fbpx
Wikipedia

Music

Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content.[1][2][3] Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world,[4] though it is an aspect of all human societies, a cultural universal.[5] While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on their precise definitions.[6] The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance,[7] though the topic itself extends into academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, and psychology. Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments, including the human voice.

Grooved side of the Voyager Golden Record launched along the Voyager probes to space, which feature music from around the world

In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised. For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs. In modal jazz the performers may take turns leading and responding, while sharing a changing set of notes. In a free jazz context, there may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion. Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable, or agglomerated electronically from many performances. Music is played in public and private areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra performance, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film, TV show, opera, or video game. Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones.

Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities. The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music. Compositions, performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs.

Etymology and terminology

 
In Greek mythology, the nine Muses were the inspiration for many creative endeavors, including the arts, and eventually became closely aligned with music specifically.

The modern English word 'music' came into use in the 1630s.[8] It is derived from a long line of successive precursors: the Old English 'musike' of the mid-13th century; the Old French musique of the 12th century; and the Latin mūsica.[9][10][n 1] The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek mousiké (technē)—μουσική (τέχνη)—literally meaning "(art) of the Muses".[9][n 2] The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek Mythology who presided over the arts and sciences.[13][14] They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors, Homer and Hesiod,[15] and eventually came to be associated with music specifically.[14] Over time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses.[11] The Latin word musica was also the originator for both the Spanish música and French musique via spelling and linguistic adjustment, though other European terms were probably loanwords, including the Italian musica, German musik, Dutch muziek, Norwegian musikk, Polish muzyka and Russian muzïka.[14]

The modern Western world usually defines music as an all-encompassing term, used to describe diverse genres, styles and traditions.[16] This is not the case worldwide, and languages such as modern Indonesian (musik) and Shona (musakazo) have recently adopted words to reflect this universal conception, as they did not have words that fit exactly the Western scope.[14] In East Asia, neither Japan or China have a single word which encompasses music in a broad sense, but culturally often regard music in such a fashion.[17] The closest word to mean music in Chinese, yue, shares a character with le, meaning joy, and originally referred to all the arts before its narrowing in meaning.[17] Africa is too diverse to make firm generalizations, but the musicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia has emphasized African music's often inseparable connection to dance and speech in general.[18] Some African cultures, such as the Songye people of the DRC and Tiv people of Nigeria, have a strong and broad conception of 'music' but no corresponding word in their native languages.[18] Other words commonly translated as 'music' often have more specific meanings in their respective cultures: the Hindi word for music, sangita properly refers to art music,[19] while the many Indigenous languages of the Americas have words for music that refer specifically to song but describe instrumental music regardless.[20] Though the Arabic musiqi can refer to all music, it is usually used for instrumental and metric music, while khandan identifies vocal and improvised music.[21]

History

Origins and prehistory

 
The Divje Babe flute, the oldest known musical instrument. It is made from the femur bone of a cave bear.

It is often debated as to what extent the origins of music will ever be understood,[22] and there are many competing theories which aim to explain it.[23] Many scholars highlight a relationship between the origin of music and the origin of language, and there is disagreement surrounding whether music developed before, after, or simultaneously with language.[24] A similar source of contention surrounds whether music the intentional result of natural selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution.[24] The earliest influential theory was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871, who stated that music arose as form of sexual selection, perhaps via in mating calls.[25] Darwin's original perspective has been heavily criticized for its inconsistencies with other sexual selection methods,[26] though many scholars in the 21st century have developed and promoted the theory.[27] Other theories include that music arose to assist in organizing labor, improving long-distance communication, benefiting communication with the divine, assisting in community cohesion or as a defence to scare of predators.[28]

Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites. Flutes are often discovered, carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi.[citation needed] The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old, though there is considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an object formed by animals.[29] Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley civilization archaeological sites.[30]

India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition.[31]

The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE.[32]

Antiquity

 
Musicians of Amun, Tomb of Nakht, 18th Dynasty, Western Thebes

The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets were played.[33] Percussion instruments, lyres, and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom. Cymbals[34] frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music, including the traditional Sufi dhikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.[35][36]

The "Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal", found on clay tablets that date back to approximately 1400 BCE, is the oldest surviving notated work of music.[37][38]

Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece, in fact it was one of the main subjects taught to children. Musical education was considered to be important for the development of an individual's soul. Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater,[39] and those who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect harmony (as can be read in the Republic, Plato). Mixed gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.[40] Instruments included the double-reed aulos and a plucked string instrument, the lyre, principally a special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created significant musical development. Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world.[41] The oldest surviving work written on the subject of music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia by Aristoxenus.[42]

Asian cultures

 
Indian women dressed in regional attire playing a variety of musical instruments popular in different parts of India

Asian music covers a vast swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several have traditions reaching into antiquity.

Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[43] Sculptures from the Indus Valley civilization show dance[44] and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[45] The Rigveda, an ancient Hindu text, has elements of present Indian music, with musical notation to denote the meter and the mode of chanting.[46] Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas. Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal provides information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale.[47] Present day Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals. Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are also many songs emphasizing love and other social issues.

 
Indonesia is the home of gong chime, there are many variants across Indonesia, especially in Java and Bali.

Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd to 3rd centuries BCE. Indonesian traditional music often uses percussion instruments, especially kendang and gongs. Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments, such as the sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote, the Sundanese angklung, and the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras. Indonesia is the home of gong chime, a general term for a set of small, high pitched pot gongs. Gongs are usually placed in order of note, with the boss up on a string held in a low wooden frame. The most popular and famous form of Indonesian music is probably gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo suling.

Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does European-influenced music.

Western classical

Early music

 
Musical notation from a Catholic Missal, c. 1310–1320

The medieval music era (476 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages, started with the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into Roman Catholic Church services. Musical notation was used since Ancient times in Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced by the Catholic church so that the chant melodies could be written down, to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire Catholic empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found in written form from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin, Guillaume de Machaut, and Walther von der Vogelweide.

Renaissance music (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular (non-religious) themes, such as courtly love. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Musicians and singers often worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of music. By the middle of the 15th century, composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Dufay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, and Orlande de Lassus. As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading important composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. They are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain.

Common practice period

Baroque

The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque artistic style flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first operas (dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra) were written. During the Baroque era, polyphonic contrapuntal music, in which multiple, simultaneous independent melody lines were used, remained important (counterpoint was important in the vocal music of the Medieval era). German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as for choirs and keyboard instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.[48] The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented. Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach (Cello suites), George Frideric Handel (Messiah), Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (The Four Seasons).

Classicism
 
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period.

The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the music from the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music in general, a term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods). Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture than the Baroque music which preceded it. The main style was homophony,[49] where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct. Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were developed, and the fortepiano, the forerunner to the modern piano, replaced the Baroque era harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument (though pipe organ continued to be used in sacred music, such as Masses).

Importance was given to instrumental music. It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Others main kinds were the trio, string quartet, serenade and divertimento. The sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata. The instruments used chamber music and orchestra became more standardized. In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque era, which consisted of harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string quartet would be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello). The Baroque era improvised chord-playing of the continuo keyboardist or lute player was gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800.

One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres such as opera and oratorio became more popular.

The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.

Romanticism
 
The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle-class urbanites in the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind, 1868). The man at the piano is composer Franz Schubert.

Romantic music (c. 1810 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era. Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces and songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems, composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music. The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition.

Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature), history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period. In some cases, the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches were explored for existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter. Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music, exploring new styles and themes.[39]

In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case, short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered chords, which created new sound "colors." The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and the industrial revolution helped to create better instruments, creating a more powerful sound. Public concerts became an important part of well-to-do urban society. It also saw a new diversity in theatre music, including operetta, and musical comedy and other forms of musical theatre.[39]

20th and 21st century

 
Landman's 2006 Moodswinger, a 3rd-bridged overtone zither and an example of experimental musical instruments

In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which middle class amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other common instruments, such as violin. With 20th-century music, the invention of new electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and the mass market availability of gramophone records meant that sound recordings of songs and pieces heard by listeners (either on the radio or on their record player) became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces. There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music, anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas, symphonies and big bands right in their own living room, while during the 19th century, the focus on sheet music restricted access to new music to the middle class and upper-class people who could read music and who owned pianos and instruments. This allowed lower-income people, who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music. It also meant that people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations. This helped to spread musical styles.

The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I influenced many of the arts, including music, and some composers began exploring darker, harsher sounds. Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th-century art music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic[50] and Musique concrète schools of electronic composition. Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it could do much more than record a band's performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance.

Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same. Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note.[51]

Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from 1960s rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music.[52] The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section. Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments. In its "purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody."[This quote needs a citation] The traditional rhythm section for popular music is rhythm guitar, electric bass guitar, drums. Some bands also have keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, analog synthesizers. In the 1980s, pop musicians began using digital synthesizers, such as the DX-7 synthesizer, electronic drum machines such as the TR-808 and synth bass devices (such as the TB-303) or synth bass keyboards. In the 1990s, an increasingly large range of computerized hardware musical devices and instruments and software (e.g. digital audio workstations) were used. In the 2020s, soft synths and computer music apps make it possible for bedroom producers to create and record some types of music, such as electronic dance music, in their own home, adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the recording digitally. In the 1990s, some bands in genres such as nu metal began including DJs in their bands. DJs create music by manipulating recorded music on record players or CD players, using a DJ mixer.

Innovation in music technology continued into the 21st century, including the development of isomorphic keyboards and Dynamic Tonality.

Creation

Composition

 
French Baroque music composer Michel Richard Delalande (1657–1726), pen in hand
 
People composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards and computers

"Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music "score", which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead, compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.

Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.[citation needed]

Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create, perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from avant-garde music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze.

The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.

Performance

 
Chinese Naxi musicians
 
Assyrians playing zurna and Davul, instruments that go back thousands of years

Performance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song is sung or when a piano piece, electric guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other musical part is played by musicians. In classical music, a musical work is written in music notation by a composer and then it is performed once the composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation. However, as it gets performed, the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change. In classical music, instrumental performers, singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece. In popular and traditional music, the performers have a lot more freedom to make changes to the form of a song or piece. As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a band plays a cover song, they can make changes to it such as adding a guitar solo to or inserting an introduction.

A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)—which is the norm in classical music, jazz big bands, and many popular music styles–or improvised over a chord progression (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in small jazz and blues groups. Rehearsals of orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. Rock, blues and jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader. A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the performers until it can be sung or played correctly and, if it is a song or piece for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning perspective. Improvisation is the creation of a musical idea–a melody or other musical line–created on the spot, often based on scales or pre-existing melodic riffs.

Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance (in which one singer or instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organized performances such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, classical music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than large symphonic works.

Improvisation

Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisers use the notes of the chord, various scales that are associated with each chord, and chromatic ornaments and passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor from the typical scales associated with a chord. Musical improvisation can be done with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines, and accompaniment parts.

In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments, and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. As well, the top soloists were expected to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes. In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts.

However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as "common practice" Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses, and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role, as more and more music was notated in scores and parts for musicians to play. At the same time, some 20th and 21st century art music composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances.

Art and entertainment

Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. When music was only available through sheet music scores, such as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at home on the piano. With the advent of the phonograph, records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs. With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s and digital music in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists of their favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their favourite songs, which serve as a "self-portrait, a gesture of friendship, prescription for an ideal party... [and] an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved".[53]

Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching bands, concert bands and popular music groups), religious institutions, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras.

A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in both classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers. In the jam band scene, live, improvised jam sessions are preferred to studio recordings.

Notation

 
Sheet music is a written representation of music. Homorhythmic (i.e., hymn-style) arrangement of the traditional "Adeste Fideles" in standard two-staff format for mixed voices.  play 

In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated. Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music. For example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a "slow blues" or a "fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read music notation, a person must have an understanding of music theory, harmony and the performance practice associated with a particular song or piece's genre.

Written notation varies with the style and period of music. In the 2000s, notated music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen. In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation, the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz or country music).

In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tablature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.

Oral and aural tradition

Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were not written down in sheet music; instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, from one musician or singer to another, or aurally, in which a performer learns a song "by ear". When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional" or as a "folk song". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song.

Elements

Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the definition of "element" being used, these can include pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color, dynamics, expression, articulation, form, and structure. The elements of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, the UK, and the US. All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre, and texture as elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed upon. Below is a list of the three official versions of the "elements of music":

  • Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and structure.[54]
  • UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.[55]
  • USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony, style/articulation.[56]

In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: "appropriate musical notations" was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the "elements of music" to the "inter-related dimensions of music". The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure, and appropriate musical notations.[57]

The phrase "the elements of music" is used in a number of different contexts. The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the "rudimentary elements of music" and the "perceptual elements of music".[n 3]

Pitch

Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note, or tone is "higher" or "lower" than another musical sound, note, or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum. We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck.

Melody

 
The melody to the traditional song "Pop Goes the Weasel"  play 

A melody (also called a "tune") is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or modes. Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song. The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given song. For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and C; these are the "white notes" on a piano keyboard. On the other hand, Bebop-era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano, a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard, including the "white notes" and "black notes" and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F, G and A). A low, deep musical line played by bass instruments such as double bass, electric bass, or tuba is called a bassline.

Harmony

 
A player performing a chord (combination of many different notes) on a guitar

Harmony refers to the "vertical" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord. Usually, this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality ("keys"), which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock, and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the "home note" or tonic to which the piece generally resolves, and the character (e.g. major or minor) of the scale in use. Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is in a single key. More complex Classical, pop, and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or "home note" of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars.

Rhythm

Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western classical, popular, and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four (e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping. Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock, in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or common time) will have accents on beats two and four, which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum, a loud and distinctive-sounding percussion instrument. In pop and rock, the rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing instruments (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard instruments), a bass instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and bluegrass, double bass) and a drum kit player.

Texture

Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture of a piece or song is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section or another brass. The thickness also is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments. Texture is commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts or lines of music:

  • monophony: a single melody (or "tune") with neither instrumental accompaniment nor a harmony part. A mother singing a lullaby to her baby would be an example.
  • heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different ornaments to the melody. Two bluegrass fiddlers playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary the melody by some degree and each add different ornaments.
  • polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which are sung or played at the same time. Choral music written in the Renaissance music era was typically written in this style. A round, which is a song such as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time, is an example of polyphony.
  • homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment. Most Western popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture.

Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double concerto accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines) is generally said to have a "thicker" or "denser" texture than a work with few parts (e.g., a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello).

Timbre

 
Spectrogram of the first second of an E9 suspended chord played on a Fender Stratocaster guitar. Below is the E9 suspended chord audio:

Timbre, sometimes called "color" or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument.[62] Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe, piano, violin, or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings versus steel strings). Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold the bow differently).

The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the spectrum, envelope, and overtones of a note or musical sound. For electric instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar, electric bass and electric piano, the performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the instrument, and by using electronic effects units such as distortion pedals. The tone of the electric Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars.

Expression

Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its accompaniment. Performers, including singers and instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with voice and some instruments, such as guitar, violin, brass instruments, and woodwinds), dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g., ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence, and by changing the articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato, which means smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter).

Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch (such as inflection, vibrato, slides etc.), volume (dynamics, accent, tremolo etc.), duration (tempo fluctuations, rhythmic changes, changing note duration such as with legato and staccato, etc.), timbre (e.g. changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant voice) and sometimes even texture (e.g. doubling the bass note for a richer effect in a piano piece). Expression therefore can be seen as a manipulation of all elements in order to convey "an indication of mood, spirit, character etc."[63] and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of music,[64] although it can be considered an important rudimentary element of music.

Form

 
Sheet music notation for the chorus (refrain) of the Christmas song "Jingle Bells"  Jingle Bells refrain vector.mid

In music, form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of music,[65] and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.[66] In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway musical songs were often in AABA 32 bar form, in which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody (with variation) and the B section provided a contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars. From the 1960s onward, Western pop and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which comprises a sequence of verse and chorus ("refrain") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and repeating lyrics for the choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic form, sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues.[citation needed]

In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes defines musical form as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration."[67] Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variations, and rondo.

Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.[68])

Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be through-composed. Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody, etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu, etc.[citation needed] Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as "sectional, developmental, or variational."[69]

Philosophy

 
The Woman in Red by Giovanni Boldini

The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music. The philosophical study of music has many connections with philosophical questions in metaphysics and aesthetics. Some basic questions in the philosophy of music are[according to whom?]:

In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks, the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization. In the 18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music, and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (plaisir and jouissance) of music. The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century, followed by Immanuel Kant. Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning sensory perception, received its present-day connotation. In the 2000s, philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment. For example, music's capacity to express emotion has been a central issue.[citation needed]

In the 20th century, important contributions were made by Peter Kivy, Jerrold Levinson, Roger Scruton, and Stephen Davies. However, many musicians, music critics, and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music. In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick, a music critic and musicologist, and composer Richard Wagner regarding whether music can express meaning. Harry Partch and some other musicologists, such as Kyle Gann, have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music and the usage of alternate musical scales. Also many modern composers like La Monte Young, Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just intonation.[citation needed]

It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions, intellect, and psychology; it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. The philosopher Plato suggests in The Republic that music has a direct effect on the soul. Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state (Book VII).[70] In Ancient China, the philosopher Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and harmonious with nature; he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and earth, while the order was brought by the rites order, making them extremely crucial functions in society.[71]

Psychology

Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience.[72] Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical; their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants. In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human aptitude, skill, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.

Neuroscience

 
The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.

Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).

Cognitive musicology

Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.[73] The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science.[74]

This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.[75] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[76]

Psychoacoustics

Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics.

Evolutionary musicology

Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".[77] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[78] a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[79][80][page needed][81] An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.[82] This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[83][84][85]

Cultural effects

An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[86][87] Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[88][89]

Perceptual

Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists of elements of music have related more to how we hear music than how we learn to play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book Psychology of Music,[90] identified four "psychological attributes of sound". These were: "pitch, loudness, time, and timbre" (p. 3). He did not call them the "elements of music" but referred to them as "elemental components" (p. 2). Nonetheless, these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements: "Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with dynamics, and "time" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo. This usage of the phrase "the elements of music" links more closely with Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an element as: "a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods"[91] and educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition as well.

Although writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" can vary their lists depending on their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual elements of music should consist of an established (or proven) list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area.

A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music, is to identify the "elements of sound" as: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location,[92] and then to define the "elements of music" as: sound, structure, and artistic intent.[92]

Sociological aspects

 
Song Dynasty (960–1279) painting, Night Revels of Han Xizai, showing Chinese musicians entertaining guests at a party in a 10th-century household

Many ethnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory, community-based activity.[93][94] Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert, forming a music community, which cannot be understood as a function of individual will or accident; it includes both commercial and non-commercial participants with a shared set of common values. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats.

Other types of music—including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, soul, and country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls.

However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music.[citation needed] Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomics standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music.[citation needed] For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes.[citation needed] Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, rap, punk, funk, or ska may be very complex and sophisticated.

When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention, there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism, bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.[citation needed] Such themes are examined in the sociology of music. The sociological study of music, sometimes called sociomusicology, is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology.

Role of women

 
19th-century composer and pianist Clara Schumann

Women have played a major role in music throughout history, as composers, songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions. In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music, from the medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is one of the few female composers who is mentioned.

Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres.[95] In the 1960s pop-music scene, "[l]ike most aspects of the...music business, [in the 1960s,] songwriting was a male-dominated field. Though there were plenty of female singers on the radio, women ...were primarily seen as consumers:... Singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument, writing songs, or producing records simply wasn't done."[96] Young women "...were not socialized to see themselves as people who create [music]."[96]

Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became involved in music education "...to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century."[97]

According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's The Independent, women musicians in classical music are "...too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent" and they face pressure "...to look sexy onstage and in photos."[98] Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks,...the ones who do tend to be more materially successful."[98] According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the conductor of an orchestra.[99] In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.[100] One of the most recorded artists is Asha Bhosle, an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi cinema.[101]

Media and technology

 
Music production in the 2000s using a digital audio workstation (DAW) with an electronic keyboard and a multi-monitor set-up

Since the 20th century, live music can be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet, or recorded and listened to on a CD player or Mp3 player.

In the early 20th century (in the late 1920s), as talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work.[102] During the 1920s, live musical performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run theaters.[103] With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever"[104]

Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Some pop bands use recorded backing tracks. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also become performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.

The advent of the Internet and widespread high-speed broadband access has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to recordings of music via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music for consumers. Another effect of the Internet arose with online communities and social media websites like YouTube and Facebook, a social networking service. These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and amateur bands to distribute videos of their songs, connect with other musicians, and gain audience interest. Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material. YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to MP3s, but also actively create their own. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, in their book Wikinomics, there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a "prosumer" role, a consumer who both creates content and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans.[105]

Education

Non-institutional

 
A Suzuki violin recital with students of varying ages

The incorporation of some music or singing training into general education from preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in playing and singing music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.[106] In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music and traditional music. Some elementary school children also learn about popular music styles. In religious schools, children sing hymns and other religious music. In secondary schools (and less commonly in elementary schools), students may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical ensembles, such as choirs (a group of singers), marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or orchestras. In some school systems, music lessons on how to play instruments may be provided. Some students also take private music lessons after school with a singing teacher or instrument teacher. Amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments (e.g., learning about musical notation for musical scales and rhythms) and beginner- to intermediate-level singing or instrument-playing techniques.

At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking a few music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some types of musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).

Institutional

 
Manhattan School of Music professor and professional double bass player Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000s. His bass has a low C extension with a metal "machine" with buttons for playing the pitches on the extension.

People aiming to become professional musicians, singers, composers, songwriters, music teachers and practitioners of other music-related professions such as music history professors, sound engineers, and so on study in specialized post-secondary programs offered by colleges, universities and music conservatories. Some institutions that train individuals for careers in music offer training in a wide range of professions, as is the case with many of the top U.S. universities, which offer degrees in music performance (including singing and playing instruments), music history, music theory, music composition, music education (for individuals aiming to become elementary or high school music teachers) and, in some cases, conducting. On the other hand, some small colleges may only offer training in a single profession (e.g., sound recording).

While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students in classical music, there are a number of universities and colleges that train musicians for careers as jazz or popular music musicians and composers, with notable U.S. examples including the Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee College of Music. Two important schools in Canada which offer professional jazz training are McGill University and Humber College. Individuals aiming at careers in some types of music, such as heavy metal music, country music or blues are less likely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas in colleges or universities. Instead, they typically learn about their style of music by singing or playing in many bands (often beginning in amateur bands, cover bands and tribute bands), studying recordings available on CD, DVD and the Internet and working with already-established professionals in their style of music, either through informal mentoring or regular music lessons. Since the 2000s, the increasing popularity and availability of Internet forums and YouTube "how-to" videos have enabled many singers and musicians from metal, blues and similar genres to improve their skills. Many pop, rock and country singers train informally with vocal coaches and singing teachers.

Academic study

Musicology

Musicology, the academic study of the subject of music, is studied in universities and music conservatories. The earliest definitions from the 19th century defined three sub-disciplines of musicology: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology. In 2010-era scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-Western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology. Students can pursue the undergraduate study of musicology, ethnomusicology, music history, and music theory through several different types of degrees, including bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhD degrees.

Music theory

Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even of music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.

Zoomusicology

Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's Langage, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."

Ethnomusicology

 
Ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916)

In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music, which is known as classical music. The history of music in non-Western cultures ("world music" or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular or folk styles of music in non-Western countries varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments, techniques, singing styles and uses for music. Music has been used for entertainment, ceremonies, rituals, religious purposes and for practical and artistic communication. Non-Western music has also been used for propaganda purposes, as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution.

There is a host of music classifications for non-Western music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or commercial music – including non-Western styles of rock, country, and pop music-related styles). Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz-related music).

As world cultures have come into greater global contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged with other styles, which produces new styles. For example, the United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic "melting pot" society. Some types of world music contain a mixture of non-Western indigenous styles with Western pop music elements. Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some works, like George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition. Many current music festivals for non-Western music include bands and singers from a particular musical genre, such as world music.

Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India.

Therapy

 
A music therapist from a "Blues in the Schools" program plays harmonica with a US Navy sailor at a Naval Therapy Center.

Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical disabilities, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse issues, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities. Music therapists may encourage clients to sing, play instruments, create songs, or do other musical activities.

In the 10th century, the philosopher Al-Farabi described how vocal music can stimulate the feelings and souls of listeners.[107] Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy argued that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.[108] He noted that music has an "excellent power ...to expel many other diseases" and he called it "a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy." He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout."[109][110][111] In the Ottoman Empire, mental illnesses were treated with music.[112] In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients.[113][114]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ A now discredited theory held by many medieval thinkers was that 'music' was descended from the Egyptian word moys, meaning water, thought to connect to Moses.[11]
  2. ^ For the further etymological origins, mousiké derives from the feminine form of mousikos, which is anything "pertaining to the muses", from the Ancient Greek word for Muse, Mousa.[9] There is no agreement on the origins of the word Mousa,[12] though see Muses § Etymology for proposed theories.
  3. ^ In the 1800s, the phrases "the elements of music" and "the rudiments of music" were used interchangeably.[58][59] The elements described in these documents refer to aspects of music that are needed in order to become a musician, Recent writers such as Espie Estrella seem to be using the phrase "elements of music" in a similar manner.[60] A definition which most accurately reflects this usage is: "the rudimentary principles of an art, science, etc.: the elements of grammar."[61] The UK's curriculum switch to the "inter-related dimensions of music" seems to be a move back to using the rudimentary elements of music.

Citations

  1. ^ OED, §1.
  2. ^ AHD, §1.
  3. ^ Epperson 2022, § para. 1.
  4. ^ Mithen 2005, pp. 26–27.
  5. ^ Morley 2013, p. 5.
  6. ^ Gardner 1983, p. 104.
  7. ^ Nettl 2001, §III "3. Music among the arts".
  8. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 2.
  9. ^ a b c Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 1.
  10. ^ Hoad, T. F., ed. (2003) [1996]. "music". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. ISBN 978-0-19-283098-2. from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
  11. ^ a b Apel 1969, p. 548.
  12. ^ Anderson & Mathiesen 2001, § para 1.
  13. ^ Murray 2020, pp. 13–14.
  14. ^ a b c d Nettl 2001, §I "1. Etymology".
  15. ^ Anderson & Mathiesen 2001, § para 2.
  16. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "1. Contemporary Western culture".
  17. ^ a b Nettl 2001, §II "2. East Asia".
  18. ^ a b Nettl 2001, §II "5. Some African cultures".
  19. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "4. India".
  20. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "6. Some Amerindian and Oceanian cultures".
  21. ^ Nettl 2001, §II "3. Iran and the Middle East".
  22. ^ Merker, Morley & Zuidema 2015, § "Introduction".
  23. ^ Morley 2013, pp. 2–3.
  24. ^ a b Wallin, Merker & Brown 2000, p. 8.
  25. ^ Huron 2003, p. 61.
  26. ^ Huron 2003, p. 62.
  27. ^ Wallin, Merker & Brown 2000, p. 11.
  28. ^ Nettl 2001, §8 "On the Origins of Music".
  29. ^ Morley 2013, pp. 38–39.
  30. ^ Reginald Massey; Jamila Massey (1996). The Music of India. Abhinav Publications. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-7017-332-8. from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
  31. ^ Brown, RE (1971). "India's Music". Readings in Ethnomusicology.
  32. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese history. Harvard University Asia Center.
  33. ^ Music of Ancient Egypt 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
  34. ^ "UC 33268". digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  35. ^ Hickmann, Hans (1957). "Un Zikr Dans le Mastaba de Debhen, Guîzah (IVème Dynastie)". Journal of the International Folk Music Council. 9: 59–62. doi:10.2307/834982. JSTOR 834982.
  36. ^ Hickmann, Hans (January–March 1960). "Rythme, mètre et mesure de la musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens Egyptiens". Acta Musicologica. 32 (1): 11–22. doi:10.2307/931818. JSTOR 931818.
  37. ^ Stolba, K. Marie (1995). The Development of Western Music: A History (brief second ed.). Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers. p. 2.
  38. ^ West, Martin Litchfield (May 1994). "The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts". Music and Letters. Vol. 75. pp. 161–179.
  39. ^ a b c Savage, Roger. "Incidental music", Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, accessed 13 August 2012 (subscription required) 25 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ^ West, Martin Litchfield (1994). Ancient Greek music. Oxford University Press.
  41. ^ Winnington-Ingram, Reginald P. (October 1929). "Ancient Greek Music: A Survey". Music & Letters. 10 (4): 326–345. doi:10.1093/ml/X.4.326. JSTOR 726126.
  42. ^ Aristoxenus, Henry Stewart Macran (1902). Harmonika Stoicheia (The Harmonics of Aristoxenus). Georg Olms Verlag. ISBN 978-3-487-40510-0. OCLC 123175755. from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
  43. ^ Richard O. Nidel, World Music: The Basics, p. 219.
  44. ^ Charles Kahn, World History: Societies of the Past, p. 98.
  45. ^ World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (p. 11)
  46. ^ World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (p. 10)
  47. ^ Rajagopal, Geetha (2009). Music rituals in the temples of South India, Volume 1. D. K. Printworld. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-81-246-0538-7. from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  48. ^ Elaine Thornburgh; Jack Logan, Ph.D. . trumpet.sdsu.edu. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  49. ^ Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1970. Print.
  50. ^ Schaeffer, P. (1966), Traité des objets musicaux, Le Seuil, Paris.
  51. ^ Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5
  52. ^ Gilliland, John (1969). "Show 55 – Crammer: A lively cram course on the history of rock and some other things" (audio). Pop Chronicles. University of North Texas Libraries.[time needed]
  53. ^ Kirszner, Laurie G. (January 2012). Patterns for College Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 520. ISBN 978-0-312-67684-1
  54. ^ . The Australian Curriculum. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
  55. ^ Education.gov.uk. (2011). Music – Schools. Retrieved 12 July 2013, from http://www.education.gov.uk/schools/teachingandlearning/curriculum/primary/b00199150/music 22 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  56. ^ NAfME. (2015). Core music standards glossary. http://www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/core-music-standards 10 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine /
  57. ^ Gov.uk. (2013). National curriculum in England: music programmes of study. Retrieved 6 January 2016, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-music-programmes-of-study 26 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  58. ^ Clementi, M.: "Introduction to the art of playing on the piano forte", Da Capo Press (1974). Cohen, Dalia and Dubnov, Shlomo (1996). "Gestalt phenomena in musical texture", Springer doi:10.1007/BFb0034128
  59. ^ Niecks, Frederick (1884). A Concise Dictionary of Musical Terms.. "Review". The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. 25 (498): 473. 1 August 1884. doi:10.2307/3357513. hdl:2027/uc1.b4284161. JSTOR 3357513. from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  60. ^ Estrella, Espie (4 November 2019). "An Introduction to the Elements of Music". liveabout.com. from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
  61. ^ "Element" 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, (n.d.) In Dictionary.com unabridged. Retrieved 10 June 2015
  62. ^ Harnsberger, Lindsey. "Articulation." Essential Dictionary of Music. Alfred Publishing Co., Inc. Los Angeles, CA.
  63. ^ "the definition of expression". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com. from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  64. ^ Burton, Russell (2015). "The elements of music: What are they, and who cares?". Educating for Life. ASME XXTH National Conference Proceeding. Australian Society for Music Education.: 22.
  65. ^ Schmidt-Jones, Catherine (11 March 2011). "Form in Music". Connexions. from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
  66. ^ Brandt, Anthony (11 January 2007). "Musical Form". Connexions. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
  67. ^ Scholes, Percy A. (1977). "Form". The Oxford Companion to Music (10 ed.). Oxford University Press.
  68. ^ Mann, Alfred (1958). The Study of Fugue. W.W.Norton and Co. Inc.
  69. ^ Keil, Charles (1966). Urban blues. ISBN 978-0-226-42960-1.
  70. ^ Plato (2006). The Republic, Book VII. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. p. 7.
  71. ^ Kirkendall, Jensen Armstrong (14 December 2017). "The Well-Ordered Heart: Confucius on Harmony, Music, and Ritual" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  72. ^ Tan, Siu-Lan; Pfordresher, Peter; Harré, Rom (2010). Psychology of Music: From Sound to Significance. New York: Psychology Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-84169-868-7.
  73. ^ Laske, Otto (1999). Navigating New Musical Horizons (Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance). Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30632-7.
  74. ^ Laske, O. (1999). AI and music: A cornerstone of cognitive musicology. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske (Eds.), Understanding music with ai: Perspectives on music cognition. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
  75. ^ Graci, C. (2009–2010) A brief tour of the learning sciences featuring a cognitive tool for investigating melodic phenomena. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 38(2), 181–211.
  76. ^ Hamman, M., 1999. "Structure as Performance: Cognitive Musicology and the Objectification of Procedure," in Otto Laske: Navigating New Musical Horizons, ed. J. Tabor. New York: Greenwood Press.
  77. ^ Wallin, Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown (1999): "An Introduction to Evolutionary Musicology." In: Wallin, Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown (Eds., 1999): The Origins of Music, pp. 5–6. ISBN 0-262-23206-5.
  78. ^ "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex". 1871. from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2014. Chapter III; Language
  79. ^ Nils L. Wallin; Björn Merker; Steven Brown, eds. (2000). The Origins of Music. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-23206-7.
  80. ^ Mithen 2005.
  81. ^ Hagen, Edward H; Hammerstein P (2009). "Did Neanderthals and other early humans sing? Seeking the biological roots of music in the loud calls of primates, lions, hyenas, and wolves" (PDF). Musicae Scientiae. doi:10.1177/1029864909013002131. S2CID 39481097. (PDF) from the original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  82. ^ Pinker, Steven (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 534. ISBN 978-0-393-04535-2.
  83. ^ Perlovsky L. Music. Cognitive Function, Origin, And Evolution Of Musical Emotions. WebmedCentral PSYCHOLOGY 2011;2(2):WMC001494
  84. ^ Alison Abbott. 2002. "Neurobiology: Music, maestro, please!" Nature 416, 12–14 (7 March 2002) | doi:10.1038/416012a
  85. ^ Carroll, Joseph (1998). "Steven Pinker's Cheesecake For The Mind". Cogweb.ucla.edu. from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
  86. ^ Soley, G.; Hannon, E. E. (2010). "Infants prefer the musical meter of their own culture: A cross-cultural comparison". Developmental Psychology. 46 (1): 286–292. doi:10.1037/a0017555. PMID 20053025.
  87. ^ Balkwill, L.; Thompson, W. F.; Matsunaga, R. (2004). "Recognition of emotion in Japanese, Western, and Hindustani music by Japanese listeners". Japanese Psychological Research. 46 (4): 337–349. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5584.2004.00265.x.
  88. ^ Demorest, S. M.; Morrison, S. J.; Beken, M. N.; Jungbluth, D. (2008). "Lost in translation: An enculturation effect in music memory performance". Music Perception. 25 (3): 213–223. doi:10.1525/mp.2008.25.3.213.
  89. ^ Groussard, M.; Rauchs, G.; Landeau, B.; Viader, F.; Desgranges, B.; Eustache, F.; Platel, H. (2010). "The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks" (PDF). NeuroImage. 53 (4): 1301–1309. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.013. PMID 20627131. S2CID 8955075. (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  90. ^ Seashore, C. E. (1938). Psychology of Music: New York: Dover Publications.
  91. ^ Webster, N. (Ed.) (1947) Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary. Clevelend Ohio: The World Publishing Company.
  92. ^ a b Burton, R.L. (2015). The elements of music: what are they, and who cares? 10 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine In J. Rosevear & S. Harding. (Eds.), ASME XXth National Conference proceedings. Paper presented at: Music: Educating for life: ASME XXth National Conference (pp. 22–28), Parkville, Victoria: The Australian Society for Music Education Inc.
  93. ^ Grazian, David. "The Symbolic Economy of Authenticity in the Chicago Blues Scene." in Music Scenes: Local, Translocal, and Virtual. ed. Bennett, Andy and Richard A. Peterson. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004. pp. 31–47
  94. ^ Rebecca Elizabeth Ball (2010). Portland's Independent Music Scene: Formation of Community Identities and Alternative Urban Cultural Landscapes 1 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, p. 27
  95. ^ Julian Schaap and Pauwke Berkers. "Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music" in IASPM Journal. Vol. 4, no. 1 (2014) p. 103
  96. ^ a b Erika White (28 January 2015). "Music History Primer: 3 Pioneering Female Songwriters of the '60s | REBEAT Magazine". Rebeatmag.com. from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  97. ^ "Women Composers In American Popular Song". Parlorsongs.com. 25 March 1911. p. 1. from the original on 4 February 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  98. ^ a b . CBC Music. Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
  99. ^ Jessica Duchen. "Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end | Music". The Guardian. from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  100. ^ Ncube, Rosina (September 2013). "Sounding Off: Why So Few Women In Audio?". Sound on Sound. from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  101. ^ "Singer Asha Bhosle enters Guinness World Records for most single studio recordings". India Today. 21 October 2011. from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
  102. ^ . Archived from the original on 5 April 2007.
  103. ^ Hubbard (1985), p. 429.[incomplete short citation]
  104. ^ "Canned Music on Trial" 14 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine part of Duke University's Ad*Access project.
  105. ^ Tapscott, Don; Williams, Anthony D. (28 December 2006). Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Portfolio Hardcover. ISBN 978-1-59184-138-8.
  106. ^ Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002[incomplete short citation]
  107. ^ Rens Bod (2022). World of Patterns: A Global History of Knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9781421443454.
  108. ^ cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3,480, "Music a Remedy"
  109. ^ Ismenias the Theban, Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now thy do those, saith Bodine, that are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. Project Gutenberg's The Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democritus Junior 13 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  110. ^ "Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What should we do about it?" 15 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.
  111. ^ Aung, Steven K. H.; Lee, Mathew H. M. (2004). "Music, Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts". Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 10 (5): 266–270. doi:10.1089/act.2004.10.266.
  112. ^ Treatment of Mental Illnesses With Music Therapy – A different approach from history 1 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  113. ^ Crawford, Mike J.; Talwar, Nakul; et al. (November 2006). "Music therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised controlled trial". British Journal of Psychiatry. 189 (5): 405–409. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073. PMID 17077429. Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental health among people with schizophrenia, but its effects in acute psychoses have not been explored
  114. ^ Dr. Michael J. Crawford page 28 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine at Imperial College London, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine.

Sources

Further reading

  • Kennedy, Michal; Kennedy, Joyce Bourne (2013) [2012]. Tim Rutherford-Johnson (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Music (6th paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957854-2.
  • Small, Christopher (1977). Music, Society, Education. John Calder Publishers, London. ISBN 0-7145-3614-8

External links

music, other, uses, disambiguation, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, th. For other uses see Music disambiguation This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Music news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably Please consider splitting content into sub articles condensing it or adding subheadings Please discuss this issue on the article s talk page May 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form harmony melody rhythm or otherwise expressive content 1 2 3 Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world 4 though it is an aspect of all human societies a cultural universal 5 While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements there is no consensus on their precise definitions 6 The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition musical improvisation and musical performance 7 though the topic itself extends into academic disciplines criticism philosophy and psychology Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments including the human voice Grooved side of the Voyager Golden Record launched along the Voyager probes to space which feature music from around the world In some musical contexts a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised For instance in Hindustani classical music the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs In modal jazz the performers may take turns leading and responding while sharing a changing set of notes In a free jazz context there may be no structure whatsoever with each performer acting at their discretion Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable or agglomerated electronically from many performances Music is played in public and private areas highlighted at events such as festivals rock concerts and orchestra performance and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film TV show opera or video game Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones Music often plays a key role in social activities religious rituals rite of passage ceremonies celebrations and cultural activities The music industry includes songwriters performers sound engineers producers tour organizers distributors of instruments accessories and sheet music Compositions performances and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics music journalists and music scholars as well as amateurs Contents 1 Etymology and terminology 2 History 2 1 Origins and prehistory 2 2 Antiquity 2 3 Asian cultures 2 4 Western classical 2 4 1 Early music 2 4 2 Common practice period 2 4 2 1 Baroque 2 4 2 2 Classicism 2 4 2 3 Romanticism 2 5 20th and 21st century 3 Creation 3 1 Composition 3 2 Performance 3 3 Improvisation 4 Art and entertainment 4 1 Notation 4 2 Oral and aural tradition 5 Elements 5 1 Pitch 5 2 Melody 5 3 Harmony 5 4 Rhythm 5 5 Texture 5 6 Timbre 5 7 Expression 5 8 Form 6 Philosophy 7 Psychology 7 1 Neuroscience 7 2 Cognitive musicology 7 3 Psychoacoustics 7 4 Evolutionary musicology 7 5 Cultural effects 7 6 Perceptual 8 Sociological aspects 8 1 Role of women 9 Media and technology 10 Education 10 1 Non institutional 10 2 Institutional 11 Academic study 11 1 Musicology 11 2 Music theory 11 3 Zoomusicology 11 4 Ethnomusicology 12 Therapy 13 See also 14 References 14 1 Notes 14 2 Citations 14 3 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External linksEtymology and terminology In Greek mythology the nine Muses were the inspiration for many creative endeavors including the arts and eventually became closely aligned with music specifically The modern English word music came into use in the 1630s 8 It is derived from a long line of successive precursors the Old English musike of the mid 13th century the Old French musique of the 12th century and the Latin musica 9 10 n 1 The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek mousike techne moysikh texnh literally meaning art of the Muses 9 n 2 The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek Mythology who presided over the arts and sciences 13 14 They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors Homer and Hesiod 15 and eventually came to be associated with music specifically 14 Over time Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses 11 The Latin word musica was also the originator for both the Spanish musica and French musique via spelling and linguistic adjustment though other European terms were probably loanwords including the Italian musica German musik Dutch muziek Norwegian musikk Polish muzyka and Russian muzika 14 The modern Western world usually defines music as an all encompassing term used to describe diverse genres styles and traditions 16 This is not the case worldwide and languages such as modern Indonesian musik and Shona musakazo have recently adopted words to reflect this universal conception as they did not have words that fit exactly the Western scope 14 In East Asia neither Japan or China have a single word which encompasses music in a broad sense but culturally often regard music in such a fashion 17 The closest word to mean music in Chinese yue shares a character with le meaning joy and originally referred to all the arts before its narrowing in meaning 17 Africa is too diverse to make firm generalizations but the musicologist J H Kwabena Nketia has emphasized African music s often inseparable connection to dance and speech in general 18 Some African cultures such as the Songye people of the DRC and Tiv people of Nigeria have a strong and broad conception of music but no corresponding word in their native languages 18 Other words commonly translated as music often have more specific meanings in their respective cultures the Hindi word for music sangita properly refers to art music 19 while the many Indigenous languages of the Americas have words for music that refer specifically to song but describe instrumental music regardless 20 Though the Arabic musiqi can refer to all music it is usually used for instrumental and metric music while khandan identifies vocal and improvised music 21 HistoryMain article History of music The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Origins and prehistory Further information Origins of music and Prehistoric music The Divje Babe flute the oldest known musical instrument It is made from the femur bone of a cave bear It is often debated as to what extent the origins of music will ever be understood 22 and there are many competing theories which aim to explain it 23 Many scholars highlight a relationship between the origin of music and the origin of language and there is disagreement surrounding whether music developed before after or simultaneously with language 24 A similar source of contention surrounds whether music the intentional result of natural selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution 24 The earliest influential theory was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871 who stated that music arose as form of sexual selection perhaps via in mating calls 25 Darwin s original perspective has been heavily criticized for its inconsistencies with other sexual selection methods 26 though many scholars in the 21st century have developed and promoted the theory 27 Other theories include that music arose to assist in organizing labor improving long distance communication benefiting communication with the divine assisting in community cohesion or as a defence to scare of predators 28 Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites Flutes are often discovered carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced these are thought to have been blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi citation needed The Divje Babe flute carved from a cave bear femur is thought to be at least 40 000 years old though there is considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an object formed by animals 29 Instruments such as the seven holed flute and various types of stringed instruments such as the Ravanahatha have been recovered from the Indus Valley civilization archaeological sites 30 India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world references to Indian classical music marga are found in the Vedas ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition 31 The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE 32 Antiquity Main articles Music of Egypt and Music of Greece Musicians of Amun Tomb of Nakht 18th Dynasty Western Thebes The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps flutes and double clarinets were played 33 Percussion instruments lyres and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom Cymbals 34 frequently accompanied music and dance much as they still do in Egypt today Egyptian folk music including the traditional Sufi dhikr rituals are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music having preserved many of its features rhythms and instruments 35 36 The Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal found on clay tablets that date back to approximately 1400 BCE is the oldest surviving notated work of music 37 38 Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece in fact it was one of the main subjects taught to children Musical education was considered to be important for the development of an individual s soul Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater 39 and those who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect harmony as can be read in the Republic Plato Mixed gender choruses performed for entertainment celebration and spiritual ceremonies 40 Instruments included the double reed aulos and a plucked string instrument the lyre principally a special kind called a kithara Music was an important part of education and boys were taught music starting at age six Greek musical literacy created significant musical development Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical music Later influences from the Roman Empire Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition including musical notation from anywhere in the world 41 The oldest surviving work written on the subject of music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia by Aristoxenus 42 Asian cultures Main article Music of Asia Indian women dressed in regional attire playing a variety of musical instruments popular in different parts of India Asian music covers a vast swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on Arabia Central Asia East Asia South Asia and Southeast Asia Several have traditions reaching into antiquity Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world 43 Sculptures from the Indus Valley civilization show dance 44 and old musical instruments like the seven holed flute Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler 45 The Rigveda an ancient Hindu text has elements of present Indian music with musical notation to denote the meter and the mode of chanting 46 Indian classical music marga is monophonic and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal provides information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale 47 Present day Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals Carnatic music popular in the southern states is largely devotional the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities There are also many songs emphasizing love and other social issues Indonesia is the home of gong chime there are many variants across Indonesia especially in Java and Bali Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd to 3rd centuries BCE Indonesian traditional music often uses percussion instruments especially kendang and gongs Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments such as the sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote the Sundanese angklung and the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras Indonesia is the home of gong chime a general term for a set of small high pitched pot gongs Gongs are usually placed in order of note with the boss up on a string held in a low wooden frame The most popular and famous form of Indonesian music is probably gamelan an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones drums gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo suling Chinese classical music the traditional art or court music of China has a history stretching over around three thousand years It has its own unique systems of musical notation as well as musical tuning and pitch musical instruments and styles or musical genres Chinese music is pentatonic diatonic having a scale of twelve notes to an octave 5 7 12 as does European influenced music Western classical Main article Western Classical MusicThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Early music Breves dies hominis source source by Leonin or Perotin Musical notation from a Catholic Missal c 1310 1320 The medieval music era 476 to 1400 which took place during the Middle Ages started with the introduction of monophonic single melodic line chanting into Roman Catholic Church services Musical notation was used since Ancient times in Greek culture but in the Middle Ages notation was first introduced by the Catholic church so that the chant melodies could be written down to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire Catholic empire The only European Medieval repertory that has been found in written form from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Roman Catholic Church the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song non religious songs Examples of composers from this period are Leonin Perotin Guillaume de Machaut and Walther von der Vogelweide Renaissance music c 1400 to 1600 was more focused on secular non religious themes such as courtly love Around 1450 the printing press was invented which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass produce prior to the invention of the printing press all notated music was hand copied The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger area Musicians and singers often worked for the church courts and towns Church choirs grew in size and the church remained an important patron of music By the middle of the 15th century composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Dufay Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Thomas Morley and Orlande de Lassus As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts kings queens and princes competed for the finest composers Many leading important composers came from the Netherlands Belgium and northern France They are called the Franco Flemish composers They held important positions throughout Europe especially in Italy Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany England and Spain Common practice period Baroque Main article Baroque music Toccata and Fugue in D minor BWV 565 source source track Toccata and Fugue by J S Bach The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750 as the Baroque artistic style flourished across Europe and during this time music expanded in its range and complexity Baroque music began when the first operas dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra were written During the Baroque era polyphonic contrapuntal music in which multiple simultaneous independent melody lines were used remained important counterpoint was important in the vocal music of the Medieval era German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings brass and woodwinds as well as for choirs and keyboard instruments such as pipe organ harpsichord and clavichord During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further including the fugue the invention the sonata and the concerto 48 The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach Cello suites George Frideric Handel Messiah Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Lucio Vivaldi The Four Seasons Classicism Main article Classical period music Symphony No 40 G minor source source Symphony 40 G minor by W A Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period The music of the Classical period 1730 to 1820 aimed to imitate what were seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome the ideals of balance proportion and disciplined expression Note the music from the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music in general a term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to the 2000s which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods Music from the Classical period has a lighter clearer and considerably simpler texture than the Baroque music which preceded it The main style was homophony 49 where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable New genres were developed and the fortepiano the forerunner to the modern piano replaced the Baroque era harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument though pipe organ continued to be used in sacred music such as Masses Importance was given to instrumental music It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period the sonata the concerto and the symphony Others main kinds were the trio string quartet serenade and divertimento The sonata was the most important and developed form Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era from string quartets to symphonies and concertos were based on the structure of the sonata The instruments used chamber music and orchestra became more standardized In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque era which consisted of harpsichord organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader e g viol cello theorbo serpent Classical chamber groups used specified standardized instruments e g a string quartet would be performed by two violins a viola and a cello The Baroque era improvised chord playing of the continuo keyboardist or lute player was gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800 One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces Symphonic music including symphonies musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal instrumental genres such as opera and oratorio became more popular The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach Christoph Willibald Gluck Johann Christian Bach Joseph Haydn Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era as it began to move towards Romanticism Romanticism Main article Romantic music Die Walkure source source Die Walkure by Richard Wagner The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle class urbanites in the 19th century Moritz von Schwind 1868 The man at the piano is composer Franz Schubert Romantic music c 1810 to 1900 from the 19th century had many elements in common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era Romanticism was an artistic literary and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate dramatic expressive pieces and songs Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings With symphonic tone poems composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy and went further in the syncretism of exploring different art forms in a musical context such as literature history historical figures and legends or nature itself Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period In some cases the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used e g the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies but these forms were expanded and altered In many cases new approaches were explored for existing genres forms and functions Also new forms were created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music exploring new styles and themes 39 In the years after 1800 the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic expressive style In Beethoven s case short motifs developed organically came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Antonin Dvorak and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension They generated complex and often much longer musical works During the late Romantic period composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality such as extended chords and altered chords which created new sound colors The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra and the industrial revolution helped to create better instruments creating a more powerful sound Public concerts became an important part of well to do urban society It also saw a new diversity in theatre music including operetta and musical comedy and other forms of musical theatre 39 20th and 21st century Main article 20th century music Landman s 2006 Moodswinger a 3rd bridged overtone zither and an example of experimental musical instruments In the 19th century one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music which middle class amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other common instruments such as violin With 20th century music the invention of new electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and the mass market availability of gramophone records meant that sound recordings of songs and pieces heard by listeners either on the radio or on their record player became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas symphonies and big bands right in their own living room while during the 19th century the focus on sheet music restricted access to new music to the middle class and upper class people who could read music and who owned pianos and instruments This allowed lower income people who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music It also meant that people could hear music from different parts of the country or even different parts of the world even if they could not afford to travel to these locations This helped to spread musical styles The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms styles and sounds The horrors of World War I influenced many of the arts including music and some composers began exploring darker harsher sounds Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music Igor Stravinsky Arnold Schoenberg and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th century art music The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music including the acousmatic 50 and Musique concrete schools of electronic composition Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music because it could do much more than record a band s performance Using a multitrack system a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th century and during the second half of that century rock music did the same Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions The style s West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes improvisation polyrhythms syncopation and the swung note 51 Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from 1960s rock and roll rockabilly blues and country music 52 The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section Along with the guitar or keyboards saxophone and blues style harmonica are used as soloing instruments In its purest form it has three chords a strong insistent back beat and a catchy melody This quote needs a citation The traditional rhythm section for popular music is rhythm guitar electric bass guitar drums Some bands also have keyboard instruments such as organ piano or since the 1970s analog synthesizers In the 1980s pop musicians began using digital synthesizers such as the DX 7 synthesizer electronic drum machines such as the TR 808 and synth bass devices such as the TB 303 or synth bass keyboards In the 1990s an increasingly large range of computerized hardware musical devices and instruments and software e g digital audio workstations were used In the 2020s soft synths and computer music apps make it possible for bedroom producers to create and record some types of music such as electronic dance music in their own home adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the recording digitally In the 1990s some bands in genres such as nu metal began including DJs in their bands DJs create music by manipulating recorded music on record players or CD players using a DJ mixer Innovation in music technology continued into the 21st century including the development of isomorphic keyboards and Dynamic Tonality CreationComposition Main article Musical composition French Baroque music composer Michel Richard Delalande 1657 1726 pen in hand People composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards and computers Composition is the act or practice of creating a song an instrumental music piece a work with both singing and instruments or another type of music In many cultures including Western classical music the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation such as a sheet music score which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians In popular music and traditional music the act of composing which is typically called songwriting may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song called the lead sheet which sets out the melody lyrics and chord progression In classical music the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions but in musical theatre and in pop music songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration In some cases a songwriter may not use notation at all and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory In jazz and popular music notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music Even when music is notated relatively precisely as in classical music there are many decisions that a performer has to make because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed interpretation Different performers interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs just as much as those who perform the music of others The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer citation needed Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author this is not always the case A work of music can have multiple composers which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song or in musical theatre when one person writes the melodies a second person writes the lyrics and a third person orchestrates the songs In some styles of music such as the blues a composer songwriter may create perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation A piece of music can also be composed with words images or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds Examples range from avant garde music that uses graphic notation to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century such as John Cage Morton Feldman and Witold Lutoslawski A more commonly known example of chance based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers Performance Main article Performance This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Chinese Naxi musicians Assyrians playing zurna and Davul instruments that go back thousands of years Performance is the physical expression of music which occurs when a song is sung or when a piano piece electric guitar melody symphony drum beat or other musical part is played by musicians In classical music a musical work is written in music notation by a composer and then it is performed once the composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation However as it gets performed the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change In classical music instrumental performers singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece In popular and traditional music the performers have a lot more freedom to make changes to the form of a song or piece As such in popular and traditional music styles even when a band plays a cover song they can make changes to it such as adding a guitar solo to or inserting an introduction A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed practiced which is the norm in classical music jazz big bands and many popular music styles or improvised over a chord progression a sequence of chords which is the norm in small jazz and blues groups Rehearsals of orchestras concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor Rock blues and jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the performers until it can be sung or played correctly and if it is a song or piece for more than one musician until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning perspective Improvisation is the creation of a musical idea a melody or other musical line created on the spot often based on scales or pre existing melodic riffs Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance in which one singer or instrumentalist performs such as in Indian classical music and in the Western art music tradition Other cultures such as in Bali include strong traditions of group performance All cultures include a mixture of both and performance may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organized performances such as the modern classical concert religious processions classical music festivals or music competitions Chamber music which is music for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument is often seen as more intimate than large symphonic works Improvisation Main article Musical improvisation Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music often within or based on a pre existing harmonic framework or chord progression Improvisers use the notes of the chord various scales that are associated with each chord and chromatic ornaments and passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor from the typical scales associated with a chord Musical improvisation can be done with or without preparation Improvisation is a major part of some types of music such as blues jazz and jazz fusion in which instrumental performers improvise solos melody lines and accompaniment parts In the Western art music tradition improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era In the Baroque era performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation As well the top soloists were expected to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes In the Classical era solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts However in the 20th and early 21st century as common practice Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras opera houses and ballets improvisation has played a smaller role as more and more music was notated in scores and parts for musicians to play At the same time some 20th and 21st century art music composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work In Indian classical music improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances Art and entertainmentThe examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Music news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Khatia Buniatishvili playing a grand piano Music is composed and performed for many purposes ranging from aesthetic pleasure religious or ceremonial purposes or as an entertainment product for the marketplace When music was only available through sheet music scores such as during the Classical and Romantic eras music lovers would buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at home on the piano With the advent of the phonograph records of popular songs rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s and digital music in the 1990s music lovers could make tapes or playlists of their favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player Some music lovers create mix tapes of their favourite songs which serve as a self portrait a gesture of friendship prescription for an ideal party and an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved 53 Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive their income elsewhere Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations including armed forces in marching bands concert bands and popular music groups religious institutions symphony orchestras broadcasting or film production companies and music schools Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians In community settings advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system However there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed Live concert recordings are popular in both classical music and in popular music forms such as rock where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers In the jam band scene live improvised jam sessions are preferred to studio recordings Notation Main article Musical notation Sheet music is a written representation of music Homorhythmic i e hymn style arrangement of the traditional Adeste Fideles in standard two staff format for mixed voices play help info In the 2000s music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols When music is written down the pitches and rhythm of the music such as the notes of a melody are notated Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music For example the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a slow blues or a fast swing which indicates the tempo and the genre To read music notation a person must have an understanding of music theory harmony and the performance practice associated with a particular song or piece s genre Written notation varies with the style and period of music In the 2000s notated music is produced as sheet music or for individuals with computer scorewriter programs as an image on a computer screen In ancient times music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets To perform music from notation a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre In genres requiring musical improvisation the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are written requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music s structure harmony and the styles of a particular genre e g jazz or country music In Western art music the most common types of written notation are scores which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece and parts which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers In popular music jazz and blues the standard musical notation is the lead sheet which notates the melody chords lyrics if it is a vocal piece and structure of the music Fake books are also used in jazz they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment part to jazz songs Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz particularly in large ensembles such as jazz big bands In popular music guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature often abbreviated as tab which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard Tablature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute a stringed fretted instrument Oral and aural tradition Many types of music such as traditional blues and folk music were not written down in sheet music instead they were originally preserved in the memory of performers and the songs were handed down orally from one musician or singer to another or aurally in which a performer learns a song by ear When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known this music is often classified as traditional or as a folk song Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material from quite strict to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music A culture s history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song ElementsMain article Elements of music Music has many different fundamentals or elements Depending on the definition of element being used these can include pitch beat or pulse tempo rhythm melody harmony texture style allocation of voices timbre or color dynamics expression articulation form and structure The elements of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia the UK and the US All three curriculums identify pitch dynamics timbre and texture as elements but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed upon Below is a list of the three official versions of the elements of music Australia pitch timbre texture dynamics and expression rhythm form and structure 54 UK pitch timbre texture dynamics duration tempo structure 55 USA pitch timbre texture dynamics rhythm form harmony style articulation 56 In relation to the UK curriculum in 2013 the term appropriate musical notations was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the elements of music to the inter related dimensions of music The inter related dimensions of music are listed as pitch duration dynamics tempo timbre texture structure and appropriate musical notations 57 The phrase the elements of music is used in a number of different contexts The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the rudimentary elements of music and the perceptual elements of music n 3 Pitch Main article Pitch music Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear reflecting whether one musical sound note or tone is higher or lower than another musical sound note or tone We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies basslines and chords Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise For example it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck Melody Main article Melody The melody to the traditional song Pop Goes the Weasel play help info A melody also called a tune is a series of pitches notes sounding in succession one after the other often in a rising and falling pattern The notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or modes Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a single scale the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given song For example a folk song in the key of C also referred to as C major may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale the individual notes C D E F G A B and C these are the white notes on a piano keyboard On the other hand Bebop era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes i e notes in addition to the notes of the major scale on a piano a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard including the white notes and black notes and unusual scales such as the whole tone scale a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes C D E F G and A A low deep musical line played by bass instruments such as double bass electric bass or tuba is called a bassline Harmony Main article Harmony A player performing a chord combination of many different notes on a guitar Harmony refers to the vertical sounds of pitches in music which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord Usually this means the notes are played at the same time although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure i e by using melody notes that are played one after the other outlining the notes of a chord In music written using the system of major minor tonality keys which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop rock and traditional music the key of a piece determines the home note or tonic to which the piece generally resolves and the character e g major or minor of the scale in use Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is in a single key More complex Classical pop and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys and in some cases three or more keys Classical music from the Romantic era written from about 1820 1900 often contains multiple keys as does jazz especially Bebop jazz from the 1940s in which the key or home note of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars Rhythm Main article Rhythm Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings called measures or bars which in Western classical popular and traditional music often group notes in sets of two e g 2 4 time three e g 3 4 time also known as Waltz time or 3 8 time or four e g 4 4 time Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often but not always place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping Notable exceptions exist such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats called 4 4 time or common time will have accents on beats two and four which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum a loud and distinctive sounding percussion instrument In pop and rock the rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section which includes chord playing instruments e g electric guitar acoustic guitar piano or other keyboard instruments a bass instrument typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and bluegrass double bass and a drum kit player Texture Main article Texture music Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song The texture of a piece or song is determined by how the melodic rhythmic and harmonic materials are combined in a composition thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece Texture is often described in regard to the density or thickness and range or width between lowest and highest pitches in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices or parts and the relationship between these voices see common types below For example a thick texture contains many layers of instruments One of these layers could be a string section or another brass The thickness also is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments Texture is commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts or lines of music monophony a single melody or tune with neither instrumental accompaniment nor a harmony part A mother singing a lullaby to her baby would be an example heterophony two or more instruments or singers playing singing the same melody but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different ornaments to the melody Two bluegrass fiddlers playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary the melody by some degree and each add different ornaments polyphony multiple independent melody lines that interweave together which are sung or played at the same time Choral music written in the Renaissance music era was typically written in this style A round which is a song such as Row Row Row Your Boat which different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time is an example of polyphony homophony a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment Most Western popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture Music that contains a large number of independent parts e g a double concerto accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines is generally said to have a thicker or denser texture than a work with few parts e g a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello Timbre Main article Timbre Spectrogram of the first second of an E9 suspended chord played on a Fender Stratocaster guitar Below is the E9 suspended chord audio source source Timbre sometimes called color or tone color is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument 62 Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another even when they have the same pitch and loudness For example a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe piano violin or electric guitar Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique e g different embouchures different types of accessories e g mouthpieces for brass players reeds for oboe and bassoon players or strings made out of different materials for string players e g gut strings versus steel strings Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument one after the other may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument e g two string players might hold the bow differently The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the spectrum envelope and overtones of a note or musical sound For electric instruments developed in the 20th century such as electric guitar electric bass and electric piano the performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls tone controls on the instrument and by using electronic effects units such as distortion pedals The tone of the electric Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars Expression Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its accompaniment Performers including singers and instrumentalists can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing by adding effects such as vibrato with voice and some instruments such as guitar violin brass instruments and woodwinds dynamics the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it tempo fluctuations e g ritardando or accelerando which are respectively slowing down and speeding up the tempo by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence and by changing the articulation of the notes e g making notes more pronounced or accented by making notes more legato which means smoothly connected or by making notes shorter Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch such as inflection vibrato slides etc volume dynamics accent tremolo etc duration tempo fluctuations rhythmic changes changing note duration such as with legato and staccato etc timbre e g changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant voice and sometimes even texture e g doubling the bass note for a richer effect in a piano piece Expression therefore can be seen as a manipulation of all elements in order to convey an indication of mood spirit character etc 63 and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of music 64 although it can be considered an important rudimentary element of music Form See also Strophic form Binary form Ternary form Rondo form Variation music and Musical development Sheet music notation for the chorus refrain of the Christmas song Jingle Bells Jingle Bells refrain vector mid In music form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of music 65 and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections 66 In the early 20th century Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway musical songs were often in AABA 32 bar form in which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody with variation and the B section provided a contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars From the 1960s onward Western pop and rock songs are often in verse chorus form which comprises a sequence of verse and chorus refrain sections with new lyrics for most verses and repeating lyrics for the choruses Popular music often makes use of strophic form sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues citation needed In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music Percy Scholes defines musical form as a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration 67 Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue the invention sonata allegro canon strophic theme and variations and rondo Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand alone forms simple binary simple ternary compound binary rondo air with variations and fugue although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions 68 Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units though it might borrow some form from a poem story or programme it is said to be through composed Such is often the case with a fantasia prelude rhapsody etude or study symphonic poem Bagatelle impromptu etc citation needed Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as sectional developmental or variational 69 PhilosophyMain article Philosophy of music The Woman in Red by Giovanni Boldini The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music The philosophical study of music has many connections with philosophical questions in metaphysics and aesthetics Some basic questions in the philosophy of music are according to whom What is the definition of music What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for classifying something as music What is the relationship between music and mind What does music history reveal to us about the world What is the connection between music and emotions What is meaning in relation to music In ancient times such as with the Ancient Greeks the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization In the 18th century focus shifted to the experience of hearing music and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment plaisir and jouissance of music The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century followed by Immanuel Kant Through their writing the ancient term aesthetics meaning sensory perception received its present day connotation In the 2000s philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment For example music s capacity to express emotion has been a central issue citation needed In the 20th century important contributions were made by Peter Kivy Jerrold Levinson Roger Scruton and Stephen Davies However many musicians music critics and other non philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music In the 19th century a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick a music critic and musicologist and composer Richard Wagner regarding whether music can express meaning Harry Partch and some other musicologists such as Kyle Gann have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music and the usage of alternate musical scales Also many modern composers like La Monte Young Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just intonation citation needed It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions intellect and psychology it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions The philosopher Plato suggests in The Republic that music has a direct effect on the soul Therefore he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state Book VII 70 In Ancient China the philosopher Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and harmonious with nature he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and earth while the order was brought by the rites order making them extremely crucial functions in society 71 PsychologyMain article Music psychology Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience 72 Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas including music performance composition education criticism and therapy as well as investigations of human aptitude skill intelligence creativity and social behavior Neuroscience Main article Neuroscience of music The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music These behaviours include music listening performing composing reading writing and ancillary activities It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain using such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS magnetoencephalography MEG electroencephalography EEG and positron emission tomography PET Cognitive musicology Main article Cognitive musicology Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition 73 The use of computer models provides an exacting interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science 74 This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research such as neural networks and evolutionary programs 75 This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented stored perceived performed and generated By using a well structured computer environment the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated 76 Psychoacoustics Main article Psychoacoustics Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception More specifically it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound including speech and music It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics Evolutionary musicology Main article Evolutionary musicology Evolutionary musicology concerns the origins of music the question of animal song selection pressures underlying music evolution and music evolution and human evolution 77 It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage 78 a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution 79 80 page needed 81 An alternate view sees music as a by product of linguistic evolution a type of auditory cheesecake that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function 82 This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers 83 84 85 Cultural effects Main article Culture in music cognitionAn individual s culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition including their preferences emotional reaction and musical memory Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy and adults classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features 86 87 Additionally individuals musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music 88 89 Perceptual Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s most lists of elements of music have related more to how we hear music than how we learn to play it or study it C E Seashore in his book Psychology of Music 90 identified four psychological attributes of sound These were pitch loudness time and timbre p 3 He did not call them the elements of music but referred to them as elemental components p 2 Nonetheless these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements Pitch and timbre match exactly loudness links with dynamics and time links with the time based elements of rhythm duration and tempo This usage of the phrase the elements of music links more closely with Webster s New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an element as a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods 91 and educational institutions lists of elements generally align with this definition as well Although writers of lists of rudimentary elements of music can vary their lists depending on their personal or institutional priorities the perceptual elements of music should consist of an established or proven list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music is to identify the elements of sound as pitch duration loudness timbre sonic texture and spatial location 92 and then to define the elements of music as sound structure and artistic intent 92 Sociological aspectsMain article Sociomusicology Song Dynasty 960 1279 painting Night Revels of Han Xizai showing Chinese musicians entertaining guests at a party in a 10th century household Many ethnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory community based activity 93 94 Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert forming a music community which cannot be understood as a function of individual will or accident it includes both commercial and non commercial participants with a shared set of common values Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus In Europe and North America there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a high culture and low culture High culture types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque Classical Romantic and modern era symphonies concertos and solo works and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches with the audience sitting quietly in seats Other types of music including but not limited to jazz blues soul and country are often performed in bars nightclubs and theatres where the audience may be able to drink dance and express themselves by cheering Until the later 20th century the division between high and low musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality more advanced art music from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls However in the 1980s and 1990s musicologists studying this perceived divide between high and low musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music citation needed Rather they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomics standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music citation needed For example whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above average incomes the audience for a rap concert in an inner city area may have below average incomes citation needed Even though the performers audience or venue where non art music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status the music that is performed such as blues rap punk funk or ska may be very complex and sophisticated When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture Late period Beethoven string quartets Stravinsky ballet scores serialism bebop era jazz hip hop punk rock and electronica have all been considered non music by some critics when they were first introduced citation needed Such themes are examined in the sociology of music The sociological study of music sometimes called sociomusicology is often pursued in departments of sociology media studies or music and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology Role of women Main article Women in music 19th century composer and pianist Clara Schumann Women have played a major role in music throughout history as composers songwriters instrumental performers singers conductors music scholars music educators music critics music journalists and other musical professions In the 2010s while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers and a significant proportion of songwriters many of them being singer songwriters there are few women record producers rock critics and rock instrumentalists Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music from the medieval period to the present day women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire music history textbooks and music encyclopedias for example in the Concise Oxford History of Music Clara Schumann is one of the few female composers who is mentioned Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras however indicated that 84 of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men In 2012 women still made up just 6 of the top ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all female bands Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres 95 In the 1960s pop music scene l ike most aspects of the music business in the 1960s songwriting was a male dominated field Though there were plenty of female singers on the radio women were primarily seen as consumers Singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl but playing an instrument writing songs or producing records simply wasn t done 96 Young women were not socialized to see themselves as people who create music 96 Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting music criticism music journalism music producing and sound engineering While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century and there are few women musicologists women became involved in music education to such a degree that women dominated this field during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century 97 According to Jessica Duchen a music writer for London s The Independent women musicians in classical music are too often judged for their appearances rather than their talent and they face pressure to look sexy onstage and in photos 98 Duchen states that while t here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks the ones who do tend to be more materially successful 98 According to the UK s Radio 3 editor Edwina Wolstencroft the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles but women are much less likely to have positions of authority such as being the conductor of an orchestra 99 In popular music while there are many women singers recording songs there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers the individuals who direct and manage the recording process 100 One of the most recorded artists is Asha Bhosle an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi cinema 101 Media and technologyFurther information Computer music and Music technology Music production in the 2000s using a digital audio workstation DAW with an electronic keyboard and a multi monitor set up Since the 20th century live music can be broadcast over the radio television or the Internet or recorded and listened to on a CD player or Mp3 player In the early 20th century in the late 1920s as talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century with their prerecorded musical tracks an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work 102 During the 1920s live musical performances by orchestras pianists and theater organists were common at first run theaters 103 With the coming of the talking motion pictures those featured performances were largely eliminated The American Federation of Musicians AFM took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled Canned Music Big Noise Brand Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever 104 Sometimes live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds For example a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching and some 20th century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape Some pop bands use recorded backing tracks Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface MIDI music Audiences can also become performers by participating in karaoke an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice eliminated versions of well known songs Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks The advent of the Internet and widespread high speed broadband access has transformed the experience of music partly through the increased ease of access to recordings of music via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music for consumers Another effect of the Internet arose with online communities and social media websites like YouTube and Facebook a social networking service These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and amateur bands to distribute videos of their songs connect with other musicians and gain audience interest Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material YouTube users for example no longer only download and listen to MP3s but also actively create their own According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D Williams in their book Wikinomics there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a prosumer role a consumer who both creates content and consumes Manifestations of this in music include the production of mashes remixes and music videos by fans 105 EducationFurther information Music educationThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Non institutional A Suzuki violin recital with students of varying ages The incorporation of some music or singing training into general education from preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe Involvement in playing and singing music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration counting listening and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language improving the ability to recall information and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas 106 In elementary schools children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder sing in small choirs and learn about the history of Western art music and traditional music Some elementary school children also learn about popular music styles In religious schools children sing hymns and other religious music In secondary schools and less commonly in elementary schools students may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical ensembles such as choirs a group of singers marching bands concert bands jazz bands or orchestras In some school systems music lessons on how to play instruments may be provided Some students also take private music lessons after school with a singing teacher or instrument teacher Amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments e g learning about musical notation for musical scales and rhythms and beginner to intermediate level singing or instrument playing techniques At the university level students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking a few music courses which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles In addition most North American and European universities have some types of musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are able to participate in such as choirs marching bands concert bands or orchestras The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta Indonesia or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea Japan and China At the same time Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non Western cultures such as the music of Africa or Bali e g Gamelan music Institutional Manhattan School of Music professor and professional double bass player Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000s His bass has a low C extension with a metal machine with buttons for playing the pitches on the extension People aiming to become professional musicians singers composers songwriters music teachers and practitioners of other music related professions such as music history professors sound engineers and so on study in specialized post secondary programs offered by colleges universities and music conservatories Some institutions that train individuals for careers in music offer training in a wide range of professions as is the case with many of the top U S universities which offer degrees in music performance including singing and playing instruments music history music theory music composition music education for individuals aiming to become elementary or high school music teachers and in some cases conducting On the other hand some small colleges may only offer training in a single profession e g sound recording While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students in classical music there are a number of universities and colleges that train musicians for careers as jazz or popular music musicians and composers with notable U S examples including the Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee College of Music Two important schools in Canada which offer professional jazz training are McGill University and Humber College Individuals aiming at careers in some types of music such as heavy metal music country music or blues are less likely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas in colleges or universities Instead they typically learn about their style of music by singing or playing in many bands often beginning in amateur bands cover bands and tribute bands studying recordings available on CD DVD and the Internet and working with already established professionals in their style of music either through informal mentoring or regular music lessons Since the 2000s the increasing popularity and availability of Internet forums and YouTube how to videos have enabled many singers and musicians from metal blues and similar genres to improve their skills Many pop rock and country singers train informally with vocal coaches and singing teachers Academic studyMusicology Main article Musicology Musicology the academic study of the subject of music is studied in universities and music conservatories The earliest definitions from the 19th century defined three sub disciplines of musicology systematic musicology historical musicology and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology In 2010 era scholarship one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory music history and ethnomusicology Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross disciplinary work for example in the field of psychoacoustics The study of music of non Western cultures and the cultural study of music is called ethnomusicology Students can pursue the undergraduate study of musicology ethnomusicology music history and music theory through several different types of degrees including bachelor s degrees master s degrees and PhD degrees Music theory Main article Music theory Music theory is the study of music generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines More broadly it refers to any study of music usually related in some form with compositional concerns and may include mathematics physics and anthropology What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period or tonal music Theory even of music of the common practice period may take many other forms Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music first applied to atonal music Speculative music theory contrasted with analytic music theory is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials for example tuning systems generally as preparation for composition Zoomusicology Main article Zoomusicology Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non human animals or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non human animals As George Herzog 1941 asked do animals have music Francois Bernard Mache s Musique mythe nature ou les Dauphins d Arion 1983 a study of ornitho musicology using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet s Langage musique poesie 1972 paradigmatic segmentation analysis shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition transformation principle Jean Jacques Nattiez 1990 argues that in the last analysis it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical even when the sound is not of human origin If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised that is made to form music merely by its producer but by the mind that perceives it then music is uniquely human Ethnomusicology Main article Ethnomusicology Ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for the Bureau of American Ethnology 1916 In the West much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization s art music which is known as classical music The history of music in non Western cultures world music or the field of ethnomusicology is also taught in Western universities This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures Popular or folk styles of music in non Western countries varied widely from culture to culture and from period to period Different cultures emphasised different instruments techniques singing styles and uses for music Music has been used for entertainment ceremonies rituals religious purposes and for practical and artistic communication Non Western music has also been used for propaganda purposes as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution There is a host of music classifications for non Western music many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music Among the largest of these is the division between classical music or art music and popular music or commercial music including non Western styles of rock country and pop music related styles Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these big two classifications such as folk music world music or jazz related music As world cultures have come into greater global contact their indigenous musical styles have often merged with other styles which produces new styles For example the United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo Irish Scottish Irish German and African instrumental and vocal traditions which were able to fuse in the United States multi ethnic melting pot society Some types of world music contain a mixture of non Western indigenous styles with Western pop music elements Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music Some works like George Gershwin s Rhapsody in Blue are claimed by both jazz and classical music while Gershwin s Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein s West Side Story are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition Many current music festivals for non Western music include bands and singers from a particular musical genre such as world music Indian music for example is one of the oldest and longest living types of music and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia as well as internationally especially since the 1960s Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music Hindustani Carnatic and Dhrupad styles It has also a large repertoire of styles which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India TherapyMain article Music therapy A music therapist from a Blues in the Schools program plays harmonica with a US Navy sailor at a Naval Therapy Center Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses music and all of its facets physical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual to help clients to improve or maintain their health In some instances the client s needs are addressed directly through music in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions including psychiatric disorders medical problems physical disabilities sensory impairments developmental disabilities substance abuse issues communication disorders interpersonal problems and aging It is also used to improve learning build self esteem reduce stress support physical exercise and facilitate a host of other health related activities Music therapists may encourage clients to sing play instruments create songs or do other musical activities In the 10th century the philosopher Al Farabi described how vocal music can stimulate the feelings and souls of listeners 107 Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions In the 17th century the scholar Robert Burton s The Anatomy of Melancholy argued that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness especially melancholia 108 He noted that music has an excellent power to expel many other diseases and he called it a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy He pointed out that in Antiquity Canus a Rhodian fiddler used music to make a melancholy man merry a lover more enamoured a religious man more devout 109 110 111 In the Ottoman Empire mental illnesses were treated with music 112 In November 2006 Dr Michael J Crawford and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients 113 114 See alsoMain articles Outline of music and Index of music articles Music portalGlossary of music terminology Lists of musicians List of musicology topics Music and emotion Music archaeology Music history Music specific disordersReferencesNotes A now discredited theory held by many medieval thinkers was that music was descended from the Egyptian word moys meaning water thought to connect to Moses 11 For the further etymological origins mousike derives from the feminine form of mousikos which is anything pertaining to the muses from the Ancient Greek word for Muse Mousa 9 There is no agreement on the origins of the word Mousa 12 though see Muses Etymology for proposed theories In the 1800s the phrases the elements of music and the rudiments of music were used interchangeably 58 59 The elements described in these documents refer to aspects of music that are needed in order to become a musician Recent writers such as Espie Estrella seem to be using the phrase elements of music in a similar manner 60 A definition which most accurately reflects this usage is the rudimentary principles of an art science etc the elements of grammar 61 The UK s curriculum switch to the inter related dimensions of music seems to be a move back to using the rudimentary elements of music Citations OED 1 AHD 1 Epperson 2022 para 1 Mithen 2005 pp 26 27 Morley 2013 p 5 Gardner 1983 p 104 Nettl 2001 III 3 Music among the arts Online Etymology Dictionary para 2 a b c Online Etymology Dictionary para 1 Hoad T F ed 2003 1996 music The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology ISBN 978 0 19 283098 2 Archived from the original on 30 May 2022 Retrieved 30 May 2022 a b Apel 1969 p 548 Anderson amp Mathiesen 2001 para 1 Murray 2020 pp 13 14 a b c d Nettl 2001 I 1 Etymology Anderson amp Mathiesen 2001 para 2 Nettl 2001 II 1 Contemporary Western culture a b Nettl 2001 II 2 East Asia a b Nettl 2001 II 5 Some African cultures Nettl 2001 II 4 India Nettl 2001 II 6 Some Amerindian and Oceanian cultures Nettl 2001 II 3 Iran and the Middle East Merker Morley amp Zuidema 2015 Introduction Morley 2013 pp 2 3 a b Wallin Merker amp Brown 2000 p 8 Huron 2003 p 61 Huron 2003 p 62 Wallin Merker amp Brown 2000 p 11 Nettl 2001 8 On the Origins of Music Morley 2013 pp 38 39 Reginald Massey Jamila Massey 1996 The Music of India Abhinav Publications p 11 ISBN 978 81 7017 332 8 Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 Retrieved 21 February 2018 Brown RE 1971 India s Music Readings in Ethnomusicology Wilkinson Endymion 2000 Chinese history Harvard University Asia Center Music of Ancient Egypt Archived 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Kelsey Museum of Archaeology University of Michigan Ann Arbor UC 33268 digitalegypt ucl ac uk Archived from the original on 27 July 2013 Retrieved 27 October 2015 Hickmann Hans 1957 Un Zikr Dans le Mastaba de Debhen Guizah IVeme Dynastie Journal of the International Folk Music Council 9 59 62 doi 10 2307 834982 JSTOR 834982 Hickmann Hans January March 1960 Rythme metre et mesure de la musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens Egyptiens Acta Musicologica 32 1 11 22 doi 10 2307 931818 JSTOR 931818 Stolba K Marie 1995 The Development of Western Music A History brief second ed Madison Brown amp Benchmark Publishers p 2 West Martin Litchfield May 1994 The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts Music and Letters Vol 75 pp 161 179 a b c Savage Roger Incidental music Grove Music Online Oxford Music Online accessed 13 August 2012 subscription required Archived 25 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine West Martin Litchfield 1994 Ancient Greek music Oxford University Press Winnington Ingram Reginald P October 1929 Ancient Greek Music A Survey Music amp Letters 10 4 326 345 doi 10 1093 ml X 4 326 JSTOR 726126 Aristoxenus Henry Stewart Macran 1902 Harmonika Stoicheia The Harmonics of Aristoxenus Georg Olms Verlag ISBN 978 3 487 40510 0 OCLC 123175755 Archived from the original on 2 January 2020 Retrieved 7 April 2016 Richard O Nidel World Music The Basics p 219 Charles Kahn World History Societies of the Past p 98 World History Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn p 11 World Music The Basics By Nidel Nidel Richard O Nidel p 10 Rajagopal Geetha 2009 Music rituals in the temples of South India Volume 1 D K Printworld pp 111 112 ISBN 978 81 246 0538 7 Archived from the original on 14 December 2019 Retrieved 29 October 2015 Elaine Thornburgh Jack Logan Ph D Baroque Music trumpet sdsu edu Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 Retrieved 27 October 2015 Blume Friedrich Classic and Romantic Music A Comprehensive Survey New York W W Norton amp Company 1970 Print Schaeffer P 1966 Traite des objets musicaux Le Seuil Paris Alyn Shipton A New History of Jazz 2nd ed Continuum 2007 pp 4 5 Gilliland John 1969 Show 55 Crammer A lively cram course on the history of rock and some other things audio Pop Chronicles University of North Texas Libraries time needed Kirszner Laurie G January 2012 Patterns for College Writing Bedford St Martin s p 520 ISBN 978 0 312 67684 1 Music Glossary The Australian Curriculum Archived from the original on 26 January 2016 Education gov uk 2011 Music Schools Retrieved 12 July 2013 from http www education gov uk schools teachingandlearning curriculum primary b00199150 music Archived 22 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine NAfME 2015 Core music standards glossary http www nafme org my classroom standards core music standards Archived 10 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine Gov uk 2013 National curriculum in England music programmes of study Retrieved 6 January 2016 from https www gov uk government publications national curriculum in england music programmes of study Archived 26 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine Clementi M Introduction to the art of playing on the piano forte Da Capo Press 1974 Cohen Dalia and Dubnov Shlomo 1996 Gestalt phenomena in musical texture Springer doi 10 1007 BFb0034128 Niecks Frederick 1884 A Concise Dictionary of Musical Terms Review The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular 25 498 473 1 August 1884 doi 10 2307 3357513 hdl 2027 uc1 b4284161 JSTOR 3357513 Archived from the original on 16 March 2020 Retrieved 24 September 2019 Estrella Espie 4 November 2019 An Introduction to the Elements of Music liveabout com Archived from the original on 4 August 2020 Retrieved 25 February 2020 Element Archived 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine n d In Dictionary com unabridged Retrieved 10 June 2015 Harnsberger Lindsey Articulation Essential Dictionary of Music Alfred Publishing Co Inc Los Angeles CA the definition of expression Dictionary com Dictionary com Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 Retrieved 22 October 2017 Burton Russell 2015 The elements of music What are they and who cares Educating for Life ASME XXTH National Conference Proceeding Australian Society for Music Education 22 Schmidt Jones Catherine 11 March 2011 Form in Music Connexions Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 Retrieved 11 September 2011 Brandt Anthony 11 January 2007 Musical Form Connexions Archived from the original on 7 July 2012 Retrieved 11 September 2011 Scholes Percy A 1977 Form The Oxford Companion to Music 10 ed Oxford University Press Mann Alfred 1958 The Study of Fugue W W Norton and Co Inc Keil Charles 1966 Urban blues ISBN 978 0 226 42960 1 Plato 2006 The Republic Book VII Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation p 7 Kirkendall Jensen Armstrong 14 December 2017 The Well Ordered Heart Confucius on Harmony Music and Ritual PDF Archived PDF from the original on 13 April 2021 Retrieved 13 April 2021 Tan Siu Lan Pfordresher Peter Harre Rom 2010 Psychology of Music From Sound to Significance New York Psychology Press p 2 ISBN 978 1 84169 868 7 Laske Otto 1999 Navigating New Musical Horizons Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance Westport Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 30632 7 Laske O 1999 AI and music A cornerstone of cognitive musicology In M Balaban K Ebcioglu amp O Laske Eds Understanding music with ai Perspectives on music cognition Cambridge The MIT Press Graci C 2009 2010 A brief tour of the learning sciences featuring a cognitive tool for investigating melodic phenomena Journal of Educational Technology Systems 38 2 181 211 Hamman M 1999 Structure as Performance Cognitive Musicology and the Objectification of Procedure in Otto Laske Navigating New Musical Horizons ed J Tabor New York Greenwood Press Wallin Nils L Bjorn Merker Steven Brown 1999 An Introduction to Evolutionary Musicology In Wallin Nils L Bjorn Merker Steven Brown Eds 1999 The Origins of Music pp 5 6 ISBN 0 262 23206 5 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex 1871 Archived from the original on 2 April 2012 Retrieved 24 April 2014 Chapter III Language Nils L Wallin Bjorn Merker Steven Brown eds 2000 The Origins of Music Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 23206 7 Mithen 2005 Hagen Edward H Hammerstein P 2009 Did Neanderthals and other early humans sing Seeking the biological roots of music in the loud calls of primates lions hyenas and wolves PDF Musicae Scientiae doi 10 1177 1029864909013002131 S2CID 39481097 Archived PDF from the original on 30 May 2010 Retrieved 24 April 2014 Pinker Steven 1997 How the Mind Works New York W W Norton p 534 ISBN 978 0 393 04535 2 Perlovsky L Music Cognitive Function Origin And Evolution Of Musical Emotions WebmedCentral PSYCHOLOGY 2011 2 2 WMC001494 Alison Abbott 2002 Neurobiology Music maestro please Nature 416 12 14 7 March 2002 doi 10 1038 416012a Carroll Joseph 1998 Steven Pinker s Cheesecake For The Mind Cogweb ucla edu Archived from the original on 29 January 2013 Retrieved 29 December 2012 Soley G Hannon E E 2010 Infants prefer the musical meter of their own culture A cross cultural comparison Developmental Psychology 46 1 286 292 doi 10 1037 a0017555 PMID 20053025 Balkwill L Thompson W F Matsunaga R 2004 Recognition of emotion in Japanese Western and Hindustani music by Japanese listeners Japanese Psychological Research 46 4 337 349 doi 10 1111 j 1468 5584 2004 00265 x Demorest S M Morrison S J Beken M N Jungbluth D 2008 Lost in translation An enculturation effect in music memory performance Music Perception 25 3 213 223 doi 10 1525 mp 2008 25 3 213 Groussard M Rauchs G Landeau B Viader F Desgranges B Eustache F Platel H 2010 The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks PDF NeuroImage 53 4 1301 1309 doi 10 1016 j neuroimage 2010 07 013 PMID 20627131 S2CID 8955075 Archived PDF from the original on 29 April 2019 Retrieved 11 December 2019 Seashore C E 1938 Psychology of Music New York Dover Publications Webster N Ed 1947 Webster s New Twentieth Century Dictionary Clevelend Ohio The World Publishing Company a b Burton R L 2015 The elements of music what are they and who cares Archived 10 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine In J Rosevear amp S Harding Eds ASME XXth National Conference proceedings Paper presented at Music Educating for life ASME XXth National Conference pp 22 28 Parkville Victoria The Australian Society for Music Education Inc Grazian David The Symbolic Economy of Authenticity in the Chicago Blues Scene in Music Scenes Local Translocal and Virtual ed Bennett Andy and Richard A Peterson Nashville Vanderbilt University Press 2004 pp 31 47 Rebecca Elizabeth Ball 2010 Portland s Independent Music Scene Formation of Community Identities and Alternative Urban Cultural Landscapes Archived 1 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine p 27 Julian Schaap and Pauwke Berkers Grunting Alone Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music in IASPM Journal Vol 4 no 1 2014 p 103 a b Erika White 28 January 2015 Music History Primer 3 Pioneering Female Songwriters of the 60s REBEAT Magazine Rebeatmag com Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 Retrieved 20 January 2016 Women Composers In American Popular Song Parlorsongs com 25 March 1911 p 1 Archived from the original on 4 February 2019 Retrieved 20 January 2016 a b Classical music s shocking gender gap CBC Music Archived from the original on 4 July 2012 Retrieved 16 August 2016 Jessica Duchen Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end Music The Guardian Archived from the original on 30 September 2021 Retrieved 20 January 2016 Ncube Rosina September 2013 Sounding Off Why So Few Women In Audio Sound on Sound Archived from the original on 24 April 2016 Retrieved 17 August 2016 Singer Asha Bhosle enters Guinness World Records for most single studio recordings India Today 21 October 2011 Archived from the original on 13 March 2016 Retrieved 12 March 2016 American Federation of Musicians History Archived from the original on 5 April 2007 Hubbard 1985 p 429 incomplete short citation Canned Music on Trial Archived 14 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine part of Duke University s Ad Access project Tapscott Don Williams Anthony D 28 December 2006 Wikinomics How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything Portfolio Hardcover ISBN 978 1 59184 138 8 Woodall and Ziembroski 2002 incomplete short citation Rens Bod 2022 World of Patterns A Global History of Knowledge Johns Hopkins University Press p 169 ISBN 9781421443454 cf The Anatomy of Melancholy Robert Burton subsection 3 on and after line 3 480 Music a Remedy Ismenias the Theban Chiron the centaur is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone as now thy do those saith Bodine that are troubled with St Vitus s Bedlam dance Project Gutenberg s The Anatomy of Melancholy by Democritus Junior Archived 13 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Humanities are the Hormones A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland What should we do about it Archived 15 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Dr John Crellin MUNMED newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine Memorial University of Newfoundland 1996 Aung Steven K H Lee Mathew H M 2004 Music Sounds Medicine and Meditation An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts Alternative and Complementary Therapies 10 5 266 270 doi 10 1089 act 2004 10 266 Treatment of Mental Illnesses With Music Therapy A different approach from history Archived 1 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Crawford Mike J Talwar Nakul et al November 2006 Music therapy for in patients with schizophrenia Exploratory randomised controlled trial British Journal of Psychiatry 189 5 405 409 doi 10 1192 bjp bp 105 015073 PMID 17077429 Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental health among people with schizophrenia but its effects in acute psychoses have not been explored Dr Michael J Crawford page Archived 28 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine at Imperial College London Faculty of Medicine Department of Psychological Medicine Sources Anderson Warren 2001 Muses Grove Music Online Revised by Thomas J Mathiesen Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 19396 ISBN 978 1 56159 263 0 subscription or UK public library membership required Apel Willi 1969 Harvard Dictionary of Music Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 37501 7 Epperson Gordon 16 June 2022 Music Art Form Styles Rhythm amp History Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Gardner Howard 1983 Frames of Mind The Theory of Multiple Intelligences New York Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 02508 4 Huron David 2003 Is Music an Evolutionary Adaptation In Peretz Isabelle Zatorre Robert J eds The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 852519 6 Merker Bjorn Morley Iain Zuidema Willem 19 March 2015 Five fundamental constraints on theories of the origins of music Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Royal Society 370 1664 doi 10 1098 rstb 2014 0095 eISSN 1471 2970 ISSN 0962 8436 PMC 4321136 PMID 25646518 Mithen Steven 2005 The Singing Neanderthals The Origins of Music Language Mind and Body London Orion Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 7802 2258 5 Morley Iain 2013 The Prehistory of Music Human Evolution Archaeology and the Origins of Musicality Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 923408 0 Murray Penelope 2020 The Mythology of the Muses In Lynch Tosca A C Rocconi Eleonora eds A Companion to Ancient Greek and Roman Music Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World Hoboken Wiley ISBN 978 1 119 27547 3 Nettl Bruno 2001 Music Grove Music Online Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 40476 ISBN 978 1 56159 263 0 subscription or UK public library membership required Wallin Nils Merker Bjorn Brown Steven eds 2000 The Origins of Music Cambridge MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 73143 0 music n Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 30 May 2022 Music The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language fifth ed Boston Houghton Mifflin Harcourt music n and adj OED Online Oxford Oxford University Press subscription required Further readingKennedy Michal Kennedy Joyce Bourne 2013 2012 Tim Rutherford Johnson ed The Oxford Dictionary of Music 6th paperback ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 957854 2 Small Christopher 1977 Music Society Education John Calder Publishers London ISBN 0 7145 3614 8External linksMusic at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Grove Music Online online version of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians All ten volumes of the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music subscription required Dolmetsch free online music dictionary complete with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries by continent by instrument by genre etc Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Music amp oldid 1131776500, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.