Cuneiform
Cuneiform[note 1] is a logo-syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East.[4] The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era.[5] It is named for the characteristic wedge-shaped impressions (Latin: cuneus) which form its signs. Cuneiform was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system.[6][7]
| Cuneiform | |
|---|---|
Trilingual cuneiform inscription of Xerxes I at Van Fortress in Turkey, an Achaemenid royal inscription written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian forms of cuneiform | |
| Script type | and syllabary |
| Created | around 3500 BC[1] |
Time period | c.โ35th century BC to c.โ2nd century AD |
| Direction | left-to-rightย |
| Languages | Sumerian, Akkadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Hurrian, Luwian, Urartian, Palaic, Aramaic, Old Persian |
| Related scripts | |
Parent systems | (Proto-writing)
|
Child systems | None; influenced the shape of Ugaritic and Old Persian glyphs |
| ISO 15924 | |
| ISO 15924 | Xsux (020), โCuneiform, Sumero-Akkadian |
| Unicode | |
Unicode alias | Cuneiform |
| |
| ย This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ย ], /ย / and โจย โฉ, see IPA ยงย Brackets and transcription delimiters. | |
Over the course of its history, cuneiform was adapted to write a number of languages in addition to Sumerian. Akkadian texts are attested from the 24th century BC onward and make up the bulk of the cuneiform record.[8][9] Akkadian cuneiform was itself adapted to write the Hittite language in the early second millennium BC.[10][11] The other languages with significant cuneiform corpora are Eblaite, Elamite, Hurrian, Luwian, and Urartian. The Old Persian and Ugaritic alphabets feature cuneiform-style signs; however, they are unrelated to the cuneiform logo-syllabary proper. The latest known cuneiform tablet dates to 75 AD.[12]
Cuneiform was rediscovered in modern times in the early 17th century with the publication of the trilingual Achaemenid royal inscriptions at Persepolis; these were first deciphered in the early 19th century. The modern study of cuneiform belongs to the ambiguously named[13] field of Assyriology, as the earliest excavations of cuneiform libraries โ in the mid-19th century โ were in the area of ancient Assyria.[14] An estimated half a million tablets are held in museums across the world, but comparatively few of these are published. The largest collections belong to the British Museum (approx. 130,000 tablets), the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (approx. 40,000 tablets), and Penn Museum.[15][16]
History
Writing began after pottery was invented, during the Neolithic, when clay tokens were used to record specific amounts of livestock or commodities.[19] In recent years a contrarian view has arisen on the tokens being the precursor of writing.[20] These tokens were initially impressed on the surface of round clay envelopes (clay bullae) and then stored in them.[19] The tokens were then progressively replaced by flat tablets, on which signs were recorded with a stylus. Writing is first recorded in Uruk, at the end of the 4th millennium BC, and soon after in various parts of the Near-East.[19]
An ancient Mesopotamian poem gives the first known story of the invention of writing:
Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat [the message], the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.
The cuneiform writing system was in use for more than three millennia, through several stages of development, from the 31st century BC down to the second century AD.[23] The latest firmly dateable tablet, from Uruk, dates to 79/80 AD.[24] Ultimately, it was completely replaced by alphabetic writing (in the general sense) in the course of the Roman era, and there are no cuneiform systems in current use. It had to be deciphered as a completely unknown writing system in 19th-century Assyriology. It was successfully deciphered by 1857.
| The cuneiform script changed considerably over more than 2000 years. The image below shows the development of the sign SAฤ "head" (Borger nr. 184, U+12295 ๐). ย Stages:
|
Sumerian pictographs (circa 3300 BC)
The cuneiform script was developed from pictographic proto-writing in the late 4th millennium BC, stemming from the near eastern token system used for accounting. The meaning and usage of these tokens is still a matter of debate.[26] These tokens were in use from the 9th millennium BC and remained in occasional use even late in the 2nd millennium BC.[27] Early tokens with pictographic shapes of animals, associated with numbers, were discovered in Tell Brak, and date to the mid-4th millennium BC.[28] It has been suggested that the token shapes were the original basis for some of the Sumerian pictographs.[29]
Mesopotamia's "proto-literate" period spans roughly the 35th to 32nd centuries BC. The first unequivocal written documents start with the Uruk IV period, from circa 3,300 BC, followed by tablets found in Uruk III, Jemdet Nasr, Early Dynastic I Ur and Susa (in Proto-Elamite) dating to the period until circa 2,900 BC.[30] Originally, pictographs were either drawn on clay tablets in vertical columns with a sharpened reed stylus or incised in stone. This early style lacked the characteristic wedge shape of the strokes.[31] Most Proto-Cuneiform records from this period were of an accounting nature. [32] The proto-cuneiform sign list has grown, as new texts are discovered, and shrunk, as variant signs are combined. The current sign list is 705 elements long with 42 being numeric and four considered pre-proto-Elamite.[33][34][35]
Certain signs to indicate names of gods, countries, cities, vessels, birds, trees, etc., are known as determinatives and were the Sumerian signs of the terms in question, added as a guide for the reader. Proper names continued to be usually written in purely "logographic" fashion.
Archaic cuneiform (circa 2900 BC)
The first inscribed tablets were purely pictographic, which makes it technically difficult to know in which language they were written. Different languages have been proposed though usually Sumerian is assumed.[37] Later tablets after circa 2,900 BC start to use syllabic elements, which clearly show a language structure typical of the non-Indo-European agglutinative Sumerian language.[38] The first tablets using syllabic elements date to the Early Dynastic IโII, circa 2,800 BC, and they are agreed to be clearly in Sumerian.[39] This is the time when some pictographic element started to be used for their phonetical value, permitting the recording of abstract ideas or personal names.[39] Many pictographs began to lose their original function, and a given sign could have various meanings depending on context. The sign inventory was reduced from some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs, and writing became increasingly phonological. Determinative signs were re-introduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing proper thus arises from the more primitive system of pictographs at about that time (Early Bronze Age II).
The earliest known Sumerian king, whose name appears on contemporary cuneiform tablets, is Enmebaragesi of Kish (fl. c. 2600 BC).[40] Surviving records became less fragmentary for following reigns and by the end of the pre-Sargonic period it had become standard practice for each major city-state to date documents by year-names, commemorating the exploits of its lugal (king).
- ย
Pre-cuneiform tablet, end of the 4th millennium BC.
- ย
Proto-cuneiform tablet, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3100โ2900 BC.
- ย
Proto-cuneiform tablet, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3100โ2900 BC. A dog on a leash is visible in the background of the lower panel.[41]
- ย
The Blau Monuments combine proto-cuneiform characters and illustrations, 3100โ2700 BC. British Museum.
Cuneiforms and hieroglyphs
Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably, [were] invented under the influence of the latter",[42] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".[43][44] There are many instances of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations at the time of the invention of writing, and standard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.[45] but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".[46] Others have held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy" and that "a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[47]
Early Dynastic cuneiform (circa 2500 BC)
Early cuneiform inscription were made by using a pointed stylus, sometimes called "linear cuneiform".[48] Many of the early dynastic inscriptions, particularly those made on stone, continued to use the linear style as late as circa 2000 BC.[48]
In the mid-3rd millennium BC, a new wedge-tipped stylus was introduced which was pushed into the clay, producing wedge-shaped cuneiform. This development made writing quicker and easier, especially when writing on soft clay.[48] By adjusting the relative position of the stylus to the tablet, the writer could use a single tool to make a variety of impressions.[48] For numbers, a round-tipped stylus was initially used, until the wedge-tipped stylus was generalized.[48] The direction of writing was from top-to-bottom and right-to-left.[48] Cuneiform clay tablets could be fired in kilns to bake them hard, and so provide a permanent record, or they could be left moist and recycled if permanence was not needed, so surviving cuneiform tablets have largely been preserved by accident.[48]
The script was also widely used on commemorative stelae and carved reliefs to record the achievements of the ruler in whose honor the monument had been erected. The spoken language included many homophones and near-homophones, and in the beginning, similar-sounding words such as "life" [til] and "arrow" [ti] were written with the same symbol. With the rise of the Akkadian language some signs gradually changed from being pictograms to syllabograms, most likely to make things clearer in writing. In that way, the sign for the word "arrow" would become the sign for the sound "ti".
Words that sounded alike would have different signs; for instance, the syllable [ษกu] had fourteen different symbols. When the words had a similar meaning but very different sounds they were written with the same symbol. For instance 'tooth' [zu], 'mouth' [ka] and 'voice' [gu] were all written with the symbol for "voice". To be more accurate, scribes started adding to signs or combining two signs to define the meaning. They used either geometrical patterns or another cuneiform sign.
As time went by, the cuneiform got very complex and the distinction between a pictogram and syllabogram became vague. Several symbols had too many meanings to permit clarity. Therefore, symbols were put together to indicate both the sound and the meaning of a compound. The word 'raven' [UGA] had the same logogram as the word 'soap' [NAGA], the name of a city [EREล ], and the patron goddess of Eresh [NISABA]. Two phonetic complements were used to define the word [u] in front of the symbol and [gu] behind. Finally, the symbol for 'bird' [MUล EN] was added to ensure proper interpretation.[clarification needed]
For unknown reasons, cuneiform pictographs, until then written vertically, were rotated 90ยฐ counterclockwise, in effect putting them on their side. This change first occurred slightly before the Akkadian period, at the time of the Uruk ruler Lugalzagesi (r. c. 2294โ2270 BC).[49][48] The vertical style remained for monumental purposes on stone stelas until the middle of the 2nd millennium.[48]
Written Sumerian was used as a scribal language until the first century AD. The spoken language died out between about 2100 and 1700 BC.
Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform
(circa 2200 BC)
The archaic cuneiform script was adopted by the Akkadian Empire from the 23rd century BC (short chronology). The Akkadian language being East Semitic, its structure was completely different from Sumerian.[53] There was no way to use the Sumerian writing system as such, and the Akkadians found a practical solution in writing their language phonetically, using the corresponding Sumerian phonetic signs.[53] Still, some of the Sumerian characters were retained for their pictorial value as well: for example the character for "sheep" was retained, but was now pronounced immerลซ, rather than the Sumerian "udu-meลก".[53]
The East Semitic languages employed equivalents for many signs that were distorted or abbreviated to represent new values because the syllabic nature of the script as refined by the Sumerians was not intuitive to Semitic speakers.[53] From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (20th century BC), the script evolved to accommodate the various dialects of Akkadian: Old Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian.[53] At this stage, the former pictograms were reduced to a high level of abstraction, and were composed of only five basic wedge shapes: horizontal, vertical, two diagonals and the Winkelhaken impressed vertically by the tip of the stylus. The signs exemplary of these basic wedges are:
- Aล (B001, U+12038) ๐ธ: horizontal;
- DIล (B748, U+12079) ๐น: vertical;
- GE23, DIล tenรป (B575, U+12039) ๐น: downward diagonal;
- GE22 (B647, U+1203A) ๐บ: upward diagonal;
- U (B661, U+1230B) ๐: the Winkelhaken.
Except for the Winkelhaken, which has no tail, the length of the wedges' tails could vary as required for sign composition.
Signs tilted by about 45 degrees are called tenรป in Akkadian, thus DIล is a vertical wedge and DIล tenรป a diagonal one. If a sign is modified with additional wedges, this is called gunรป or "gunification"; if signs are cross-hatched with additional Winkelhaken, they are called ลกeลกig; if signs are modified by the removal of a wedge or wedges, they are called nutillu.
"Typical" signs have about five to ten wedges, while complex ligatures can consist of twenty or more (although it is not always clear if a ligature should be considered a single sign or two collated, but distinct signs); the ligature KAxGUR7 consists of 31 strokes.
Most later adaptations of Sumerian cuneiform preserved at least some aspects of the Sumerian script. Written Akkadian included phonetic symbols from the Sumerian syllabary, together with logograms that were read as whole words. Many signs in the script were polyvalent, having both a syllabic and logographic meaning. The complexity of the system bears a resemblance to Old Japanese, written in a Chinese-derived script, where some of these Sinograms were used as logograms and others as phonetic characters.
Elamite cuneiform
Elamite cuneiform was a simplified form of the Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform, used to write the Elamite language in the area that corresponds to modern Iran. Elamite cuneiform at times competed with other local scripts, Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite. The earliest known Elamite cuneiform text is a treaty between Akkadians and the Elamites that dates back to 2200 BC.[54] However, some believe it might have been in use since 2500 BC.[55] The tablets are poorly preserved, so only limited parts can be read, but it is understood that the text is a treaty between the Akkad king Nฤramsรฎn and Elamite ruler Hita, as indicated by frequent references like "Nฤramsรฎn's friend is my friend, Nฤramsรฎn's enemy is my enemy".[54]
The most famous Elamite scriptures and the ones that ultimately led to its decipherment are the ones found in the trilingual Behistun inscriptions, commissioned by the Achaemenid kings.[56] The inscriptions, similar to that of the Rosetta Stone's, were written in three different writing systems. The first was Old Persian, which was deciphered in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. The second, Babylonian cuneiform, was deciphered shortly after the Old Persian text. Because Elamite is unlike its neighboring Semitic languages, the script's decipherment was delayed until the 1840s. Even today, lack of sources and comparative materials hinder further research of Elamite.[57]
Assyrian cuneiform
(circa 650 BC)
This "mixed" method of writing continued through the end of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, although there were periods when "purism" was in fashion and there was a more marked tendency to spell out the words laboriously, in preference to using signs with a phonetic complement. Yet even in those days, the Babylonian syllabary remained a mixture of logographic and phonemic writing.
Hittite cuneiform is an adaptation of the Old Assyrian cuneiform of c. 1800 BC to the Hittite language. When the cuneiform script was adapted to writing Hittite, a layer of Akkadian logographic spellings was added to the script, thus the pronunciations of many Hittite words which were conventionally written by logograms are now unknown.
In the Iron Age (c. 10th to 6th centuries BC), Assyrian cuneiform was further simplified. The characters remained the same as those of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiforms, but the graphic design of each character relied more heavily on wedges and square angles, making them significantly more abstract. The pronunciation of the characters was replaced by that of the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language:
- ย"Assurbanipal King of Assyria"
Aลกลกur-bani-habal ลกar mat Aลกลกur KI
Same characters, in the classical Sumero-Akkadian script of circa 2000 BC (top), and in the Neo-Assyrian script of the Rassam cylinder, 643 BC (bottom).[58] - ย
The Rassam cylinder with translation of a segment about the Assyrian conquest of Egypt by Ashurbanipal against "Black Pharaoh" Taharqa, 643 BC
From the 6th century, the Akkadian language was marginalized by Aramaic, written in the Aramaean alphabet, but Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use in the literary tradition well into the times of the Parthian Empire (250 BCโ226 AD).[59] The last known cuneiform inscription, an astronomical text, was written in 75 AD.[60] The ability to read cuneiform may have persisted until the third century AD.[61][62]
Derived scripts
Old Persian cuneiform (5th century BC)
(circa 500 BC)
The complexity of cuneiforms prompted the development of a number of simplified versions of the script. Old Persian cuneiform was developed with an independent and unrelated set of simple cuneiform characters, by Darius the Great in the 5th century BC. Most scholars consider this writing system to be an independent invention because it has no obvious connections with other writing systems at the time, such as Elamite, Akkadian, Hurrian, and Hittite cuneiforms.[63]
It formed a semi-alphabetic syllabary, using far fewer wedge strokes than Assyrian used, together with a handful of logograms for frequently occurring words like "god" (๐), "king" (๐) or "country" (๐). This almost purely alphabetical form of the cuneiform script (36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms), was specially designed and used by the early Achaemenid rulers from the 6th century BC down to the 4th century BC.[64]
Because of its simplicity and logical structure, the Old Persian cuneiform script was the first to be deciphered by modern scholars, starting with the accomplishments of Georg Friedrich Grotefend in 1802. Various ancient bilingual or trilingual inscriptions then permitted to decipher the other, much more complicated and more ancient scripts, as far back as to the 3rd millennium Sumerian script.
Ugaritic
Ugaritic was written using the Ugaritic alphabet, a standard Semitic style alphabet (an abjad) written using the cuneiform method.
Archaeology
Between half a million[15] and two million cuneiform tablets are estimated to have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000[65]โ100,000 have been read or published. The British Museum holds the largest collection (approx. 130,000 tablets), followed by the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (approx. 40,000), and Penn Museum. Most of these have "lain in these collections for a century without being translated, studied or published",[15] as there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in the world.[65]
Decipherment
The decipherment of cuneiform took place between 1802 and 2022, beginning with the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1836 and ending with Linear Elamite in 2022.
The first cuneiform inscriptions published in modern times were copied from the Achaemenid royal inscriptions in the ruins of Persepolis, with the first complete and accurate copy being published in 1778 by Carsten Niebuhr. Niebuhr's publication was used by Grotefend in 1802 to make the first breakthrough โ the realization that Niebuhr had published three different languages side by side and the recognition of the word "king".[67]
The rediscovery and publication of cuneiform took place in the early 17th century, and early conclusions were drawn such as the writing direction and that the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are three different languages (with two different scripts). In 1620, Garcรญa de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthรฉlemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798.
Actual decipherment did not take place until the beginning of the 19th century, initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend in his study of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugรจne Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833โ1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnฤme for their work.
- ย
Niebuhr inscription 1, with the suggested words for "King" (๐ง๐๐ ๐น๐ฐ๐ก๐น) highlighted, repeated three times. Inscription now known to mean "Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, who built this Palace".[68] Today known as DPa, from the Palace of Darius in Persepolis, above figures of the king and attendants [69]
- ย
Niebuhr inscription 2, with the suggested words for "King" (๐ง๐๐ ๐น๐ฐ๐ก๐น) highlighted, repeated four times. Inscription now known to mean "Xerxes the Great King, King of Kings, son of Darius the King, an Achaemenian".[68] Today known as XPe, the text of fourteen inscriptions in three languages (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian) from the Palace of Xerxes in Persepolis.[70]
In a final step, the decipherment of the trilingual Behistun inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary.
Transliteration
(c.250 BC)
"Antiochus, King, Great King, King of multitudes, King of Babylon, King of countries"
Cuneiform has a specific format for transliteration. Because of the script's polyvalence, transliteration requires certain choices of the transliterating scholar, who must decide in the case of each sign which of its several possible meanings is intended in the original document. For example, the sign dingir in a Hittite text may represent either the Hittite syllable an or may be part of an Akkadian phrase, representing the syllable il, it may be a Sumerogram, representing the original Sumerian meaning, 'god' or the determinative for a deity. In transliteration, a different rendition of the same glyph is chosen depending on its role in the present context.[76]
Therefore, a text containing DINGIR and MU in succession could be construed to represent the words "ana", "ila", god + "a" (the accusative case ending), god + water, or a divine name "A" or Water. Someone transcribing the signs would make the decision how the signs should be read and assemble the signs as "ana", "ila", "Ila" ("god"+accusative case), etc. A transliteration of these signs, however, would separate the signs with dashes "il-a", "an-a", "DINGIR-a" or "Da". This is still easier to read than the original cuneiform, but now the reader is able to trace the sounds back to the original signs and determine if the correct decision was made on how to read them. A transliterated document thus presents the reading preferred by the transliterating scholar as well as an opportunity to reconstruct the original text.
There are differing conventions for transliterating Sumerian, Akkadian (Babylonian), and Hittite (and Luwian) cuneiform texts. One convention that sees wide use across the different fields is the use of acute and grave accents as an abbreviation for homophone disambiguation. Thus, u is equivalent to u1, the first glyph expressing phonetic u. An acute accent, รบ, is equivalent to the second, u2, and a grave accent รน to the third, u3 glyph in the series (while the sequence of numbering is conventional but essentially arbitrary and subject to the history of decipherment). In Sumerian transliteration, a multiplication sign ('ร') is used to indicate typographic ligatures. As shown above, signs as such are represented in capital letters, while the specific reading selected in the transliteration is represented in small letters. Thus, capital letters can be used to indicate a so-called Diri compound โ a sign sequence that has, in combination, a reading different from the sum of the individual constituent signs (for example, the compound IGI.A โ "eye" + "water" โ has the reading imhur, meaning "foam"). In a Diri compound, the individual signs are separated with dots in transliteration. Capital letters may also be used to indicate a Sumerogram (for example, Kร.BABBAR โ Sumerian for "silver" โ being used with the intended Akkadian reading kaspum, "silver"), an Akkadogram, or simply a sign sequence of whose reading the editor is uncertain. Naturally, the "real" reading, if it is clear, will be presented in small letters in the transliteration: IGI.A will be rendered as imhur4.
Since the Sumerian language has only been widely known and studied by scholars for approximately a century, changes in the accepted reading of Sumerian names have occurred from time to time. Thus the name of a king of Ur, read Ur-Bau at one time, was later read as Ur-Engur, and is now read as Ur-Nammu or Ur-Namma; for Lugal-zage-si, a king of Uruk, some scholars continued to read Ungal-zaggisi; and so forth. Also, with some names of the older period, there was often uncertainty whether their bearers were Sumerians or Semites. If the former, then their names could be assumed to be read as Sumerian, while, if they were Semites, the signs for writing their names were probably to be read according to their Semitic equivalents, though occasionally Semites might be encountered bearing genuine Sumerian names. There was also doubt whether the signs composing a Semite's name represented a phonetic reading or a logographic compound. Thus, e.g. when inscriptions of a Semitic ruler of Kish, whose name was written Uru-mu-ush, were first deciphered, that name was first taken to be logographic because uru mu-ush could be read as "he founded a city" in Sumerian, and scholars accordingly retranslated it back to the original Semitic as Alu-usharshid. It was later recognized that the URU sign can also be read as rรญ and that the name is that of the Akkadian king Rimush.
Sign inventories
The Sumerian cuneiform script had on the order of 1,000 distinct signs (or about 1,500 if variants are included). This number was reduced to about 600 by the 24th century BC and the beginning of Akkadian records. Not all Sumerian signs are used in Akkadian texts, and not all Akkadian signs are used in Hittite.
A. Falkenstein (1936) lists 939 signs used in the earliest period (late Uruk, 34th to 31st centuries). (See #Bibliography for the works mentioned in this paragraph.) With an emphasis on Sumerian forms, Deimel (1922) lists 870 signs used in the Early Dynastic II period (28th century, Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen or "LAK") and for the Early Dynastic IIIa period (26th century, ล umerisches Lexikon or "ล L"). Rosengarten (1967) lists 468 signs used in Sumerian (pre-Sargonian) Lagash, and Mittermayer and Attinger (2006, Altbabylonische Zeichenliste der Sumerisch-Literarischen Texte or "aBZL") list 480 Sumerian forms, written in Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian times. Regarding Akkadian forms, the standard handbook for many years was Borger (1981, Assyrisch-Babylonische Zeichenliste or "ABZ") with 598 signs used in Assyrian/Babylonian writing, recently superseded by Borger (2004, Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon or "MesZL") with an expansion to 907 signs, an extension of their Sumerian readings and a new numbering scheme.
Signs used in Hittite cuneiform are listed by Forrer (1922), Friedrich (1960) and Rรผster and Neu (1989, Hethitisches Zeichenlexikon or "HZL"). The HZL lists a total of 375 signs, many with variants (for example, 12 variants are given for number 123 EGIR).
Syllabary
The tables below contain the transliteration schemes of Sumero-Akkadian phonograms.
| Va | Ve | Vi | Vu | aV | eV | iV | uV | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a = ๐ รก (aโ) = ๐ | e = ๐ รฉ (eโ) = ๐ | i = ๐ฟ รญ (iโ) = ๐ | u = ๐ รบ (uโ) = ๐ | a = ๐ รก (aโ) = ๐ | e = ๐ รฉ (eโ) = ๐ | i = ๐ฟ รญ (iโ) = ๐ | u = ๐ รบ (uโ) = ๐ | |||
| a- | ai = ๐๐ | ea = ๐ | ia = ๐
iรก (iaโ) = ๐ | ua = ๐ uรก (uaโ) = ๐ฑ | -a | |||||
| e- | ea = ๐ | ie = ๐ | -e | |||||||
| i- | ia = ๐
iรก (iaโ) = ๐ | ie = ๐ | ii = ๐
iรฌ (iiโ) = ๐ | iu = ๐
iรบ (iuโ) = ๐ฟ | ai = ๐๐ | ii = ๐ | -i | |||
| u- | ua = ๐ uรก (uaโ) = ๐ฑ | iu = ๐
iรบ (iuโ) = ๐ฟ | -u |
| Ca | Ce | Ci | Cu | aC | eC | iC | uC | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| สพ- | สพa = ๐ช สพรก (สพaโ) = ๐ด | สพe = ๐ช สพรฉ (สพeโ) = ๐ด | สพi = ๐ช สพรญ (สพiโ) = ๐ด | สพu = ๐ช สพรบ (สพuโ) = ๐ด | aสพ = ๐ช รกสพ (aสพโ) = ๐ด | eสพ = ๐ช รฉสพ (eสพโ) = ๐ด | iสพ = ๐ช รญสพ (iสพโ) = ๐ด | uสพ = ๐ช รบสพ (uสพโ) = ๐ด | -สพ | |
| b- | ba = ๐ bรก (baโ) = ๐บ | be = ๐ bรฉ (beโ) = ๐ | bi = ๐ bรญ (biโ) = ๐ | bu = ๐ bรบ (buโ) = ๐ | ab = ๐ รกb (abโ) = ๐ | eb = ๐
รฉb (ebโ) = ๐ | ib = ๐
รญb (ibโ) = ๐ | ub = ๐ รบb (ubโ) = ๐ | -b | |
| d- | da = ๐ dรก (daโ) = ๐ซ | de = ๐ฒ dรฉ (deโ) = ๐ฃ | di = ๐ฒ dรญ (diโ) = ๐น | du = ๐บ dรบ (duโ) = ๐
| ad = ๐ รกd (adโ) = ๐ | ed = ๐ รฉd (edโ) = ๐๐บ | id = ๐ รญd (idโ) = ๐๐ | ud = ๐ รบd (udโ) = ๐พ | -d | |
| g- | ga = ๐ต gรก (gaโ) = ๐ท | ge = ๐ gรฉ (geโ) = ๐ค | gi = ๐ gรญ (giโ) = ๐ค | gu = ๐ gรบ (guโ) = ๐ | ag = ๐ รกg (agโ) = ๐ | eg = ๐
รฉg (egโ) = ๐ | ig = ๐
รญg (igโ) = ๐ | ug = ๐ รบg (ugโ) = ๐, ๐ | -g | |
| แธซ- | แธซa = ๐ฉ แธซรก (แธซaโ) = ๐ญ๐ | แธซe = ๐ญ แธซรฉ (แธซeโ) = ๐ถ | แธซi = ๐ญ แธซรญ (แธซiโ) = ๐ถ | แธซu = ๐ท แธซรบ (แธซuโ) = ๐ญ | aแธซ = ๐ด รกแธซ (aแธซโ) = ๐ | eแธซ = ๐ด รฉแธซ (eแธซโ) = ๐ช | iแธซ = ๐ด รญแธซ (iแธซโ) = ๐ช | uแธซ = ๐ด รบแธซ (uแธซโ) = ๐ | -แธซ | |
| k- | ka = ๐
kรก (kaโ) = ๐ | ke = ๐ kรฉ (keโ) = ๐ | ki = ๐ kรญ (kiโ) = ๐ | ku = ๐ช kรบ (kuโ) = ๐
ฅ | ak = ๐ ร k (akโ) = ๐ | ek = ๐ | ik = ๐ | uk = ๐ | -k | |
| l- | la = ๐ท lรก (laโ) = ๐ฒ | le = ๐ท lรฉ (leโ) = ๐ | li = ๐ท lรญ (liโ) = ๐ | lu = ๐ป lรบ (luโ) = ๐ฝ | al = ๐ รกl (alโ) = ๐ฉ | el = ๐ รฉl (elโ) = ๐
| il = ๐
รญl (ilโ) = ๐
| ul = ๐ รบl (ulโ) = ๐ก | -l | |
| m- | ma = ๐ mรก (maโ) = ๐ฃ | me = ๐จ mรฉ (meโ) = ๐ช | mi = ๐ช mรญ (miโ) = ๐ฉ | mu = ๐ฌ mรบ (muโ) = ๐ฌ | am = ๐ รกm (amโ) = ๐ | em = ๐
รจm (emโ) = ๐ | im = ๐
รญm (imโ) = ๐ฝ | um = ๐ รบm (umโ) = ๐ | -m | |
| n- | na = ๐พ nรก (naโ) = ๐ฟ | ne = ๐ nรฉ (neโ) = ๐ | ni = ๐ nรญ (niโ) = ๐
| nu = ๐ก nรบ (nuโ) = ๐ฟ | an = ๐ญ รกn (anโ) = ๐ | en = ๐ รฉn (enโ) = ๐๐ญ, ๐๐ญ | in = ๐
inโ = ๐ | un = ๐ฆ รบn (unโ) = ๐ | -n | |
| p- | pa = ๐บ pรก (paโ) = ๐ | pe = ๐ฟ pรฉ (peโ) = ๐ | pi = ๐ฟ pรญ (piโ) = ๐ | pu = ๐ pรบ (puโ) = ๐ฅ | ap = ๐ รกp (apโ) = ๐ | ep = ๐
รฉp (epโ) = ๐ | ip = ๐
รญp (ipโ) = ๐ | up = ๐ รบp (upโ) = ๐ | -p | |
| q- | qa = ๐ก qรก (qaโ) = ๐ต | qe = ๐ฅ qรฉ (qeโ) = ๐ | qi = ๐ฅ qรญ (qiโ) = ๐ | qu = ๐ฃ qรบ (โ) = ๐ช | aq = ๐ | eq = ๐ | iq = ๐ | uq = ๐ uqโ = ๐ฆ | -q | |
| r- | ra = ๐ rรก (raโ) = ๐บ | re = ๐ rรฉ (reโ) = ๐ท | ri = ๐ rรญ (riโ) = ๐ท | ru = ๐ rรบ (ruโ) = ๐ | ar = ๐
รกr (arโ) = ๐ | er = ๐
รฉr (erโ) = ๐๐
| ir = ๐
รญr (irโ) = ๐๐
| ur = ๐จ รบr (urโ) = ๐ซ | -r | |
| s- | sa = ๐ sรก (saโ) = ๐ฒ | se = ๐ sรฉ (seโ) = ๐ฃ | si = ๐ sรญ (siโ) = ๐ฃ | su = ๐ข sรบ (suโ) = ๐ช | as = ๐ รกs (asโ) = ๐พ | es = ๐ รฉs (esโ) = ๐ | is = ๐ รญs (isโ) = ๐
| us = ๐ป รบs (usโ) = ๐ | -s | |
| แนฃ- | แนฃa = ๐ แนฃร (แนฃaโ) = ๐ญ | แนฃe = ๐ข แนฃรฉ (แนฃeโ) = ๐ฃ | แนฃi = ๐ข แนฃรญ (แนฃiโ) = ๐ฃ | แนฃu = ๐ฎ แนฃรบ (แนฃuโ) = ๐ช | aแนฃ = ๐ รกแนฃ (aแนฃโ) = ๐พ | eแนฃ = ๐ รจแนฃ (eแนฃโ) = ๐ | iแนฃ = ๐ รญแนฃ (iแนฃโ) = ๐
| uแนฃ = ๐ป รบแนฃ (uแนฃโ) = ๐ | -แนฃ | |
| ล- | ลa = ๐ ลรก (ลaโ) = ๐ฒ | ลe = ๐ ลรฉ (ลeโ) = ๐ | ลi = ๐ ลรญ (ลi) = ๐ | ลu = ๐ข ลรบ (ลuโ) = ๐ | aล = ๐พ | iล = ๐
iลโ = ๐ | uล = ๐ | -ล | ||
| ลก- | ลกa = ๐ญ ลกรก (ลกaโ) = ๐ป | ลกe = ๐บ ลกรฉ (ลกeโ) = ๐ | ลกi = ๐
ลกรญ (ลกiโ) = ๐ | ลกu = ๐ ลกรบ (ลกuโ) = ๐ | aลก = ๐ธ รกลก (aลกโ) = ๐พ | eลก = ๐ รฉลก (eลกโ) = ๐ | iลก = ๐
รญลก (iลกโ) = ๐ | uลก = ๐ รบลก (uลกโ) = ๐ | -ลก | |
| t- | ta = ๐ซ tรก (taโ) = ๐ | te = ๐ผ tรฉ (teโ) = ๐น | ti = ๐พ tรญ (tiโ) = ๐น | tu = ๐
tรบ (tuโ) = ๐ | at = ๐ รกt (atโ) = ๐ | et = ๐ | it = ๐ รญt (itโ) = ๐๐ | ut = ๐ รบt (utโ) = ๐พ | -t | |
| แนญ- | แนญa = ๐ แนญรก (แนญaโ) = ๐ซ | แนญe = ๐ฒ แนญรฉ (แนญeโ) = ๐น | แนญi = ๐ฒ แนญรญ (แนญiโ) = ๐น | แนญu = ๐
แนญรบ (แนญuโ) = ๐
| aแนญ = ๐ รกแนญ (aแนญโ) = ๐ | eแนญ = ๐ | iแนญ = ๐ | uแนญ = ๐ | -แนญ | |
| w- | wa = ๐ฟ wรก (waโ) = ๐ | we = ๐ฟ wรฉ (weโ) = ๐ | wi = ๐ฟ wรญ (wiโ) = ๐
| wu = ๐ฟ wรบ (wuโ) = ๐ | aw = ๐ฟ | ew = ๐ฟ | iw = ๐ฟ | uw = ๐ฟ | -w | |
| y- (j-) | ya / ja = ๐ฟ | ye / je = ๐ฟ | yi / ji = ๐ฟ yรญ / jรญ (yiโ / jiโ) = ๐
| yu / ju = ๐ฟ | ay / aj = ๐๐ | -y (-j) | ||||
| z- | za = ๐ zรก (zaโ) = ๐๐ | ze = ๐ฃ zรฉ (zeโ) = ๐ข | zi = ๐ฃ zรญ (ziโ) = ๐ข | zu = ๐ช zรบ (zuโ) = ๐
| az = ๐ รกz (azโ) = ๐พ | ez = ๐ รฉz (ezโ) = ๐ | iz = ๐ รญz (izโ) = ๐
| uz = ๐ป รบz (uzโ) = ๐ | -z |
| aCV | eCV | iCV | uCV | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -สพ- | ร สพa = ๐น | uสพa = ๐๐ | ||
| eสพi = ๐๐ | uสพi = ๐๐ | |||
| eสพu = ๐๐ | uสพu = ๐๐ | |||
| -b- | aba = ๐ ร ba (abaโ) = ๐ | รบba (ubaโ) = ๐ รนba (ubaโ) = ๐ | ||
| ubi = ๐ด รบbi (ubiโ) = ๐ฆ | ||||
| ubu = ๐น รบbu (ubuโ) = ๐ | ||||
| -d- | edi = ๐ | idi = ๐ | ||
| udu = ๐ป รบdu (uduโ) = ๐๐ | ||||
| -g- | aga = ๐ รกga (agaโ) = ๐ | ega = ๐๐ช๐ รฉga (egaโ) = ๐ง | iga = ๐ | uga = ๐๐๐ต รบga (ugaโ) = ๐๐ |
| ege = ๐ รฉge (egeโ) = ๐ฉ๐ | ||||
| egi = ๐ รฉgi (egiโ) = ๐ฉ๐ | igi = ๐
รญgi (igiโ) = ๐
| |||
| agu = ๐ | egu = ๐๐ช | igu = ๐ | ugu = ๐๐
รบgu (ugaโ) = ๐๐
| |
| -แธซ- | aแธซa = ๐ด รกแธซa (aแธซaโ) = ๐ | |||
| eแธซe = ๐๐๐บ | ||||
| aแธซi = ๐ รกแธซi (aแธซiโ) = ๐ | eแธซi = ๐๐๐บ | |||
| uแธซu = ๐ด รบแธซu (uแธซuโ) = ๐ | ||||
| -i- | aia = ๐๐ รกia (aiaโ) = ๐ | uia = ๐๐ | ||
| -k- | aka = ๐ รกka (akaโ) = ๐ | |||
| eki = ๐ | ||||
| iku = ๐ท | uku = ๐ รบku (ukuโ) = ๐ณ๐บ | |||
| -l- | ala = ๐ท รกla (alaโ) = ๐ท๐จ๐ | ela = ๐๐ | ila = ๐ญ รญla (ilaโ) = ๐ | ula = ๐ รบla (ulaโ) = ๐ช |
| ale = ๐ท | ele = ๐๐
รฉle (eleโ) = ๐ | |||
| ali = ๐ท | ili = ๐ญ รญli (iliโ) = ๐
| uli = ๐ ด | ||
| alu / ฤlu = ๐ท | ilu = ๐ญ | ulu = ๐ รบlu (uluโ) = ๐ด๐จ๐ | ||
| -m- | ama = ๐ผ รกma (amaโ) = ๐ | uma = ๐ป | ||
| ame = ๐ผ รกme (ameโ) = ๐ฃ | eme = ๐
ด รฉme (emeโ) = ๐ | |||
| imi = ๐
รญmi (imiโ) = ๐ผ | ||||
| umu = ๐ | ||||
| -n- | ana = ๐น รกna (anaโ) = ๐ญ | ina = ๐ธ รญna (inaโ) = ๐ | ||
| eni = ๐ | ini = ๐
รญni (iniโ) = ๐
| |||
| anu = ๐ญ | enu = ๐ ฤnu = ๐ | ฤซnu = ๐
, ๐
ฤซnuแดตแดต = ๐
, ๐
๐ซ | unu = ๐ รบnu (unuโ) = ๐ผ๐ | |
| -q- | aqa = ๐ | |||
| -r- | ara = ๐ญ รกra (araโ) = ๐ | era = ๐ด๐ รฉra (eraโ) = ๐๐
| รญra = ๐๐ | uraโโ
= ๐๐ uraโโ = ๐๐ |
| ari = ๐ต รกri (ariโ) = ๐ | eri = ๐ท eriโ = ๐ทย ? | iri = ๐ท iriโ = ๐ | uri = ๐ต รบri (uriโ) = ๐๐ | |
| aru = ๐บ | eru = ๐ด รฉru (eruโ) = ๐๐ฉ | uru = ๐ท รบru (uruโ) = ๐ | ||
| -s- | asa = ๐ | usa = ๐, ๐ | ||
| asi = ๐๐ | esi = ๐ | isi = ๐ | usi = ๐ฅ | |
| usu = ๐๐ รบsu (usuโ) = ๐ | ||||
| -ลก- | aลกa = ๐ธ รกลกa (aลกaโ) = ๐พ | eลกa = ๐๐ รฉลกa (eลกaโ) = ๐ | ||
| eลกe = ๐ รฉลกe (eลกeโ) = ๐ | ||||
| iลกi = ๐
รญลกi (iลกiโ) = ๐๐ฏ | ||||
| uลกu = ๐ รบลกu (uลกuโ) = ๐๐ | ||||
| -t- | itaโ = ๐ญ๐๐ itaโ = ๐๐ | uta = ๐ | ||
| iti = ๐ รญti (itiโ) = ๐ | ||||
| itu = ๐ รญtu (ituโ) = ๐ | utu = ๐ รบtu (utuโ) = ๐๐ต | |||
| -y- (-iฬญ- / -j-) | aya / aiฬญa / aja = ๐๐ | iya / ija = ๐๐ | ||
| aye / aiฬญe / aje = ๐๐ | iye / ije = ๐๐ | |||
| ayi / aiฬญi / aji = ๐๐ | iyi / iji = ๐๐ | |||
| ayu / aiฬญu / aju = ๐๐ | iyu / iju = ๐๐ | |||
| -z- | aza = ๐ | รนza (uzaโ) = ๐ | ||
| izi = ๐ รญzi (iziโ) = ๐ ๐ | ||||
| azu = ๐ | izu = ๐ | uzu = ๐ รบzu (uzuโ) = ๐ |
Numerals
The Sumerians used a numerical system based on 1, 10, and 60. The way of writing a number like 70 would be the sign for 60 and the sign for 10 right after.
Usage
(c. 2094โ2047 BC)
๐๐๐
๐๐
๐๐๐ต
๐ ๐๐๐ ๐
๐๐ ๐
๐๐ ๐ต๐ค
๐๐๐
๐ฌ๐พ๐
NIN-a-ni..................... "his Lady",
SHUL-GI.................... "Shulgi"
NITAH KALAG ga...... "the mighty man"ย
LUGAL URIM KI ma... "King of Ur"
LUGAL ki en............... "King of Sumer"
gi ki URI ke................. "and Akkad",
E a ni.......................... "her Temple"ย
mu na DU................... "he built"[80]
Cuneiform script was used in many ways in ancient Mesopotamia. Besides the well known clay tablets and stone inscriptions cuneiform was also written on wax boards, which one example from the 8th century BC was found at Nimrud. The wax contained toxic amounts of arsenic.[81] It was used to record laws, like the Code of Hammurabi. It was also used for recording maps, compiling medical manuals, and documenting religious stories and beliefs, among other uses. In particular it is thought to have been used to prepare surveying data and draft inscriptions for Kassite stone kudurru.[82][83] Studies by Assyriologists like Claus Wilcke[84] and Dominique Charpin[85] suggest that cuneiform literacy was not reserved solely for the elite but was common for average citizens.
According to the Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture,[86] cuneiform script was used at a variety of literacy levels: average citizens needed only a basic, functional knowledge of cuneiform script to write personal letters and business documents. More highly literate citizens put the script to more technical use, listing medicines and diagnoses and writing mathematical equations. Scholars held the highest literacy level of cuneiform and mostly focused on writing as a complex skill and an art form.
Modern usage
Cuneiform is occasionally used nowadays as inspiration for logos.
- ย
Cuneiform ama-gi, literally "return to the mother", loosely translated as "liberty", is the logo of Liberty Fund.[87]
- ย
The central element of the GigaMesh Software Framework logo is the sign ๐ (kaskal) meaning "street" or "road junction", which symbolizes the intersection of the humanities and computer science. The name GigaMesh is an intentional reference to the legendary Gilgamesh from Mesopotamian folklore.
Unicode
As of version 8.0, the following ranges are assigned to the Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform script in the Unicode Standard:
- U+12000โU+123FF (922 assigned characters) Cuneiform
- U+12400โU+1247F (116 assigned characters) Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation
- U+12480โU+1254F (196 assigned characters) Early Dynastic Cuneiform
The final proposal for Unicode encoding of the script was submitted by two cuneiform scholars working with an experienced Unicode proposal writer in June 2004.[88] The base character inventory is derived from the list of Ur III signs compiled by the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative of UCLA based on the inventories of Miguel Civil, Rykle Borger (2003) and Robert Englund. Rather than opting for a direct ordering by glyph shape and complexity, according to the numbering of an existing catalog, the Unicode order of glyphs was based on the Latin alphabetic order of their "last" Sumerian transliteration as a practical approximation. Once in Unicode, glyphs can be automatically processed into segmented transliterations.[89]
Corpus
Numerous efforts have been made since the 19th century to create a corpus of known cuneiform inscriptions. In the 21st century, the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative and Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus are two of the most significant projects.
List of major cuneiform tablet discoveries
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (July 2014) |
| Location | Number of tablets | Initial discovery | Language |
|---|---|---|---|
| Khorsabad | Significant[citation needed][90] | 1843 | |
| Nineveh | 20,000โ24,000[91] | 1840โ1849 | Akkadian |
| Nippur | 60,000[91] | 1851 | |
| Girsu | 40,000โ50,000[91] | 1877 | |
| Dลซr-Katlimmu | 500[91] | 1879 | |
| Sippar | 60,000-70,000[92][91] | 1880 | Babylonian |
| Amarna | 382 | 1887 | Canaano-Akkadian |
| Nuzi | 10,000โ20,000[91] | 1896 | |
| Assur | 16,000[93] | 1898 | Akkadian |
| Hattusa | 30,000[94] | 1906 | Hittite |
| Drehem | 100,000[91] | Sumerian | |
| Kanesh | 23,000[95] | 1925[note 2] | Akkadian |
| Ugarit | 1,500 | 1929 | Ugaritic |
| Persepolis | 15,000โ18,000[96] | 1933 | Elamite, Old Persian |
| Mari | 20,000โ25,000[91] | 1933 | Akkadian |
| Alalakh | 300[97] | 1937 | |
| Abu Salabikh | 500[91] | 1963 | |
| Ebla | approx. 5,000[98] | 1974 | Sumerian and Eblaite |
| Nimrud | 244 | 1952 | Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Bablyonian |
See also
Notes
- ^ /kjuหหniห.ษชfษหrm/ kew-NEE-ih-form, /kjuหหneษช.ษชfษหrm/[2][3] kew-NAY-ih-form, or /หkjuหnษชfษหrm/[2] KEW-nih-form
- ^ Tablets from the site surfaced on the market as early as 1880, when three tablets made their way to European museums. By the early 1920s, the number of tablets sold from the site exceeded 4,000. While the site of Kรผltepe was suspected as the source of the tablets, and the site was visited several times, it was not until 1925 when Bedrich Hrozny corroborated this identification by excavating tablets from the fields next to the tell that were related to tablets already purchased.
References
- ^ Feldherr, Andrew; Hardy, Grant, eds. (February 17, 2011). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to C.E. 600. Oxford University Press. p.ย 5. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199218158.001.0001. ISBNย 978-0-19-921815-8.
- ^ a b . Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on September 25, 2016. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
- ^ Cuneiform: Irving Finkel & Jonathan Taylor bring ancient inscriptions to life. The British Museum. June 4, 2014. from the original on October 17, 2015. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
- ^ Jagersma, Abraham Hendrik (2010). A descriptive grammar of Sumerian (PDF) (Thesis). Leiden: Faculty of the Humanities, Leiden University. p.ย 15.
In its fully developed form, the Sumerian script is based on a mixture of logographic and phonographic writing. There are basically two types of signs: word signs, or logograms, and sound signs, or phonograms.
- ^ Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p.ย 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary.
Hittite is written in a form of the cuneiform syllabary, a writing system in use in Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia by roughly 3100 B.C.E. and used to write a number of languages in the ancient Near East until the first century B.C.E.
- ^ Olson, David R.; Torrance, Nancy (February 16, 2009). The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. Cambridge University Press. ISBNย 978-0-521-86220-2.
- ^ "The origins of writing". www.bl.uk. Retrieved May 10, 2022.
- ^ Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p.ย 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary.
...by approximately 2350 B.C.E. documents were written in cuneiform in Akkadian. Sumerian, a long extinct language, is related to no known language, ancient or modern, and its structure differed from that of Akkadian, which made it necessary to modify the writing system.
- ^ Huehnergard, John (2004). "Akkadian and Eblaite". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.ย 218. ISBNย 978-0-521-56256-0.
Connected Akkadian texts appear c. 2350 and continue more or less uninterrupted for the next two and a half millennia...
- ^ Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p.ย 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary.
These modifications are important, because the Hittites borrowed them when they borrowed the writing system, probably from a north Syrian source, in the early second millennium B.C.E. In borrowing this system, the Hittites retained conventions established for writing Sumerian and Akkadian...
- ^ Archi, Alfonso (2015). "How the Anitta text reached Hattusa". Saeculum: Gedenkschrift fรผr Heinrich Otten anlรคsslich seines 100. Geburtstags. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBNย 978-3-447-10365-7.
The existence of the Anitta text demonstrates that there was not a sudden and total interruption in writing but a phase of adaptation to a new writing.
- ^ Westenholz, Aage (December 18, 2007). "The Graeco-Babyloniaca Once Again". Zeitschrift fรผr Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archรคologie. 97 (2): 294. doi:10.1515/ZA.2007.014. S2CIDย 161908528.
The latest datable cuneiform tablet that we have today concerns astronomical events of 75 AD and comes from Babylon. It provides a terminus post quem, at least for Babylon.
- ^ Hommel, Fritz (1897). The Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p.ย 29.
It is necessary here to remark, that the application of the term "Assyriology," as it is now generally used, to the study of the cuneiform inscriptions, is not quite correct; indeed it is actually misleading.
Meade, Carroll Wade (1974). Road to Babylon: Development of U.S. Assyriology. Brill. pp.ย 1โ2. ISBNย 978-90-04-03858-5.The term Assyriology is derived from these people, but it is very misleading.
Daneshmand, Parsa (July 31, 2020). "Chapter 14 Assyriology in Iran?". Perspectives on the History of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Penn State University Press. p.ย 266. doi:10.1515/9781646020898-015.The term "Assyriology" is itself problematic because it covers a broad range of topics.
Charpin, Dominique (November 6, 2018). "Comment peut-on รชtre assyriologueย ?". OpenEdition Books.Dรจs lors, le terme assyriologue est devenu ambiguย : dans son acception large, il dรฉsigne toute personne qui รฉtudie des textes notรฉs dans l'รฉcriture cunรฉiforme.
- ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.
His numerous treatises, text editions, and polemics helped to consolidate the new science, now generally becoming known as Assyriologyโ based on the fact that the earliest excavations were conducted in northern Iraq, the home of the Assyrian people...
- ^ a b c "Cuneiform Tablets: Who's Got What?", Biblical Archaeology Review, 31 (2), 2005, from the original on July 15, 2014
- ^ Streck, Michael P. (2010). "Groรes Fach Altorientalistik. Der Umfang des keilschriftlichen Textkorpus". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 142 (PDF). pp.ย 57โ58.
- ^ "Image gallery: tablet / cast". British Museum.
- ^ Walker, C. B. F. (1987). Cuneiform. University of California Press. p.ย 9. ISBNย 978-0-520-06115-6.
- ^ a b c "Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. The transition to writing was complete W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p.ย 25.
- ^ [1]Bennison-Chapman, Lucy E. "Reconsidering 'Tokens': The Neolithic Origins of Accounting or Multifunctional, Utilitarian Tools?." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 29.2 (2019): 233โ259.
- ^ Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p.ย 45. ISBNย 978-0-19-507993-7.
- ^ Boudreau, Vincent (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. p.ย 71. ISBNย 978-0-521-83861-0.
- ^ Adkins 2003, p. 47.
- ^ Hunger, Hermann, and Teije de Jong, "Almanac W22340a from Uruk: The latest datable cuneiform tablet.", Zeitschrift fรผr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archรคologie 104.2, pp. 182โ194, 2014
- ^ Cunningham, Lawrence S.; Reich, John J.; Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2014). Culture and Values: A Survey of the Western Humanities, Volume 1. Cengage Learning. p.ย 13. ISBNย 978-1-285-45818-2.
- ^ Overmann, Karenleigh A.. "The Neolithic Clay Tokens", in The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, New Jersey, US: Gorgias Press, 2019, pp. 157โ178
- ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "An Archaic Recording System and the Origin of Writing." Syro Mesopotamian Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1โ32, 1977
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. pp.ย 7-6.
- ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, An Archaic Recording System in the Uruk-Jemdet Nasr Period, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 19โ48, (Jan. 1979)
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 9.
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 7.
- ^ [2] Robert K. Englund, "Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals", in Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch, eds., Creating Economic Order: Record-keeping, Standardization and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East (CDL Press: Bethesda, Maryland, USA) pp. 23-46, 2004
- ^ Green, M. and H. J. Nissen (1987). Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus Uruk. ATU 2. Berlin
- ^ Englund, R. K. (1998). "Texts from the Late Uruk Period". In: Mesopotamien: Spรคturuk-Zeit und Frรผhdy- nastische Zeit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 160/1). Ed. by P. Attinger and M. Wรคfler. Fribourg, Switzerland / Gรถttingen, 15โ217
- ^ [3] Born, L., & Kelley, K. (2021). A Quantitative Analysis of Proto-Cuneiform Sign Use in Archaic Tribute. Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin, 006
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 14.
- ^ Monaco, Salvatore F. "PROTO-CUNEIFORM AND SUMERIANS." Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, vol. 87, no. 1/4, 2014, pp. 277โ82
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 12.
- ^ a b Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. pp.ย 11-12.
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 13.
- ^ "Proto-cuneiform tablet". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ Geoffrey Sampson (January 1, 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. pp.ย 78โ. ISBNย 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011.
- ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp.ย 1150โ. ISBNย 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011.
- ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43โ44.
- ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey; Stone, Norman (1989). The Times Atlas of World History. Hammond Incorporated. p.ย 53. ISBNย 978-0-7230-0304-5.
- ^ Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.ย 91โ. ISBNย 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011.
- ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55โ56.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p.ย 38. ISBNย 978-0-19-507993-7.
- ^ Walker, C. (1987). Reading the Past: Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 14.
- ^ a b Krejci, Jaroslav (1990). Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East. SUNY Press. p.ย 34. ISBNย 978-0-7914-0168-2.
- ^ Mรฉmoires. Mission archรฉologique en Iran. 1900. p.ย 53.
- ^ Walker, C. Reading The Past: Cuneiform. pp.ย 16โ17.
- ^ a b c d e Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p.ย 16.
- ^ a b Khaฤikjan, Margaret. The Elamite language (1998). p.ย 1.
- ^ Peter Daniels and William Bright (1996)
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- ^ For the original inscription: Rawlinson, H.C. Cuneiform inscriptions of Western Asia (PDF). p.ย 3, column 2, line 98. For the transliteration in Sumerian an-szar2-du3-a man kur_ an-szar2{ki}: "CDLI-Archival View". cdli.ucla.edu. For the translation: Luckenbill, David. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume II (PDF). p.ย 297. For the Assyrian pronunciation: Quentin, A. (1895). "Inscription Inรฉdite du Roi Assurbanipal: Copiรฉe Au Musรฉe Britannique le 24 Avril 1886". Revue Biblique (1892-1940). 4 (4): 554. ISSNย 1240-3032. JSTORย 44100170.
- ^ Frye, Richard N. "History of Mesopotamia โ Mesopotamia from c. 320 bce to c. 620 ce". Encyclopรฆdia Britannica. Encyclopรฆdia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
The use of cuneiform in government documents ceased sometime during the Achaemenian period, but it continued in religious texts until the 1st century of the Common era.
- ^ Geller, Marckham (1997). "The Last Wedge". Zeitschrift fรผr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archรคologie. 87 (1): 43โ95. doi:10.1515/zava.1997.87.1.43. S2CIDย 161968187.
- ^ Michaลowski, Piotr (2003). "The Libraries of Babel: Text, Authority, and Tradition in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Dorleijn, Gillis J.; Vanstiphout, Herman L. J. (eds.). Cultural Repertoires: Structure, Function, and Dynamics. Leuven, Paris, Dudley: Peeters Publishers. p.ย 108. ISBNย 978-90-429-1299-1. Retrieved August 20, 2019.
- ^ Anderson, Terence J.; Twining, William (2015). "Law and archaeology: Modified Wigmorean Analysis". In Chapman, Robert; Wylie, Alison (eds.). Material Evidence: Learning from Archaeological Practice. Abingdon, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. p.ย 290. ISBNย 978-1-317-57622-8. Retrieved August 20, 2019.
- ^ Windfuhr, G. L.: "Notes on the old Persian signs", page 1. Indo-Iranian Journal, 1970.
- ^ Schmitt, R. (2008), "Old Persian", in Roger D. Woodard (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (illustratedย ed.), Cambridge University Press, p.ย 77, ISBNย 978-0-521-68494-1
- ^ a b Watkins, Lee; Snyder, Dean (2003), The Digital Hammurabi Project (PDF), The Johns Hopkins University, (PDF) from the original on July 14, 2014,
Since the decipherment of Babylonian cuneiform some 150 years ago museums have accumulated perhaps 300,000 tablets written in most of the major languages of the Ancient Near East โ Sumerian, Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian), Eblaite, Hittite, Persian, Hurrian, Elamite, and Ugaritic. These texts include genres as variegated as mythology and mathematics, law codes and beer recipes. In most cases these documents are the earliest exemplars of their genres, and cuneiformists have made unique and valuable contributions to the study of such moderns disciplines as history, law, religion, linguistics, mathematics, and science. In spite of continued great interest in mankind's earliest documents it has been estimated that only about 1/10 of the extant cuneiform texts have been read even once in modern times. There are various reasons for this: the complex Sumero/Akkadian script system is inherently difficult to learn; there is, as yet, no standard computer encoding for cuneiform; there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in