ou Li 2009 Keats and negative capability Continuum pp 1 3 ISBN 978 1 4411 4724 0 Watten Barrett 2003 The constructivist moment from material text to cultural poetics Wesleyan University Press pp 17 19 ISBN 978 0 8195 6610 2 Abu Mahfouz Ahmad 2008 Translation as a Blending of Cultures Journal of Translation 4 1 1 5 doi 10 54395 jot x8fne Highet Gilbert 1985 The classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on western literature Reissued ed Oxford University Press pp 355 360 479 ISBN 978 0 19 500206 5 Wimsatt William K Jr Brooks Cleanth 1957 Literary Criticism A Short History Vintage Books p 374 Johnson Jeannine 2007 Why write poetry modern poets defending their art Fairleigh Dickinson University Press p 148 ISBN 978 0 8386 4105 7 Jenkins Lee M Davis Alex eds 2007 The Cambridge companion to modernist poetry Cambridge University Press pp 1 7 38 156 ISBN 978 0 521 61815 1 Barthes Roland 1978 Death of the Author Image Music Text Farrar Straus amp Giroux pp 142 48 Connor Steven 1997 Postmodernist culture an introduction to theories of the contemporary 2nd ed Blackwell pp 123 28 ISBN 978 0 631 20052 9 Preminger Alex 1975 Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics enlarged ed London and Basingstoke Macmillan Press p 919 ISBN 9781349156177 Bloom Harold 2010 1986 Introduction In Bloom Harold ed Contemporary Poets Bloom s modern critical views revised ed New York Infobase Publishing p 7 ISBN 9781604135886 Retrieved 7 May 2019 The generation of poets who stand together now mature and ready to write the major American verse of the twenty first century may yet be seen as what Stevens called a great shadow s last embellishment the shadow being Emerson s Pinsky 1998 p 52 Fussell 1965 pp 20 21 Schulter Julia 2005 Rhythmic Grammar Walter de Gruyter pp 24 304 332 Yip Moira 2002 Tone Cambridge textbooks in linguistics Cambridge University Press pp 1 4 130 ISBN 978 0 521 77314 0 Fussell 1965 p 12 Jorgens Elise Bickford 1982 The well tun d word musical interpretations of English poetry 1597 1651 University of Minnesota Press p 23 ISBN 978 0 8166 1029 7 Fussell 1965 pp 75 76 Walker Jones Arthur 2003 Hebrew for biblical interpretation Society of Biblical Literature pp 211 13 ISBN 978 1 58983 086 8 Bala Sundara Raman L Ishwar S Kumar Ravindranath Sanjeeth 2003 Context Free Grammar for Natural Language Constructs An implementation for Venpa Class of Tamil Poetry Tamil Internet 128 36 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 3 7738 Hartman Charles O 1980 Free Verse An Essay on Prosody Northwestern University Press pp 24 44 47 ISBN 978 0 8101 1316 9 Hollander 1981 p 22 McClure Laura K 2002 Sexuality and Gender in the Classical World Readings and Sources Oxford England Blackwell Publishers p 38 ISBN 978 0 631 22589 8 Corn 1997 p 24 Corn 1997 pp 25 34 a b Annis William S January 2006 Introduction to Greek Meter PDF Aoidoi pp 1 15 Examples of English metrical systems PDF Fondazione Universitaria in provincia di Belluno Archived from the original PDF on 8 March 2012 Retrieved 10 December 2011 Fussell 1965 pp 23 24 Portrait Bust britishmuseum org The British Museum Kiparsky Paul September 1975 Stress Syntax and Meter Language 51 3 576 616 doi 10 2307 412889 JSTOR 412889 Thompson John 1961 The Founding of English Meter Columbia University Press p 36 Pinsky 1998 pp 11 24 Pinsky 1998 p 66 Nabokov Vladimir 1964 Notes on Prosody Bollingen Foundation pp 9 13 ISBN 978 0 691 01760 0 Fussell 1965 pp 36 71 Nabokov Vladimir 1964 Notes on Prosody Bollingen Foundation pp 46 47 ISBN 978 0 691 01760 0 Adams 1997 p 206 Adams 1997 p 63 What is Tetrameter tetrameter com Retrieved 10 December 2011 Adams 1997 p 60 James E D Jondorf G 1994 Racine Phedre Cambridge University Press pp 32 34 ISBN 978 0 521 39721 6 Corn 1997 p 65 Osberg Richard H 2001 I kan nat geeste Chaucer s Artful Alliteration In Gaylord Alan T ed Essays on the art of Chaucer s Verse Routledge pp 195 228 ISBN 978 0 8153 2951 0 Alighieri Dante 1994 Introduction The Inferno of Dante A New Verse Translation Translated by Pinsky Robert Farrar Straus amp Giroux ISBN 978 0 374 17674 7 a b Kiparsky Paul Summer 1973 The Role of Linguistics in a Theory of Poetry Daedalus 102 3 231 44 Russom Geoffrey 1998 Beowulf and old Germanic metre Cambridge University Press pp 64 86 ISBN 978 0 521 59340 3 Liu James J Y 1990 Art of Chinese Poetry University of Chicago Press pp 21 22 ISBN 978 0 226 48687 1 Wesling Donald 1980 The chances of rhyme University of California Press pp x xi 38 42 ISBN 978 0 520 03861 5 Menocal Maria Rosa 2003 The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History University of Pennsylvania p 88 ISBN 978 0 8122 1324 9 Sperl Stefan ed 1996 Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa Brill p 49 ISBN 978 90 04 10387 0 Adams 1997 pp 71 104 Fussell 1965 p 27 Adams 1997 pp 88 91 Corn 1997 pp 81 82 85 FREE VERSE 25 May 2015 Retrieved 22 May 2021 Forms of verse Free verse Victoria and Albert Museum 4 July 2011 Retrieved 22 May 2021 Whitworth Michael H 2010 Reading modernist poetry Wiley Blackwell p 74 ISBN 978 1 4051 6731 4 Hollander 1981 pp 50 51 Corn 1997 pp 7 13 Corn 1997 pp 78 82 Corn 1997 p 78 Dalrymple Roger ed 2004 Middle English Literature a guide to criticism Blackwell Publishing p 10 ISBN 978 0 631 23290 2 Corn 1997 pp 78 79 McTurk Rory ed 2004 Companion to Old Norse Icelandic Literature and Culture Blackwell pp 269 80 ISBN 978 1 4051 3738 6 Freedman David Noel July 1972 Acrostics and Metrics in Hebrew Poetry Harvard Theological Review 65 3 367 92 doi 10 1017 s0017816000001620 S2CID 162853305 Kampf Robert 2010 Reading the Visual 17th century poetry and visual culture GRIN Verlag pp 4 6 ISBN 978 3 640 60011 3 Bohn Willard 1993 The aesthetics of visual poetry University of Chicago Press pp 1 8 ISBN 978 0 226 06325 6 Sterling Bruce 13 July 2009 Web Semantics Asemic writing Wired Archived from the original on 27 October 2009 Retrieved 10 December 2011 Barfield Owen 1987 Poetic diction a study in meaning 2nd ed Wesleyan University Press p 41 ISBN 978 0 8195 6026 1 Sheets George A Spring 1981 The Dialect Gloss Hellenistic Poetics and Livius Andronicus American Journal of Philology 102 1 58 78 doi 10 2307 294154 JSTOR 294154 Blank Paula 1996 Broken English dialects and the politics of language in Renaissance writings Routledge pp 29 31 ISBN 978 0 415 13779 9 Perloff Marjorie 2002 21st century modernism the new poetics Blackwell Publishers p 2 ISBN 978 0 631 21970 5 Paden William D ed 2000 Medieval lyric genres in historical context University of Illinois Press p 193 ISBN 978 0 252 02536 5 The Poetics of Aristotle Gutenberg 1974 p 22 Davis Alex Jenkins Lee M eds 2007 The Cambridge companion to modernist poetry Cambridge University Press pp 90 96 ISBN 978 0 521 61815 1 San Juan E Jr 2004 Working through the contradictions from cultural theory to critical practice Bucknell University Press pp 124 25 ISBN 978 0 8387 5570 9 Treip Mindele Anne 1994 Allegorical poetics and the epic the Renaissance tradition to Paradise Lost University Press of Kentucky p 14 ISBN 978 0 8131 1831 4 Crisp P 1 November 2005 Allegory and symbol a fundamental opposition Language and Literature 14 4 323 38 doi 10 1177 0963947005051287 S2CID 170517936 Gilbert Richard 2004 The Disjunctive Dragonfly Modern Haiku 35 2 21 44 Hollander 1981 pp 37 46 Fussell 1965 pp 160 65 Corn 1997 p 94 Minta Stephen 1980 Petrarch and Petrarchism Manchester University Press pp 15 17 ISBN 978 0 7190 0748 4 Quiller Couch Arthur ed 1900 Oxford Book of English Verse Oxford University Press Fussell 1965 pp 119 33 Watson Burton 1971 CHINESE LYRICISM Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century New York Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 03464 4 1 Watson Burton 1971 Chinese Lyricism Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century New York Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 03464 4 1 2 and 15 18 Watson Burton 1971 Chinese Lyricism Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century New York Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 03464 4 111 and 115 Faurot Jeannette L 1998 Drinking with the moon China Books amp Periodicals p 30 ISBN 978 0 8351 2639 7 Wang Yugen 1 June 2004 Shige The Popular Poetics of Regulated Verse T ang Studies 2004 22 81 125 doi 10 1179 073750304788913221 S2CID 163239068 Schirokauer Conrad 1989 A brief history of Chinese and Japanese civilizations 2nd ed Harcourt Brace Jovanovich p 119 ISBN 978 0 15 505569 8 Kumin Maxine 2002 Gymnastics The Villanelle In Varnes Kathrine ed An Exaltation of Forms Contemporary Poets Celebrate the Diversity of Their Art University of Michigan Press p 314 ISBN 978 0 472 06725 1 Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night in Thomas Dylan 1952 In Country Sleep and Other Poems New Directions Publications p 18 Villanelle in Auden W H 1945 Collected Poems Random House One Art in Bishop Elizabeth 1976 Geography III Farrar Straus amp Giroux Poets Academy of American Limerick Academy of American Poets poets org Retrieved 10 October 2020 Limericks can be found in the work of Lord Alfred Tennyson Rudyard Kipling Robert Louis Stevenson Samy Alim H Ibrahim Awad Pennycook Alastair eds 2009 Global linguistic flows Taylor amp Francis p 181 ISBN 978 0 8058 6283 6 Brower Robert H Miner Earl 1988 Japanese court poetry Stanford University Press pp 86 92 ISBN 978 0 8047 1524 9 McCllintock Michael Ness Pamela Miller Kacian Jim eds 2003 The tanka anthology tanka in English from around the world Red Moon Press pp xxx xlviii ISBN 978 1 893959 40 8 Corn 1997 p 117 Ross Bruce ed 1993 Haiku moment an anthology of contemporary North American haiku Charles E Tuttle Co p xiii ISBN 978 0 8048 1820 9 Yanagibori Etsuko Basho s Haiku on the theme of Mt Fuji The personal notebook of Etsuko Yanagibori Archived from the original on 28 May 2007 a b okhlng Khloong Thai Language Audio Resource Center Thammasat University Retrieved 6 March 2012 Reproduced form Hudak Thomas John 1990 The indigenization of Pali meters in Thai poetry Monographs in International Studies Southeast Asia Series Athens Ohio Ohio University Center for International Studies ISBN 978 0 89680 159 2 Gray Thomas 2000 English lyrics from Dryden to Burns Elibron pp 155 56 ISBN 978 1 4021 0064 2 Gayley Charles Mills Young Clement C 2005 English Poetry Reprint ed Kessinger Publishing p lxxxv ISBN 978 1 4179 0086 2 Kuiper Kathleen ed 2011 Poetry and drama literary terms and concepts Britannica Educational Pub in association with Rosen Educational Services p 51 ISBN 978 1 61530 539 1 Campo Juan E 2009 Encyclopedia of Islam Infobase p 260 ISBN 978 0 8160 5454 1 Qureshi Regula Burckhardt Autumn 1990 Musical Gesture and Extra Musical Meaning Words and Music in the Urdu Ghazal Journal of the American Musicological Society 43 3 457 97 doi 10 1525 jams 1990 43 3 03a00040 Sequeira Isaac 1 June 1981 The Mystique of the Mushaira The Journal of Popular Culture 15 1 1 8 doi 10 1111 j 0022 3840 1981 4745121 x Schimmel Annemarie Spring 1988 Mystical Poetry in Islam The Case of Maulana Jalaladdin Rumi Religion amp Literature 20 1 67 80 Yarshater Retrieved 25 July 2010 Hafiz and the Place of Iranian Culture in the World Archived 3 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine by Aga Khan III 9 November 1936 London Shamel Shafiq 2013 Goethe and Hafiz ISBN 978 3 0343 0881 6 Retrieved 29 October 2014 Goethe and Hafiz Archived from the original on 29 October 2014 Retrieved 29 October 2014 GOETHE Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 Retrieved 29 October 2014 Chandler Daniel Introduction to Genre Theory Aberystwyth University Archived from the original on 9 May 2015 Retrieved 10 December 2011 Schafer Jorgen Gendolla Peter eds 2010 Beyond the screen transformations of literary structures interfaces and genres Verlag pp 16 391 402 ISBN 978 3 8376 1258 5 Kirk G S 2010 Homer and the Oral Tradition reprint ed Cambridge University Press pp 22 45 ISBN 978 0 521 13671 6 Blasing Mutlu Konuk 2006 Lyric poetry the pain and the pleasure of words Princeton University Press pp 1 22 ISBN 978 0 691 12682 1 Hainsworth J B 1989 Traditions of heroic and epic poetry Modern Humanities Research Association pp 171 75 ISBN 978 0 947623 19 7 The Nobel Prize in Literature 1992 Derek Walcott Swedish Academy Retrieved 10 December 2011 Dominik William J Wehrle T 1999 Roman verse satire Lucilius to Juvenal Bolchazy Carducci pp 1 3 ISBN 978 0 86516 442 0 Black Joseph ed 2011 Broadview Anthology of British Literature Vol 1 Broadview Press p 1056 ISBN 978 1 55481 048 2 Pigman G W 1985 Grief and English Renaissance elegy Cambridge University Press pp 40 47 ISBN 978 0 521 26871 4 Kennedy David 2007 Elegy Routledge pp 10 34 ISBN 978 1 134 20906 4 Harpham Geoffrey Galt Abrams M H 10 January 2011 A glossary of literary terms 10th ed Wadsworth Cengage Learning p 9 ISBN 978 0 495 89802 3 Keith Arthur Berriedale 1992 Sanskrit Drama in its origin development theory and practice Motilal Banarsidass pp 57 58 ISBN 978 81 208 0977 2 Dolby William 1983 Early Chinese Plays and Theatre In Mackerras Colin ed Chinese Theater From Its Origins to the Present Day University of Hawaii Press p 17 ISBN 978 0 8248 1220 1 Giordano Mathew 2004 Dramatic Poetics and American Poetic Culture 1865 1904 Doctoral Dissertation Columbus Ohio Ohio State Dramatic poetry Pound s Sestina Altaforte or Eliot s The Love Song of J Alfred Proufrock Eliot T S 1951 Poetry and Drama tseliot com Retrieved 9 October 2020 The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock Modern American Poetry www modernamericanpoetry org Retrieved 9 October 2020 Allen Mike 2005 Dutcher Roger ed The alchemy of stars Science Fiction Poetry Association pp 11 17 ISBN 978 0 8095 1162 4 Rombeck Terry 22 January 2005 Poe s little known science book reprinted Lawrence Journal World amp News Robinson Marilynne On Edgar Allan Poe The New York Review of Books vol LXII no 2 5 February 2015 pp 4 6 Monte Steven 2000 Invisible fences prose poetry as a genre in French and American literature University of Nebraska Press pp 4 9 ISBN 978 0 8032 3211 2 The Prose Poem An International Journal Providence College Retrieved 10 December 2011 Contemporary Haibun Online Retrieved 10 December 2011 Haibun Today A Haibun amp Tanka Prose Journal haibuntoday com Honoring Marc Kelly Smith and International Poetry Slam Movement Mary Hutchings Reed Mary Hutchings Reed Retrieved 5 May 2019 A Brief Guide to Slam Poetry Academy of American Poets Academy of American Poets Retrieved 5 May 2019 5 Tips on Spoken Word Power Poetry Power Poetry Retrieved 5 May 2019 Wheeler Lesley 2008 Voicing American Poetry Sound and Performance from the 1920s to the Present Cornell University Press ISBN 9780801446689 Seavon Fernanda March 2022 INSTANTNI NOSTALGIE A2 5 2022 11 Bigsby Christopher W 1985 A Critical Introduction to Twentieth Century American Drama Volume 3 Beyond Broadway Cambridge University Press p 45 ISBN 9780521278966 Retrieved 5 September 2012 Girones Cristina 16 February 2022 Object Paradise el colectivo artistico que quiere devolver la vida y la voz al barrio de Zizkov Radio Prague International Radio Prague International Retrieved 21 March 2022 obtydenik zive literatury Tvar 7 July 2022 Retrieved 2 June 2022 Bibliography EditAdams Stephen J 1997 Poetic designs an introduction to meters verse forms and figures of speech Broadview ISBN 978 1 55111 129 2 Corn Alfred 1997 The Poem s Heartbeat A Manual of Prosody Storyline Press ISBN 978 1 885266 40 8 Fussell Paul 1965 Poetic Meter and Poetic Form Random House Hollander John 1981 Rhyme s Reason Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 02740 2 Pinsky Robert 1998 The Sounds of Poetry Farrar Straus and Giroux ISBN 978 0 374 26695 0 Further reading Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Poetry Wikisource has original works on the topic Poetry Look up poetry in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Poetry Brooks Cleanth 1947 The Well Wrought Urn Studies in the Structure of Poetry Harcourt Brace amp Company ISBN 9780156957052 Finch Annie 2011 A Poet s Ear A Handbook of Meter and Form University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 05066 6 Fry Stephen 2007 The Ode Less Travelled Unlocking the Poet Within Arrow Books ISBN 978 0 09 950934 9 Gosse Edmund William 1911 Verse Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 27 11th ed pp 1041 1047 Pound Ezra 1951 ABC of Reading Faber Preminger Alex Brogan Terry V F Warnke Frank J eds 1993 The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics 3rd ed Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 02123 2 Poetry Music and Narrative The Science of Art Tatarkiewicz Wladyslaw The Concept of Poetry Dialectics and Humanism The Polish Philosophical Quarterly vol II no 2 spring 1975 pp 13 24 Anthologies Edit Main article List of poetry anthologies Ferguson Margaret Salter Mary Jo Stallworthy Jon eds 1996 The Norton Anthology of Poetry 4th ed W W Norton amp Co ISBN 978 0 393 96820 0 Gardner Helen ed 1972 New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250 1950 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 812136 7 Larkin Philip ed 1973 The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse Oxford University Press Ricks Christopher ed 1999 The Oxford Book of English Verse Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 214182 8 Yeats W B ed 1936 Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892 1935 Oxford University Press Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Poetry amp oldid 1139680559, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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