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Punjab

Punjab (/pʌnˈɑːb, -ˈæb, ˈpʌn-/; Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ; Shahmukhi: پنجاب; Punjabi: [pəɲˈdʒaːb] (listen); also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb)[b] is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, on the Indus Plain comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northwestern India. Punjab's major cities are Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Sialkot, Chandigarh, Shimla, Jalandhar, Gurugram, and Bahawalpur.

Punjab
ਪੰਜਾਬ • پنجاب
Region
Panjab region
Nickname: 
Land of the five rivers
Location of Punjab in South Asia
Coordinates: 31°N 74°E / 31°N 74°E / 31; 74Coordinates: 31°N 74°E / 31°N 74°E / 31; 74
Countries Pakistan
 India
Largest cityLahore
Area
 • Total458,354.5 km2 (176,971.7 sq mi)
Population
 (2011 India & 2017 Pakistan)
 • Totalc. 190 million[a]
DemonymPunjabi
Demographics
 • Ethnic groupsPunjabis
Minor: Saraikis, Hindkowans, Haryanvis, Pashtuns, Himachalis, Dogras, Muhajirs, Kashmiris, Biharis[1]
 • LanguagesPunjabi and others
 • ReligionsIslam (60%)
Hinduism (29%)
Sikhism (10%)
Christianity (1%)
Others (<1%)
Time zonesUTC+05:30 (IST in India)
UTC+05:00 (PKT in Pakistan)
Demographics based on British Punjab's colonial borders

Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to the Near East as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization, dating back to 3000 BCE,[3] and had numerous migrations by the Indo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture, with one's social status being determined by land ownership.[3] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the Green Revolution during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan."[3]

Besides being known for agriculture and trade, the Punjab is also a region that over the centuries has experienced many foreign invasions and consequently has a long-standing history of warfare, as the region is vulnerably situated on the principal route of invasions through the northwestern frontier of the Indian subcontinent, including those of Persians, Macedonians, Scythians, Parthians, Kushans, Huns, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols until the eighteenth century which promoted a lifestyle that entailed engaging in warfare to protect the land,[3] with the Marathas, Durranis and British invading the region in subsequent decades.

The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century Mughal Empire the Punjab region was divided into three, with the Lahore Subah in the west, the Delhi Subah in the east and the Multan Subah in the south. In British India, until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province encompassed the present-day Indian states and union territories of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Delhi, and the Pakistani regions of Punjab, and Islamabad Capital Territory.

The predominant ethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are the Punjabi people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Punjabi language. Punjabi Muslims are the majority in West Punjab (Pakistan), while Punjabi Sikhs are the majority in East Punjab (India). Other religious groups include Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Ravidassia.

Etymology

Although the name Punjab is of Persian origin, its two parts (پنج, panj, 'five' and آب, āb, 'water') are cognates of the Sanskrit words, पञ्‍च, pañca, 'five' and अप्, áp, 'water', of the same meaning.[2][4] The word pañjāb thus means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[5] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata, which calls one of the regions in ancient Bharat Panchanada (Sanskrit: पञ्चनद, romanizedpañca-nada, lit.'five rivers').[6][7] Persian place names are very common in Northwest India and Pakistan. The ancient Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamía (Greek: Πενταποταμία),[8][9][10] which has the same meaning as the Persian word.

History

Ancient period

 
Taxila in Pakistan is a World Heritage Site
 
One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab, King Porus who fought against Alexander the Great.

The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the Indus Valley Civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C.[11] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas.[11] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata.[11] The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. The Gandharas, Kambojas, Trigartas, Andhra, Pauravas, Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab), Yaudheyas, and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra.[12] According to Dr Fauja Singh and Dr. L. M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."[13]

Invasions of Alexander the Great (c. 4th century BCE )

The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as King Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[14] He (alongside Abisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family.[14] When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in Udabhandapura, he was greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila, Omphis.[14] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[14] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.[14] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown.[14] The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.[14]

Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who died soon after the battle.[14][c] Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[14][15] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[14] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[16] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[17][18][19] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.[17]

After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE, Antipater became the new regent.[20] According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[21]

Mauryan empire (c. 320–180 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid of Kautilya, had established his empire around 320 B.C. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the university at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration. Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than 321 BCE. As Alexander never crossed the Beas river, so his territory probably lied in Punjab region.[22] He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (who has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae (western Punjab) on the account of same life events.[23] With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.[24] He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[22] The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.[25][26] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[27]

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to Chanakya, the author of the Arthashastra. According to buddhist sources Chanakya was native of the Punjab who resided in Taxila. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.[22]

Medieval period

Hindu Shahis (c. 820–1030 CE)

In the 9th century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty, with their origins disputed between the region of Oddiyana and with roots as Punjabi Brahmins,[28][page needed] replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.[11][29][30] The tribe of the Gakhars/Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta.[31] The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the Saffarid dynasty.[28][page needed] He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding Ghazna around 900 CE.[28][page needed]

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.[28][page needed] Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.[28][page needed] This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).[28][page needed]

Turkic rule (c. 1030–1320 CE)

 
Silver copper coin of Khizr Khan, founder of the Sayyid dynasty.[32]

The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.[33] Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate.

Tughlaq dynasty (c. 1320–1410 CE)

The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Maliks reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of Telangana). His first attempt was a failure.[34] Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.[35] This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 AD,[34] after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his fathers death in 1325 CE, Muhammed Bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.[36] He attacked and plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Mithila and many other regions in India[37] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine.[38]Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351[39] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and Gujarat.[40]

The Tughlaq empire after Muhammed Bin Tughluqs death was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independance, it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Maliks nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title Sipahsalar. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur and Abohar according the historian William Crooke.[41][42] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute.[43][44] He also laid siege to the Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.[45] During his time Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab however he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[46]

Sayyid dynasty (c. 1410–1450 CE)

Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[47]

Following Timur's 1398 Sack of Delhi,[48] he appointed Khizr Khan as deputy of Multan (Punjab).[49] He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.[50][51] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.[49] Khizr Khan did not take up the title of Sultan, but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat-i-Ala(vassal) of the Timurids - initially that of Timur, and later his son Shah Rukh.[52][53] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[54] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from Multan and Dipalpur.[55]

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.[56][57] He defeated the advancing Hoshang Shah Ghori, ruler of Malwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.[58] Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.[59]

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.[60]

Langah sultanate (c. 1450–1540 CE)

In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah, a Jat Zamindar tribe[61][62][63][64] established the Langah Sultanate in Multan after the fall of the Sayyid dynasty. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured Chiniot and Shorkot from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by Tatar Khan and Barbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.[65]

Modern period

Mughal empire (c. 1526–1761 CE)

The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at Lahore. During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists[66] belonging to the Thaheem tribe[67] from Chiniot[68] remained Grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656.[68] Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan,[69] Adina Beg Arain,[70] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[71] The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.[11] As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.[11] Contested by Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Misls, who expanded and established the Khalsa Raj as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and territories north into the Himalayas.[11]

Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE)

In the 19th century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire based in the Punjab.[72] The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous Sikh misls.[73][74] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; Multan, also in Punjab; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time),[75] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire.

British Punjab (c. 1849–1947 CE)

 
Illustration of Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh Empire.

The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.[76] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.[11] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.[11] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation.[11] Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.[77]: 163  Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.[11] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.[11] In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the indian independence movement.[11] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[11] When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[11] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.[11] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[11]

The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[78] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[79][80][81][82]

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[83]

Geography

The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century Mughal Empire it referred to a relatively smaller area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers.[84][85]

Sikh empire

 
Map showing the Punjabi Sikh Empire.

The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2) at its zenith.[86][87][88]

The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan Durrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the Crown.[77]: 221 

Punjab (British India)

In British India, until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which the Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.[98] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

 
Map of the Punjab Province (British India)

It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[99]: 2 [100]: 4 

  1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura district);
  2. Himalayan geographical division (including Nahan State, Simla District, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State);
  3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District;
  4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District).

Partition of British Punjab

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.[101] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League.[101]

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[102]

Major cities

Historically, Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper. Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities are Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, and Chandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.

Climate

 
The snow-covered Himalayas

The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the sections adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[103]

There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). The monsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and irrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to 5 °C (41 °F) at night and 12 °C (54 °F) by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, sudden hailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[104]

Western Punjab

Climate data for Islamabad (1961–1990)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 30.1
(86.2)
30.0
(86.0)
34.4
(93.9)
40.6
(105.1)
45.6
(114.1)
46.6
(115.9)
45.0
(113.0)
42.0
(107.6)
38.1
(100.6)
37.8
(100.0)
32.2
(90.0)
28.3
(82.9)
46.6
(115.9)
Average high °C (°F) 17.7
(63.9)
19.1
(66.4)
23.9
(75.0)
30.1
(86.2)
35.3
(95.5)
38.7
(101.7)
35.0
(95.0)
33.4
(92.1)
33.5
(92.3)
30.9
(87.6)
25.4
(77.7)
19.7
(67.5)
28.6
(83.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 10.1
(50.2)
12.1
(53.8)
16.9
(62.4)
22.6
(72.7)
27.5
(81.5)
31.2
(88.2)
29.7
(85.5)
28.5
(83.3)
27.0
(80.6)
22.4
(72.3)
16.5
(61.7)
11.6
(52.9)
21.3
(70.3)
Average low °C (°F) 2.6
(36.7)
5.1
(41.2)
9.9
(49.8)
15.0
(59.0)
19.7
(67.5)
23.7
(74.7)
24.3
(75.7)
23.5
(74.3)
20.6
(69.1)
13.9
(57.0)
7.5
(45.5)
3.4
(38.1)
14.1
(57.4)
Record low °C (°F) −6
(21)
−2.0
(28.4)
−0.3
(31.5)
5.1
(41.2)
10.5
(50.9)
15.0
(59.0)
17.8
(64.0)
17.0
(62.6)
13.3
(55.9)
5.7
(42.3)
−0.6
(30.9)
−2.8
(27.0)
−6
(21)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 56.1
(2.21)
73.5
(2.89)
89.8
(3.54)
61.8
(2.43)
39.2
(1.54)
62.2
(2.45)
267.0
(10.51)
309.9
(12.20)
98.2
(3.87)
29.3
(1.15)
17.8
(0.70)
37.3
(1.47)
1,142.1
(44.96)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 195.7 187.1 202.3 252.4 311.9 300.1 264.4 250.7 262.2 275.5 247.9 195.6 2,945.8
Source 1: NOAA (normals)[105]
Source 2: PMD (extremes)[106]

Central Punjab

Climate data for Lahore (1961–1990), extremes (1931–2018)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.8
(82.0)
33.3
(91.9)
37.8
(100.0)
46.1
(115.0)
48.3
(118.9)
50.3
(122.5)
46.1
(115.0)
42.8
(109.0)
41.7
(107.1)
40.6
(105.1)
35.0
(95.0)
30.0
(86.0)
50.3
(122.5)
Average high °C (°F) 19.8
(67.6)
22.0
(71.6)
27.1
(80.8)
33.9
(93.0)
38.6
(101.5)
40.4
(104.7)
36.1
(97.0)
35.0
(95.0)
35.0
(95.0)
32.9
(91.2)
27.4
(81.3)
21.6
(70.9)
30.8
(87.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 12.8
(55.0)
15.4
(59.7)
20.5
(68.9)
26.8
(80.2)
31.2
(88.2)
33.9
(93.0)
31.5
(88.7)
30.7
(87.3)
29.7
(85.5)
25.6
(78.1)
19.5
(67.1)
14.2
(57.6)
24.3
(75.8)
Average low °C (°F) 5.9
(42.6)
8.9
(48.0)
14.0
(57.2)
19.6
(67.3)
23.7
(74.7)
27.4
(81.3)
26.9
(80.4)
26.4
(79.5)
24.4
(75.9)
18.2
(64.8)
11.6
(52.9)
6.8
(44.2)
17.8
(64.0)
Record low °C (°F) −2.2
(28.0)
0.0
(32.0)
2.8
(37.0)
10.0
(50.0)
14.0
(57.2)
18.0
(64.4)
20.0
(68.0)
19.0
(66.2)
16.7
(62.1)
8.3
(46.9)
1.7
(35.1)
−1.1
(30.0)
−2.2
(28.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 34.0
(1.34)
31.6
(1.24)
98.2
(3.87)
19.7
(0.78)
22.4
(0.88)
122.3
(4.81)
214.1
(8.43)
204.9
(8.07)
61.1
(2.41)
12.4
(0.49)
4.2
(0.17)
13.9
(0.55)
838.8
(33.04)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 218.8 215.0 245.8 276.6 308.3 269.0 227.5 234.9 265.6 290.0 259.6 222.9 3,034
Source 1: NOAA (1961-1990) [107]
Source 2: PMD[108]


Eastern Punjab

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.7
(81.9)
32.8
(91.0)
37.8
(100.0)
42.6
(108.7)
44.6
(112.3)
45.3
(113.5)
42.0
(107.6)
39.0
(102.2)
37.5
(99.5)
37.0
(98.6)
34.0
(93.2)
28.5
(83.3)
45.3
(113.5)
Average high °C (°F) 20.5
(68.9)
23.0
(73.4)
28.4
(83.1)
34.6
(94.3)
38.3
(100.9)
38.3
(100.9)
34.1
(93.4)
32.8
(91.0)
33.3
(91.9)
32.3
(90.1)
27.4
(81.3)
21.9
(71.4)
30.4
(86.7)
Average low °C (°F) 5.5
(41.9)
8.1
(46.6)
13.0
(55.4)
18.8
(65.8)
23.0
(73.4)
24.9
(76.8)
23.7
(74.7)
23.2
(73.8)
21.7
(71.1)
17.2
(63.0)
10.6
(51.1)
6.4
(43.5)
16.3
(61.3)
Record low °C (°F) 0.0
(32.0)
0.0
(32.0)
4.2
(39.6)
7.8
(46.0)
13.4
(56.1)
14.8
(58.6)
14.2
(57.6)
17.2
(63.0)
14.3
(57.7)
9.4
(48.9)
3.7
(38.7)
0.0
(32.0)
0.0
(32.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 43.3
(1.70)
44.2
(1.74)
30.5
(1.20)
11.7
(0.46)
28.9
(1.14)
131.8
(5.19)
278.1
(10.95)
289.0
(11.38)
158.2
(6.23)
22.8
(0.90)
6.4
(0.25)
19.2
(0.76)
1,064.1
(41.89)
Average rainy days 2.8 2.7 2.0 0.8 1.6 5.5 10.8 10.9 4.8 1.4 0.8 1.4 45.5
Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) 47 42 34 23 23 39 62 70 59 40 40 46 44
Source: India Meteorological Department[109][110]


Demographics

Languages

 
Dominant Mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census

The major language is Punjabi, which is written in India with the Gurmukhi script, and in Pakistan using the Shahmukhi script.[111] The Punjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the Urdu language.

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the periphery of the region. Dogri,[112] Kangri,[113] and other western Pahari dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern peripheries of the region, while Bagri[114] is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile, Saraiki is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers of Hindko and Pothwari.[115]

Linguistic Demographics of Punjab Province
Language Percentage
1911[99]: 370 
Punjabi[e] 75.93%
Western Hindi[f] 15.82%
Western Pahari 4.11%
Rajasthani 3.0%
Balochi 0.29%
Pashto 0.28%
English 0.15%
Other 0.42%

Religions

Background

 
Rig Veda is the oldest Hindu text that originated in the Punjab region.

The Punjabi people first practiced Hinduism, the oldest recorded religion in the Punjab region.[116] The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), centered primarily in the worship of Indra.[117][118][119][120] The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC,[121] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BC onward.[122]

Later, the spread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of Buddhism and Jainism in the Punjab.[123] Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[124][125] There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[126] The region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[127]

The rise of Sikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[122][128] A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[122]

Colonial era

A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[129] Additionally during the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of Tazias, in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of Sabils (shelters where water and sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."[99]: 174 
"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of Varnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... The Shamsis are believers in Shah Shamas Tabrez of Multan, and follow the Imam, for the time being, of the Ismailia sect of Shias... they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."[99]: 130 

— Excerpts from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 AD
Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the British India(1881–1941)[130][100]: 46 
Religious
group
Population
% 1881
Population
% 1891
Population
% 1901
Population
% 1911[g]
Population
% 1921
Population
% 1931
Population
% 1941
Islam 47.6% 47.8% 49.6% 51.1% 51.1% 52.4% 53.2%
Hinduism 43.8% 43.6% 41.3% 35.8% 35.1% 31.7%[h] 30.1%[h]
Sikhism 8.2% 8.2% 8.6% 12.1% 12.4% 14.3% 14.9%
Christianity 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 1.3% 1.5% 1.5%
Other religions / No religion 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3%
Religion in the Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province (1901–1941)[100]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941
Hinduism   43.79% 42.62% 41.37% 36.04% 33.54%
Islam   37.36% 37.81% 38.0% 39.72% 40.41%
Sikhism   18.35% 18.73% 19.10% 21.88% 23.11%
Christianity   0.18% 0.51% 1.23% 1.54% 1.60%
Jainism   0.32% 0.33% 0.29% 0.27% 0.28%

The Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division included Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District.[99]: 2 [100]: 4 

Religion in the Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[100]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941
Hinduism   94.60% 94.53% 94.50% 94.25% 94.35%
Islam   4.53% 4.30% 4.45% 4.52% 4.27%
Sikhism   0.23% 0.46% 0.44% 0.49% 0.60%
Christianity   0.20% 0.26% 0.26% 0.14% 0.10%
Jainism   0.03% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03%

The Himalayan geographical division included Sirmoor State, Simla District, Simla Hill States, Bilaspur State, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State.[99]: 2 [100]: 4 

Religion in the Sub−Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[100]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941
Islam   60.62% 61.19% 61.44% 61.99% 62.29%
Hinduism   33.09% 27.36% 26.66% 22.85% 21.98%
Sikhism   5.68% 9.74% 9.77% 11.65% 11.89%
Christianity   0.48% 1.59% 2.01% 2.05% 1.74%
Jainism   0.12% 0.12% 0.12% 0.11% 0.12%

The Sub−Himalayan geographical division included Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District.[99]: 2 [100]: 4 

Religion in the North−West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[100]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941
Islam   79.01% 80.00% 78.95% 78.22% 77.85%
Hinduism   17.84% 13.58% 14.23% 12.80% 13.21%
Sikhism   2.91% 5.62% 5.64% 6.73% 6.74%
Christianity   0.23% 0.79% 1.17% 1.18% 1.17%
Jainism   0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01%

The North−West Dry Area geographical division included Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.[99]: 2 [100]: 4 

Post-partition

In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and Christians.

Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 57.7% of the population of Punjab state is Sikh, 38.5% is Hindu, with the remaining population including Muslims, Christians, and Jains.[131] Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar, Anandpur Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib.

The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints, and Sufism is well established in the region.[132] Also, Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.[133]

Religious groups in the Punjab Region (2011 Census of India & 2017 Census of Pakistan)[134][135][136][a]
Religious
group
Punjab
Region
Punjab
(Pakistan)
[134]
Punjab
(India)
[135]
Haryana[136] Delhi[136] Himachal
Pradesh
[136]
Islamabad[134] Chandigarh[136]
Total
Population
Percentage Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam   114,130,322 60.13% 107,541,602 97.77% 535,489 1.93% 1,781,342 7.03% 2,158,684 12.86% 149,881 2.18% 1,911,877 95.43% 51,447 4.87%
Hinduism   54,159,083 28.54% 211,641 0.19% 10,678,138 38.49% 22,171,128 87.46% 13,712,100 81.68% 6,532,765 95.17% 737 0.04% 852,574 80.78%
Sikhism   18,037,312 9.5% 16,004,754 57.69% 1,243,752 4.91% 570,581 3.4% 79,896 1.16% 138,329 13.11%
Christianity   2,715,952 1.43% 2,063,063 1.88% 348,230 1.26% 50,353 0.2% 146,093 0.87% 12,646 0.18% 86,847 4.34% 8,720 0.83%
Jainism   267,649 0.14% 45,040 0.16% 52,613 0.21% 166,231 0.99% 1,805 0.03% 1,960 0.19%
Ahmadiyya   160,759 0.08% 158,021 0.14% 2,738 0.14%
Buddhism   139,019 0.07% 33,237 0.12% 7,514 0.03% 18,449 0.11% 78,659 1.15% 1,160 0.11%
Others 185,720 0.1% 15,328 0.01% 98,450 0.35% 44,760 0.18% 15,803 0.09% 8,950 0.13% 1,169 0.06% 1,260 0.12%
Total population 189,795,816 100% 109,989,655 100% 27,743,338 100% 25,351,462 100% 16,787,941 100% 6,864,602 100% 2,003,368 100% 1,055,450 100%

Tribes

 
Jats in Delhi (1868).
 
Rajputs in Delhi (1868).
 
Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849).
 
Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Shimla (1868).
 
Arains in Lahore (1868).
 
Tarkhans in Lahore (c. 1862–72).
 
Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1859–69).
 
Arora in Lahore (c. 1862–72).
 
Kumhars in Lahore (c. 1859–69).

The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in the colonial era details the main castes are represented, alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as Jāti or Barādarī), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known as Punjabis, Saraikis, Haryanvis, Hindkowans, Dogras, Paharis, and more.

Tribes of Punjab Province (1881–1931)[99]: 478 [137]: 348 [138]: 193–254 [139]: 367 [140]: 281–309 
Tribe 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Jat 4,223,885 20.31% 4,500,340 19.64% 4,884,285 20.04% 4,891,060 20.56% 5,453,747 21.73% 6,070,032 21.31%
Rajput 1,648,426 7.92% 1,747,989 7.63% 1,784,402 7.32% 1,586,274 6.67% 1,853,025 7.38% 2,351,650 8.25%
Brahman 1,040,771 5% 1,069,132 4.67% 1,077,252 4.42% 985,901 4.14% 994,529 3.96% 1,058,598 3.72%
Chuhra 1,039,039 5% 1,175,504 5.13% 1,175,003 4.82% 912,998 3.84% 750,596 2.99% 681,359 2.39%
Chamar 1,033,727 4.97% 1,147,913 5.01% 1,172,118 4.81% 1,075,941 4.52% 1,134,700 4.52% 1,102,465 3.87%
Arain 795,471 3.82% 890,264 3.88% 1,003,698 4.12% 973,888 4.09% 1,086,455 4.33% 1,329,312 4.67%
Julaha 593,199 2.85% 620,401 2.71% 651,800 2.67% 626,960 2.64% 643,403 2.56% 672,243 2.36%
Tarkhan 564,385 2.71% 621,718 2.71% 675,361 2.77% 637,971 2.68% 614,912 2.45% 654,053 2.3%
Gujjar 539,251 2.59% 600,198 2.62% 611,904 2.51% 595,598 2.5% 627,451 2.5% 696,442 2.44%
Arora 538,465 2.59% 603,131 2.63% 647,945 2.66% 667,943 2.81% 707,495 2.82% 769,694 2.7%
Kumhar 465,676 2.24% 515,331 2.25% 561,298 2.3% 542,906 2.28% 570,158 2.27% 62,0402 2.18%
Bania 437,000 2.1% 442,000 1.93% 452,000 1.85% 404,000 1.7% 374,169 1.49%
Jhinwar 418,499 2.01% 458,702 2% 450,362 1.85% 331,951 1.4% 371,418 1.48% 370,168 1.3%
Khatri 392,413 1.89% 418,517 1.83% 433,579 1.78% 423,704 1.78% 452,902 1.8% 516,207 1.81%
Awan 350,848 1.69% 389,402 1.7% 420,504 1.73% 425,450 1.79% 439,975 1.75% 538,760 1.89%
Kanet 346,000 1.66% 370,000 1.61% 390,000 1.6% 404,000 1.7% 288,159 1.15%
Mochi 334,034 1.61% 384,179 1.68% 408,314 1.68% 410,977 1.73% 429,242 1.71% 466,832 1.64%
Baloch 331,851 1.6% 383,138 1.67% 466,645 1.92% 530,976 2.23% 531,084 2.12% 624,691 2.19%
Nai 323,703 1.56% 371,144 1.62% 370,019 1.52% 344,845 1.45% 360,653 1.44% 380,657 1.34%
Sheikh 293,606 1.41% 287,778 1.26% 264,656 1.09% 276,687 1.16% 244,800 0.98% 407,576 1.43%
Lohar 291,506 1.4% 323,420 1.41% 347,099 1.42% 319,847 1.34% 322,195 1.28% 333,910 1.17%
Teli 250,544 1.2% 291,513 1.27% 309,433 1.27% 284,505 1.2% 305,122 1.22% 339,124 1.19%
Pathan 210,613 1.01% 221,262 0.97% 246,790 1.01% 272,547 1.15% 261,729 1.04% 345,438 1.21%
Sayyid 200,728 0.96% 217,034 0.95% 230,802 0.95% 239,160 1.01% 247,087 0.98% 293,313 1.03%
Mirasi 192,107 0.92% 230,700 1.01% 244,506 1% 223,093 0.94% 232,280 0.93% 242,685 0.85%
Machhi 167,882 0.81% 196,574 0.86% 236,122 0.97% 239,702 1.01% 280,956 1.12% 314,791 1.1%
Ahir 165,878 0.8% 188,838 0.82% 197,805 0.81% 201,299 0.85% 201,539 0.8% 221,897 0.78%
Kashmiri 149,733 0.72% 141,280 0.62% 189,878 0.78% 175,334 0.74% 166,449 0.66% 200,066 0.7%
Saini 147,183 0.71% 120,507 0.53% 121,722 0.5% 107,759 0.45% 120,376 0.48% 157,301 0.55%
Sunar 145,903 0.7% 164,087 0.72% 174,628 0.72% 155,993 0.66% 127,090 0.51% 159,655 0.56%
Kamboh 129,468 0.62% 150,646 0.66% 173,780 0.71% 171,536 0.72% 180,870 0.72% 239,385 0.84%
Dhobi 123,767 0.6% 139,421 0.61% 142,342 0.58% 151,566 0.64% 163,908 0.65% 174,519 0.61%
Meo 112,566 0.54% 115,916 0.51% 133,300 0.55% 120,752 0.51% 111,564 0.44% 124,821 0.44%
Faqir 111,995 0.54% 300,214 1.31% 362,266 1.49% 262,511 1.1% 270,070 1.08% 283,634 1%
Ghirath 110,507 0.53% 118,631 0.52% 121,718 0.5% 121,107 0.51% 117,949 0.47% 122,785 0.43%
Chhimba 100,448 0.48% 141,819 0.62% 147,152 0.6% 124,090 0.52% 120,695 0.48% 92,491 0.32%
Qassab 92,571 0.45% 109,435 0.48% 114,158 0.47% 117,363 0.49% 120,820 0.48% 127,198 0.45%
Rathi 82,957 0.4% 100,656 0.44% 37,793 0.16% 97,763 0.41% 118,015 0.47% 134,093 0.47%
Dagi & Koli 78,559 0.38% 167,772 0.73% 153,990 0.63% 172,269 0.72% 165,159 0.66% 182,056 0.64%
Mughal 92,000 0.44% 118,000 0.51% 98,000 0.4% 99,000 0.42% 88,951 0.35%
Jogi-Rawal 90,000 0.43% 91,000 0.4% 76,000 0.31% 83,000 0.35% 80,577 0.32%
Dumna 66,169 0.32% 64,046 0.28% 53,394 0.22% 72,250 0.3% 36,669 0.15% 32,055 0.11%
Dhanuk 66,000 0.32% 74,000 0.32% 77,000 0.32% 83,000 0.35% 87,278 0.35%
Dogar 63,000 0.01% 70,000 0.01% 75,000 0.01% 68,000 0.29% 74,369 0.3%
Khoja 62,000 0.3% 90,000 0.39% 99,000 0.41% 63,000 0.26% 87,461 0.35%
Mallah 62,000 0.3% 77,000 0.34% 73,000 0.3% 78,000 0.33% 74,233 0.3%
Mali 58,672 0.28% 95,989 0.42% 105,956 0.43% 96,883 0.41% 92,933 0.37% 72,299 0.25%
Bharai 56,000 0.27% 67,000 0.29% 66,000 0.27% 58,000 0.24% 61,721 0.25%
Barwala 55,000 0.26% 64,000 0.28% 69,000 0.28% 64,000 0.27% 65,907 0.26%
Mahtam 50,313 0.24% 56,982 0.25% 82,719 0.34% 81,805 0.34% 94,325 0.38% 64,004 0.22%
Labana 47,000 0.23% 55,000 0.24% 56,000 0.23% 58,000 0.24% 56,316 0.22%
Megh 37,373 0.18% 41,068 0.18% 44,315 0.18% 39,549 0.17% 30,465 0.12% 22,539 0.08%
Khokhar 36,000 0.17% 130,000 0.57% 108,000 0.44% 60,000 0.25% 69,169 0.28%
Darzi 30,190 0.15% 36,919 0.16% 39,164 0.16% 35,508 0.15% 38,256 0.15% 45,688 0.16%
Bawaria 22,013 0.11% 26,420 0.12% 29,112 0.12% 32,849 0.14% 34,807 0.14% 32,508 0.11%
Sansi 19,920 0.1% 22,218 0.1% 26,000 0.11% 24,439 0.1% 17,402 0.07% 28,262 0.1%
Od 15,652 0.08% 22,450 0.1% 26,160 0.11% 31,690 0.13% 28,502 0.11% 32,719 0.11%
Sarera 10,792 0.05% 11,366 0.05% 9,587 0.04% 10,743 0.05% 9,873 0.04% 11,230 0.04%
Pakhiwara 3,741 0.02% 3,674 0.02% 3,595 0.01% 3,711 0.02% 2,801 0.01% 3,100 0.01%
Ghosi 2,221 0.01% 2,652 0.01% 3,012 0.01% 2,419 0.01% 502 0% 3,836 0.01%
Harni 1,318 0.01% 4,157 0.02% 3,462 0.01% 3,360 0.01% 2,988 0.01% 3,387 0.01%
Maliar 81,000 0.33% 90,000 0.38% 88,755 0.35%
Mussalli 57,367 0.24% 309,543 1.3% 323,549 1.29% 412,295 1.45%
Qureshi 53,000 0.22% 71,000 0.3% 97,625 0.39%
Aggarwal 339,494 1.43% 349,322 1.39% 373,014 1.31%
Bagaria 1,262 0.01% 1,619 0.01% 2,446 0.01%
Total population 20,800,995 100% 22,915,894 100% 24,367,113 100% 23,791,841 100% 25,101,514 100% 28,490,869 100%

Economy

The historical region of Punjab produce a relatively high proportion of India and Pakistan's food output respectively.[citation needed] The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.[141]

The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the 16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.[142] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[143]

Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India," Indian Punjab produces 1% of the world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[144] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.[145] In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.[146]

Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the private sector. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. So far, 32,420 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,114 have been skill-trained.[147]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Estimates from combining 2011 Indian census and 2017 Pakistani census with religious data amalgamated from Punjab, India, Punjab, Pakistan, Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Islamabad, and Chandigarh.[134][135][136]
  2. ^ From Persian پنج panj—meaning "five"—and آب âb—meaning "water" or "river". Thus, Panjâb, پنجاب or Panj-Âb, پنج‌آب translates as "five waters".[2]
  3. ^ Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.
  4. ^ Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki, Hindko and Pahari-Pothwari, and other related languages or dialects
  5. ^ Standard Punjabi: 58.34%
    Lahnda:[d] 17.59%
  6. ^ Including Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, and other related languages or dialects
  7. ^ Delhi district is made into a separate territory
  8. ^ a b c d Including Ad-Dharmis
  9. ^ 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here:[100]: 42 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  10. ^ a b Including Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Tribals, others, or not stated
  11. ^ 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Sirmoor, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here:[100]: 42 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.

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  117. ^ Wheeler, James Talboys (1874). The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival. N. Trübner. p. 330. The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism.
  118. ^ Hunter, W. W. (5 November 2013). The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-136-38301-4. In the settlements of the Punjab, Indra thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities.
  119. ^ Virdee, Pippa (February 2018). From the Ashes of 1947. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-108-42811-8. The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.
  120. ^ Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
    Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
    See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
  121. ^ Flood, Gavin (13 July 1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  122. ^ a b c Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012). The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5.
  123. ^ "In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar". The Indian Express. 3 May 2019. Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period. Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism, Jainism and Puranic religions were practised, this religion flourished in the state. But after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline.
  124. ^ Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
  125. ^ Chhabra, G. S. (1968). Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh. New Academic Publishing Company. p. 37.
  126. ^ Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
  127. ^ Nicholls, Ruth J.; Riddell, Peter G. (31 July 2020). Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-5748-2. With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
  128. ^ Singh, Pritam (19 February 2008). Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-04946-2.
  129. ^ Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012). The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5.
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  133. ^ Kirpal Singh, Sant. "The Punjab – Home of Master Saints". from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
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  138. ^ "Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables". 1921. JSTOR saoa.crl.25430165. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  139. ^ "Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report". 1931. JSTOR saoa.crl.25793222. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  140. ^ "Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables". 1931. JSTOR saoa.crl.25793242. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
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  145. ^ Ghuman, Ranjit Singh (2005). "Rural Non-Farm Employment Scenario: Reflections from Recent Data in Punjab". Economic and Political Weekly. 40 (41): 4473–4480. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 4417268.
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Bibliography

  • Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  • Rehman, Abdur (1976). The last two dynasties of the Sahis : an analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography (PhD). doi:10.25911/5d74e50054bb9.
  • Shackle, Christopher (1979). "Problems of classification in Pakistan Panjab". Transactions of the Philological Society. 77 (1): 191–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1979.tb00857.x. ISSN 0079-1636.

Further reading

  • Condos, Mark. The Insecurity State: Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India (2020) excerpt
  • Narang, K.S.; Gupta, Dr H.R. (1969). History of the Punjab 1500–1858 (PDF). U. C. Kapur & Sons, Delhi. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  • [Quraishee 73] Punjabi Adab De Kahani, Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee, Azeez Book Depot, Lahore, 1973.
  • [Chopra 77] Punjab as a Sovereign State, Gulshan Lal Chopra, Al-Biruni, Lahore, 1977.
  • Patwant Singh. 1999. The Sikhs. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50206-0.
  • The Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, 1971, Buddha Parkash.
  • Social and Political Movements in ancient Panjab, Delhi, 1962, Buddha Parkash.
  • History of Porus, Patiala, Buddha Parkash.
  • History of the Panjab, Patiala, 1976, Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi (Ed).
  • The Legacy of the Punjab, 1997, R. M. Chopra.
  • The Rise Growth and Decline of Indo-Persian Literature, R. M. Chopra, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi. 2nd revised edition, published in 2013.
  • Sims, Holly. "The State and Agricultural Productivity: Continuity versus Change in the Indian and Pakistani Punjabs." Asian Survey, 1 April 1986, Vol. 26(4), pp. 483–500.

External links

  • Official website of Punjab, India
  • Official website of Punjab, Pakistan
  • Punjab, India at Curlie
  • Punjab, Pakistan at Curlie

punjab, this, article, about, geographical, region, province, pakistan, pakistan, state, india, india, other, uses, disambiguation, ɑː, gurmukhi, shahmukhi, پنجاب, pəɲˈdʒaːb, listen, also, romanised, panjāb, panj, geopolitical, cultural, historical, region, so. This article is about the geographical region For the province of Pakistan see Punjab Pakistan For the state of India see Punjab India For other uses see Punjab disambiguation Punjab p ʌ n ˈ dʒ ɑː b ˈ dʒ ae b ˈ p ʌ n Gurmukhi ਪ ਜ ਬ Shahmukhi پنجاب Punjabi peɲˈdʒaːb listen also romanised as Panjab or Panj Ab b is a geopolitical cultural and historical region in South Asia specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent on the Indus Plain comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northwestern India Punjab s major cities are Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Gujranwala Multan Ludhiana Amritsar Sialkot Chandigarh Shimla Jalandhar Gurugram and Bahawalpur Punjab ਪ ਜ ਬ پنجابRegionPanjab regionNickname Land of the five riversLocation of Punjab in South AsiaCoordinates 31 N 74 E 31 N 74 E 31 74 Coordinates 31 N 74 E 31 N 74 E 31 74Countries Pakistan IndiaLargest cityLahoreArea Total458 354 5 km2 176 971 7 sq mi Population 2011 India amp 2017 Pakistan Totalc 190 million a DemonymPunjabiDemographics Ethnic groupsPunjabis Minor Saraikis Hindkowans Haryanvis Pashtuns Himachalis Dogras Muhajirs Kashmiris Biharis 1 LanguagesPunjabi and others ReligionsIslam 60 Hinduism 29 Sikhism 10 Christianity 1 Others lt 1 Time zonesUTC 05 30 IST in India UTC 05 00 PKT in Pakistan Demographics based on British Punjab s colonial bordersPunjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers which served as an important route to the Near East as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization dating back to 3000 BCE 3 and had numerous migrations by the Indo Aryan peoples Agriculture has been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture with one s social status being determined by land ownership 3 The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region especially following the Green Revolution during the mid 1960s to the mid 1970s and has been described as the breadbasket of both India and Pakistan 3 Besides being known for agriculture and trade the Punjab is also a region that over the centuries has experienced many foreign invasions and consequently has a long standing history of warfare as the region is vulnerably situated on the principal route of invasions through the northwestern frontier of the Indian subcontinent including those of Persians Macedonians Scythians Parthians Kushans Huns Arabs Turks and Mongols until the eighteenth century which promoted a lifestyle that entailed engaging in warfare to protect the land 3 with the Marathas Durranis and British invading the region in subsequent decades The boundaries of the region are ill defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term Punjab has changed over time In the 16th century Mughal Empire the Punjab region was divided into three with the Lahore Subah in the west the Delhi Subah in the east and the Multan Subah in the south In British India until the Partition of India in 1947 the Punjab Province encompassed the present day Indian states and union territories of Punjab Haryana Himachal Pradesh Chandigarh and Delhi and the Pakistani regions of Punjab and Islamabad Capital Territory The predominant ethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are the Punjabi people who speak the Indo Aryan Punjabi language Punjabi Muslims are the majority in West Punjab Pakistan while Punjabi Sikhs are the majority in East Punjab India Other religious groups include Hinduism Christianity Jainism Zoroastrianism Buddhism and Ravidassia Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Ancient period 2 1 1 Invasions of Alexander the Great c 4th century BCE 2 1 2 Mauryan empire c 320 180 BCE 2 2 Medieval period 2 2 1 Hindu Shahis c 820 1030 CE 2 2 2 Turkic rule c 1030 1320 CE 2 2 3 Tughlaq dynasty c 1320 1410 CE 2 2 4 Sayyid dynasty c 1410 1450 CE 2 2 5 Langah sultanate c 1450 1540 CE 2 3 Modern period 2 3 1 Mughal empire c 1526 1761 CE 2 3 2 Sikh Empire c 1799 1849 CE 2 3 3 British Punjab c 1849 1947 CE 3 Geography 3 1 Sikh empire 3 2 Punjab British India 3 3 Partition of British Punjab 3 4 Major cities 4 Climate 4 1 Western Punjab 4 2 Central Punjab 4 3 Eastern Punjab 5 Demographics 5 1 Languages 5 2 Religions 5 2 1 Background 5 2 2 Colonial era 5 2 3 Post partition 5 3 Tribes 6 Economy 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External linksEtymology EditAlthough the name Punjab is of Persian origin its two parts پنج panj five and آب ab water are cognates of the Sanskrit words पञ च panca five and अप ap water of the same meaning 2 4 The word panjab thus means The Land of Five Waters referring to the rivers Jhelum Chenab Ravi Sutlej and Beas 5 All are tributaries of the Indus River the Sutlej being the largest References to a land of five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata which calls one of the regions in ancient Bharat Panchanada Sanskrit पञ चनद romanized panca nada lit five rivers 6 7 Persian place names are very common in Northwest India and Pakistan The ancient Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamia Greek Pentapotamia 8 9 10 which has the same meaning as the Persian word History EditMain article History of the Punjab Ancient period Edit Taxila in Pakistan is a World Heritage Site One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab King Porus who fought against Alexander the Great The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies the Indus Valley Civilization that flourished from about 3000 B C and declined rapidly 1 000 years later following the Indo Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B C 11 Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas 11 The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics particularly the Mahabharata 11 The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab The Gandharas Kambojas Trigartas Andhra Pauravas Bahlikas Bactrian settlers of the Punjab Yaudheyas and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra 12 According to Dr Fauja Singh and Dr L M Joshi There is no doubt that the Kambojas Daradas Kaikayas Andhra Pauravas Yaudheyas Malavas Saindhavas and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab 13 Invasions of Alexander the Great c 4th century BCE Edit The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as King Porus who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes Jhelum and Acesines Chenab Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities 14 He alongside Abisares had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family 14 When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration probably in Udabhandapura he was greeted by the then ruler of Taxila Omphis 14 Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander s forces and diplomatic missions were mounted but while Abisares accepted the submission Porus refused 14 This led Alexander to seek for a face off with Porus 14 Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC the exact site remains unknown 14 The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory however A B Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative 14 Alexander later founded two cities Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle ground in memory of his horse who died soon after the battle 14 c Later tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant 14 15 Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant until he was wounded and his force routed 14 When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated Porus replied Treat me as a king would treat another king 16 Despite the apparently one sided results Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him 17 18 19 Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander s forces annexing the territories of Glausaes who ruled to the northeast of Porus kingdom 17 After Alexander s death in 323 BCE Perdiccas became the regent of his empire and after Perdiccas s murder in 321 BCE Antipater became the new regent 20 According to Diodorus Antipater recognized Porus s authority over the territories along the Indus River However Eudemus who had served as Alexander s satrap in the Punjab region treacherously killed Porus 21 Mauryan empire c 320 180 BCE Edit Chandragupta Maurya with the aid of Kautilya had established his empire around 320 B C The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the university at Taxila to educate him in the arts sciences logic mathematics warfare and administration Megasthenes account as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met which if true would mean his rule started earlier than 321 BCE As Alexander never crossed the Beas river so his territory probably lied in Punjab region 22 He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta who has same etymology as of Chandragupta of Paropamisadae western Punjab on the account of same life events 23 With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent 24 He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander s successor in the east Seleucus when the latter invaded In a peace treaty Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage including a portion of Bactria while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants 22 The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans 25 26 The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas 27 Chandragupta s rule was very well organised The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system aided by a council of ministers and also a well established espionage system Much of Chandragupta s success is attributed to Chanakya the author of the Arthashastra According to buddhist sources Chanakya was native of the Punjab who resided in Taxila Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection trade and commerce industrial activities mining statistics and data maintenance of public places and upkeep of temples 22 Medieval period Edit Hindu Shahis c 820 1030 CE Edit In the 9th century the Hindu Shahi dynasty with their origins disputed between the region of Oddiyana and with roots as Punjabi Brahmins 28 page needed replaced the Taank kingdom ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan 11 29 30 The tribe of the Gakhars Khokhars formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta 31 The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the Saffarid dynasty 28 page needed He was described as a fearsome Shahi Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al Layth s preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan by successfully raiding Ghazna around 900 CE 28 page needed After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE 28 page needed Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas 28 page needed This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription HSI 28 page needed Turkic rule c 1030 1320 CE Edit Silver copper coin of Khizr Khan founder of the Sayyid dynasty 32 The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186 deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik 33 Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate Tughlaq dynasty c 1320 1410 CE Edit The Tughlaq dynasty s reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat During Ghazi Maliks reign in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang now part of Telangana His first attempt was a failure 34 Four months later Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again 35 This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell it was renamed to Sultanpur and all plundered wealth state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti Bengal invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah which he did over 1324 1325 AD 34 after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan and then leading his army to Lukhnauti Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign After his fathers death in 1325 CE Muhammed Bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent its peak in terms of geographical reach 36 He attacked and plundered Malwa Gujarat Lakhnauti Chittagong Mithila and many other regions in India 37 His distant campaigns were expensive although each raid and attack on non Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people The extended empire was difficult to retain and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine 38 Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351 39 while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and Gujarat 40 The Tughlaq empire after Muhammed Bin Tughluqs death was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independance it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq Ghazi Maliks nephew took reign His father s name was Rajab the younger brother of Ghazi Malik who had the title Sipahsalar His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess daughter of Rana Mal from Dipalpur and Abohar according the historian William Crooke 41 42 The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh while Bengal asserted its independence He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358 He captured Cuttack desecrated the Jagannath Temple Puri and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute 43 44 He also laid siege to the Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute 45 During his time Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab however he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab 46 Sayyid dynasty c 1410 1450 CE Edit See also Sayyid dynasty Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs 47 Following Timur s 1398 Sack of Delhi 48 he appointed Khizr Khan as deputy of Multan Punjab 49 He held Lahore Dipalpur Multan and Upper Sindh 50 51 Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty 49 Khizr Khan did not take up the title of Sultan but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat i Ala vassal of the Timurids initially that of Timur and later his son Shah Rukh 52 53 After the accession of Khizr Khan the Punjab Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate where he spent his time subduing rebellions 54 Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from Multan and Dipalpur 55 Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421 Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz ud Din Mubarak Shah on his coins removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph and declared himself a Shah 56 57 He defeated the advancing Hoshang Shah Ghori ruler of Malwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign 58 Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul 59 The last ruler of the Sayyids Ala ud Din voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451 and left for Badaun where he died in 1478 60 Langah sultanate c 1450 1540 CE Edit In 1445 Sultan Qutbudin chief of Langah a Jat Zamindar tribe 61 62 63 64 established the Langah Sultanate in Multan after the fall of the Sayyid dynasty Husseyn Langah I reigned 1456 1502 was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured Chiniot and Shorkot from the Lodis Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by Tatar Khan and Barbak Shah as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman 65 Modern period Edit Mughal empire c 1526 1761 CE Edit The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at Lahore During the Mughal era Saadullah Khan born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists 66 belonging to the Thaheem tribe 67 from Chiniot 68 remained Grand vizier or Prime Minister of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645 1656 68 Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan 69 Adina Beg Arain 70 and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh 71 The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century 11 As Mughal power weakened Afghan rulers took control of the region 11 Contested by Marathas and Afghans the region was the center of the growing influence of the Misls who expanded and established the Khalsa Raj as the Mughals and Afghans weakened ultimately ruling the Punjab Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and territories north into the Himalayas 11 Sikh Empire c 1799 1849 CE Edit See also Sikh Empire In the 19th century Maharaja Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire based in the Punjab 72 The empire existed from 1799 when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore to 1849 when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo Sikh War It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous Sikh misls 73 74 At its peak in the 19th century the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north It was divided into four provinces Lahore in Punjab which became the Sikh capital Multan also in Punjab Peshawar and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849 Religiously diverse with an estimated population of 3 5 million in 1831 making it the 19th most populous country at the time 75 it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire British Punjab c 1849 1947 CE Edit See also Punjab Province British India Illustration of Ranjit Singh founder of the Sikh Empire The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo Sikh Wars 76 Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority 11 The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets 11 Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture and Rawalpindi became an important military installation 11 Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities 77 163 Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued 11 At the end of the war high casualty rates heavy taxation inflation and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society 11 In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators mostly Sikhs in Amritsar The Jallianwala massacre fueled the indian independence movement 11 Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed 11 When the Second World War broke out nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements 11 Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists 11 At the end of the war the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India 11 The British Raj had major political cultural philosophical and literary consequences in the Punjab including the establishment of a new system of education During the independence movement many Punjabis played a significant role including Madan Lal Dhingra Sukhdev Thapar Ajit Singh Sandhu Bhagat Singh Udham Singh Kartar Singh Sarabha Bhai Parmanand Choudhry Rahmat Ali and Lala Lajpat Rai At the time of partition in 1947 the province was split into East and West Punjab East Punjab 48 became part of India while West Punjab 52 became part of Pakistan 78 The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition with casualties estimated to be in the millions 79 80 81 82 Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time According to historical demographer Tim Dyson in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence districts that were 66 Hindu in 1941 became 80 Hindu in 1951 those that were 20 Sikh became 50 Sikh in 1951 Conversely in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951 83 Geography EditThe geographical definition of the term Punjab has changed over time In the 16th century Mughal Empire it referred to a relatively smaller area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers 84 85 Sikh empire Edit Map showing the Punjabi Sikh Empire The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200 000 sq mi 520 000 km2 at its zenith 86 87 88 The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan Durrani Empire The following modern day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire Punjab region to Mithankot in the south Punjab Pakistan excluding Bahawalpur State Punjab India south to areas just across the Sutlej river Himachal Pradesh India south to areas just across the Sutlej river Jammu Division Jammu and Kashmir India and Pakistan 1808 1846 Kashmir from 5 July 1819 to 15 March 1846 India Pakistan China 89 90 Kashmir Valley India from 1819 to 1846 Gilgit Gilgit Baltistan Pakistan from 1842 to 1846 citation needed Ladakh India 1834 1846 91 92 Khyber Pass Pakistan Afghanistan 93 Peshawar Pakistan 94 taken in 1818 retaken in 1834 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas Pakistan documented from Hazara taken in 1818 again in 1836 to Bannu 95 Parts of Western Tibet 96 China briefly in 1841 to Taklakot 97 After Ranjit Singh s death in 1839 the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First and Second Anglo Sikh Wars The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the province of Punjab Eventually a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the Crown 77 221 Punjab British India Edit See also Punjab Province British India In British India until the Partition of India in 1947 the Punjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which the Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers Moreover the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries Along the northern border Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet On the west it was separated from the North West Frontier Province by the Indus until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces 98 In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj Map of the Punjab Province British India It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab Haryana Chandigarh Delhi and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province the North West Frontier Province Subsequently Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data 99 2 100 4 Indo Gangetic Plain West geographical division including Hisar district Loharu State Rohtak district Dujana State Gurgaon district Pataudi State Delhi Karnal district Jalandhar district Kapurthala State Ludhiana district Malerkotla State Firozpur district Faridkot State Patiala State Jind State Nabha State Lahore District Amritsar district Gujranwala District and Sheikhupura district Himalayan geographical division including Nahan State Simla District Simla Hill States Kangra district Mandi State Suket State and Chamba State Sub Himalayan geographical division including Ambala district Kalsia State Hoshiarpur district Gurdaspur district Sialkot District Gujrat District Jhelum District Rawalpindi District and Attock District North West Dry Area geographical division including Montgomery District Shahpur District Mianwali District Lyallpur District Jhang District Multan District Bahawalpur State Muzaffargarh District and Dera Ghazi Khan District Partition of British Punjab Edit The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab The landed elites of the Muslim Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement 101 Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League 101 Since the partition of the sub continent had been decided special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned After voting on both sides partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly This last Assembly before independence held its last sitting on 4 July 1947 102 Major cities Edit Main article List of cities in the Punjab region by population Historically Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region with a population of 11 million for the city proper Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region Other major cities are Rawalpindi Gujranwala Multan Ludhiana Amritsar Jalandhar and Chandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city proper population of over a million Climate Edit The snow covered HimalayasThe climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab particularly for agriculture in the region Climate is not uniform over the whole region as the sections adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance 103 There are three main seasons and two transitional periods During the hot season from mid April to the end of June the temperature may reach 49 C 120 F The monsoon season from July to September is a period of heavy rainfall providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and irrigation systems The transitional period after the monsoon is cool and mild leading to the winter season when the temperature in January falls to 5 C 41 F at night and 12 C 54 F by day During the transitional period from winter to the hot season sudden hailstorms and heavy showers may occur causing damage to crops 104 Western Punjab Edit Climate data for Islamabad 1961 1990 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 30 1 86 2 30 0 86 0 34 4 93 9 40 6 105 1 45 6 114 1 46 6 115 9 45 0 113 0 42 0 107 6 38 1 100 6 37 8 100 0 32 2 90 0 28 3 82 9 46 6 115 9 Average high C F 17 7 63 9 19 1 66 4 23 9 75 0 30 1 86 2 35 3 95 5 38 7 101 7 35 0 95 0 33 4 92 1 33 5 92 3 30 9 87 6 25 4 77 7 19 7 67 5 28 6 83 5 Daily mean C F 10 1 50 2 12 1 53 8 16 9 62 4 22 6 72 7 27 5 81 5 31 2 88 2 29 7 85 5 28 5 83 3 27 0 80 6 22 4 72 3 16 5 61 7 11 6 52 9 21 3 70 3 Average low C F 2 6 36 7 5 1 41 2 9 9 49 8 15 0 59 0 19 7 67 5 23 7 74 7 24 3 75 7 23 5 74 3 20 6 69 1 13 9 57 0 7 5 45 5 3 4 38 1 14 1 57 4 Record low C F 6 21 2 0 28 4 0 3 31 5 5 1 41 2 10 5 50 9 15 0 59 0 17 8 64 0 17 0 62 6 13 3 55 9 5 7 42 3 0 6 30 9 2 8 27 0 6 21 Average precipitation mm inches 56 1 2 21 73 5 2 89 89 8 3 54 61 8 2 43 39 2 1 54 62 2 2 45 267 0 10 51 309 9 12 20 98 2 3 87 29 3 1 15 17 8 0 70 37 3 1 47 1 142 1 44 96 Mean monthly sunshine hours 195 7 187 1 202 3 252 4 311 9 300 1 264 4 250 7 262 2 275 5 247 9 195 6 2 945 8Source 1 NOAA normals 105 Source 2 PMD extremes 106 Central Punjab Edit Climate data for Lahore 1961 1990 extremes 1931 2018 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 27 8 82 0 33 3 91 9 37 8 100 0 46 1 115 0 48 3 118 9 50 3 122 5 46 1 115 0 42 8 109 0 41 7 107 1 40 6 105 1 35 0 95 0 30 0 86 0 50 3 122 5 Average high C F 19 8 67 6 22 0 71 6 27 1 80 8 33 9 93 0 38 6 101 5 40 4 104 7 36 1 97 0 35 0 95 0 35 0 95 0 32 9 91 2 27 4 81 3 21 6 70 9 30 8 87 4 Daily mean C F 12 8 55 0 15 4 59 7 20 5 68 9 26 8 80 2 31 2 88 2 33 9 93 0 31 5 88 7 30 7 87 3 29 7 85 5 25 6 78 1 19 5 67 1 14 2 57 6 24 3 75 8 Average low C F 5 9 42 6 8 9 48 0 14 0 57 2 19 6 67 3 23 7 74 7 27 4 81 3 26 9 80 4 26 4 79 5 24 4 75 9 18 2 64 8 11 6 52 9 6 8 44 2 17 8 64 0 Record low C F 2 2 28 0 0 0 32 0 2 8 37 0 10 0 50 0 14 0 57 2 18 0 64 4 20 0 68 0 19 0 66 2 16 7 62 1 8 3 46 9 1 7 35 1 1 1 30 0 2 2 28 0 Average rainfall mm inches 34 0 1 34 31 6 1 24 98 2 3 87 19 7 0 78 22 4 0 88 122 3 4 81 214 1 8 43 204 9 8 07 61 1 2 41 12 4 0 49 4 2 0 17 13 9 0 55 838 8 33 04 Mean monthly sunshine hours 218 8 215 0 245 8 276 6 308 3 269 0 227 5 234 9 265 6 290 0 259 6 222 9 3 034Source 1 NOAA 1961 1990 107 Source 2 PMD 108 Eastern Punjab Edit vteClimate data for Chandigarh 1961 1990 extremes 1954 2010 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 27 7 81 9 32 8 91 0 37 8 100 0 42 6 108 7 44 6 112 3 45 3 113 5 42 0 107 6 39 0 102 2 37 5 99 5 37 0 98 6 34 0 93 2 28 5 83 3 45 3 113 5 Average high C F 20 5 68 9 23 0 73 4 28 4 83 1 34 6 94 3 38 3 100 9 38 3 100 9 34 1 93 4 32 8 91 0 33 3 91 9 32 3 90 1 27 4 81 3 21 9 71 4 30 4 86 7 Average low C F 5 5 41 9 8 1 46 6 13 0 55 4 18 8 65 8 23 0 73 4 24 9 76 8 23 7 74 7 23 2 73 8 21 7 71 1 17 2 63 0 10 6 51 1 6 4 43 5 16 3 61 3 Record low C F 0 0 32 0 0 0 32 0 4 2 39 6 7 8 46 0 13 4 56 1 14 8 58 6 14 2 57 6 17 2 63 0 14 3 57 7 9 4 48 9 3 7 38 7 0 0 32 0 0 0 32 0 Average rainfall mm inches 43 3 1 70 44 2 1 74 30 5 1 20 11 7 0 46 28 9 1 14 131 8 5 19 278 1 10 95 289 0 11 38 158 2 6 23 22 8 0 90 6 4 0 25 19 2 0 76 1 064 1 41 89 Average rainy days 2 8 2 7 2 0 0 8 1 6 5 5 10 8 10 9 4 8 1 4 0 8 1 4 45 5Average relative humidity at 17 30 IST 47 42 34 23 23 39 62 70 59 40 40 46 44Source India Meteorological Department 109 110 Demographics EditMain article Punjabis Languages Edit See also Punjab Pakistan Languages and Punjabi dialects and languages Dominant Mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census The major language is Punjabi which is written in India with the Gurmukhi script and in Pakistan using the Shahmukhi script 111 The Punjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the Urdu language Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the periphery of the region Dogri 112 Kangri 113 and other western Pahari dialects are spoken in the north central and northeastern peripheries of the region while Bagri 114 is spoken in south central and southeastern sections Meanwhile Saraiki is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers of Hindko and Pothwari 115 Linguistic Demographics of Punjab Province Language Percentage1911 99 370 Punjabi e 75 93 Western Hindi f 15 82 Western Pahari 4 11 Rajasthani 3 0 Balochi 0 29 Pashto 0 28 English 0 15 Other 0 42 Religions Edit Main article Religion in the Punjab Background Edit Rig Veda is the oldest Hindu text that originated in the Punjab region The Punjabi people first practiced Hinduism the oldest recorded religion in the Punjab region 116 The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period 1500 500 BCE centered primarily in the worship of Indra 117 118 119 120 The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC 121 while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti developed by Brahmin Hindu priests shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BC onward 122 Later the spread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of Buddhism and Jainism in the Punjab 123 Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century becoming the majority by the 16th century via local conversion 124 125 There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century 126 The region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region 127 The rise of Sikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis both Hindu and Muslim accepting the new Sikh faith 122 128 A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region 122 Colonial era Edit Main article Religion in the Punjab Subregions A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region 129 Additionally during the colonial era the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports In other parts of the Province too traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans In the western Punjab Baisakhi the new year s day of the Hindus is celebrated as an agricultural festival by all Muhammadans by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear with the beat of tom toms and large crowds gather to witness the show The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well irrigated tracts Then the processions of Tazias in Muharram with the accompaniment of tom toms fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans and the establishment of Sabils shelters where water and sharbat are served out are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar Lahore are no doubt practices answering to the holiday making instinct of the converted Hindus 99 174 Besides actual conversion Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of Varnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus to allegiance if not to a total change of faith The Shamsis are believers in Shah Shamas Tabrez of Multan and follow the Imam for the time being of the Ismailia sect of Shias they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret like Freemasonry They pass as ordinary Hindus but their devotion to the Imam is very strong 99 130 Excerpts from the Census of India Punjab Province 1911 AD Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the British India 1881 1941 130 100 46 Religiousgroup Population 1881 Population 1891 Population 1901 Population 1911 g Population 1921 Population 1931 Population 1941Islam 47 6 47 8 49 6 51 1 51 1 52 4 53 2 Hinduism 43 8 43 6 41 3 35 8 35 1 31 7 h 30 1 h Sikhism 8 2 8 2 8 6 12 1 12 4 14 3 14 9 Christianity 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 8 1 3 1 5 1 5 Other religions No religion 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 3 Religion in West Punjab 1941 i Religion Population PercentageIslam 13 022 160 75 06 Hinduism h 2 373 466 13 68 Sikhism 1 530 112 8 82 Christianity 395 311 2 28 Jainism 9 520 0 05 Others j 19 534 0 11 Total Population 17 350 103 100 Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab Pakistan and Islamabad Capital Territory Religion in East Punjab 1941 k Religion Population PercentageHinduism h 7 963 083 46 95 Islam 5 237 584 30 88 Sikhism 3 586 073 21 14 Christianity 117 155 0 69 Jainism 35 955 0 21 Others j 19 908 0 12 Total Population 16 959 758 100 Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab India Chandigarh Haryana and Himachal Pradesh Religion in the Indo Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province 1901 1941 100 48 Religion Percentage1901 1911 1921 1931 1941Hinduism 43 79 42 62 41 37 36 04 33 54 Islam 37 36 37 81 38 0 39 72 40 41 Sikhism 18 35 18 73 19 10 21 88 23 11 Christianity 0 18 0 51 1 23 1 54 1 60 Jainism 0 32 0 33 0 29 0 27 0 28 The Indo Gangetic Plain West geographical division included Hisar district Loharu State Rohtak district Dujana State Gurgaon district Pataudi State Delhi Karnal district Jalandhar district Kapurthala State Ludhiana district Malerkotla State Firozpur district Faridkot State Patiala State Jind State Nabha State Lahore District Amritsar district Gujranwala District and Sheikhupura District 99 2 100 4 Religion in the Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province 1901 1941 100 48 Religion Percentage1901 1911 1921 1931 1941Hinduism 94 60 94 53 94 50 94 25 94 35 Islam 4 53 4 30 4 45 4 52 4 27 Sikhism 0 23 0 46 0 44 0 49 0 60 Christianity 0 20 0 26 0 26 0 14 0 10 Jainism 0 03 0 02 0 02 0 02 0 03 The Himalayan geographical division included Sirmoor State Simla District Simla Hill States Bilaspur State Kangra district Mandi State Suket State and Chamba State 99 2 100 4 Religion in the Sub Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province 1901 1941 100 48 Religion Percentage1901 1911 1921 1931 1941Islam 60 62 61 19 61 44 61 99 62 29 Hinduism 33 09 27 36 26 66 22 85 21 98 Sikhism 5 68 9 74 9 77 11 65 11 89 Christianity 0 48 1 59 2 01 2 05 1 74 Jainism 0 12 0 12 0 12 0 11 0 12 The Sub Himalayan geographical division included Ambala district Kalsia State Hoshiarpur district Gurdaspur district Sialkot District Gujrat District Jhelum District Rawalpindi District and Attock District 99 2 100 4 Religion in the North West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province 1901 1941 100 48 Religion Percentage1901 1911 1921 1931 1941Islam 79 01 80 00 78 95 78 22 77 85 Hinduism 17 84 13 58 14 23 12 80 13 21 Sikhism 2 91 5 62 5 64 6 73 6 74 Christianity 0 23 0 79 1 17 1 18 1 17 Jainism 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 The North West Dry Area geographical division included Montgomery District Shahpur District Mianwali District Lyallpur District Jhang District Multan District Bahawalpur State Muzaffargarh District Dera Ghazi Khan District and the Biloch Trans Frontier Tract 99 2 100 4 Post partition Edit In the present day the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith but also include significant minority faiths such as Shia Muslims Ahmadi Muslims Hindus Sikhs and Christians Sikhism founded by Guru Nanak is the main religion practised in the post 1966 Indian Punjab state About 57 7 of the population of Punjab state is Sikh 38 5 is Hindu with the remaining population including Muslims Christians and Jains 131 Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar Anandpur Sahib Tarn Taran Sahib Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints and Sufism is well established in the region 132 Also Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints 133 Religious groups in the Punjab Region 2011 Census of India amp 2017 Census of Pakistan 134 135 136 a Religiousgroup PunjabRegion Punjab Pakistan 134 Punjab India 135 Haryana 136 Delhi 136 HimachalPradesh 136 Islamabad 134 Chandigarh 136 TotalPopulation Percentage Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Islam 114 130 322 60 13 107 541 602 97 77 535 489 1 93 1 781 342 7 03 2 158 684 12 86 149 881 2 18 1 911 877 95 43 51 447 4 87 Hinduism 54 159 083 28 54 211 641 0 19 10 678 138 38 49 22 171 128 87 46 13 712 100 81 68 6 532 765 95 17 737 0 04 852 574 80 78 Sikhism 18 037 312 9 5 16 004 754 57 69 1 243 752 4 91 570 581 3 4 79 896 1 16 138 329 13 11 Christianity 2 715 952 1 43 2 063 063 1 88 348 230 1 26 50 353 0 2 146 093 0 87 12 646 0 18 86 847 4 34 8 720 0 83 Jainism 267 649 0 14 45 040 0 16 52 613 0 21 166 231 0 99 1 805 0 03 1 960 0 19 Ahmadiyya 160 759 0 08 158 021 0 14 2 738 0 14 Buddhism 139 019 0 07 33 237 0 12 7 514 0 03 18 449 0 11 78 659 1 15 1 160 0 11 Others 185 720 0 1 15 328 0 01 98 450 0 35 44 760 0 18 15 803 0 09 8 950 0 13 1 169 0 06 1 260 0 12 Total population 189 795 816 100 109 989 655 100 27 743 338 100 25 351 462 100 16 787 941 100 6 864 602 100 2 003 368 100 1 055 450 100 Tribes Edit See also List of Punjabi tribes Jats in Delhi 1868 Rajputs in Delhi 1868 Brahmin in Lahore c 1799 1849 Left to right Gurkha Brahmin and Shudra Chuhra Chamar in Shimla 1868 Arains in Lahore 1868 Tarkhans in Lahore c 1862 72 Gujjars in Delhi c 1859 69 Arora in Lahore c 1862 72 Kumhars in Lahore c 1859 69 The Punjab region is diverse Historic census reports taken in the colonial era details the main castes are represented alongside numerous subcastes and tribes also known as Jati or Baradari formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region contemporarily known as Punjabis Saraikis Haryanvis Hindkowans Dogras Paharis and more Tribes of Punjab Province 1881 1931 99 478 137 348 138 193 254 139 367 140 281 309 Tribe 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Pop Jat 4 223 885 20 31 4 500 340 19 64 4 884 285 20 04 4 891 060 20 56 5 453 747 21 73 6 070 032 21 31 Rajput 1 648 426 7 92 1 747 989 7 63 1 784 402 7 32 1 586 274 6 67 1 853 025 7 38 2 351 650 8 25 Brahman 1 040 771 5 1 069 132 4 67 1 077 252 4 42 985 901 4 14 994 529 3 96 1 058 598 3 72 Chuhra 1 039 039 5 1 175 504 5 13 1 175 003 4 82 912 998 3 84 750 596 2 99 681 359 2 39 Chamar 1 033 727 4 97 1 147 913 5 01 1 172 118 4 81 1 075 941 4 52 1 134 700 4 52 1 102 465 3 87 Arain 795 471 3 82 890 264 3 88 1 003 698 4 12 973 888 4 09 1 086 455 4 33 1 329 312 4 67 Julaha 593 199 2 85 620 401 2 71 651 800 2 67 626 960 2 64 643 403 2 56 672 243 2 36 Tarkhan 564 385 2 71 621 718 2 71 675 361 2 77 637 971 2 68 614 912 2 45 654 053 2 3 Gujjar 539 251 2 59 600 198 2 62 611 904 2 51 595 598 2 5 627 451 2 5 696 442 2 44 Arora 538 465 2 59 603 131 2 63 647 945 2 66 667 943 2 81 707 495 2 82 769 694 2 7 Kumhar 465 676 2 24 515 331 2 25 561 298 2 3 542 906 2 28 570 158 2 27 62 0402 2 18 Bania 437 000 2 1 442 000 1 93 452 000 1 85 404 000 1 7 374 169 1 49 Jhinwar 418 499 2 01 458 702 2 450 362 1 85 331 951 1 4 371 418 1 48 370 168 1 3 Khatri 392 413 1 89 418 517 1 83 433 579 1 78 423 704 1 78 452 902 1 8 516 207 1 81 Awan 350 848 1 69 389 402 1 7 420 504 1 73 425 450 1 79 439 975 1 75 538 760 1 89 Kanet 346 000 1 66 370 000 1 61 390 000 1 6 404 000 1 7 288 159 1 15 Mochi 334 034 1 61 384 179 1 68 408 314 1 68 410 977 1 73 429 242 1 71 466 832 1 64 Baloch 331 851 1 6 383 138 1 67 466 645 1 92 530 976 2 23 531 084 2 12 624 691 2 19 Nai 323 703 1 56 371 144 1 62 370 019 1 52 344 845 1 45 360 653 1 44 380 657 1 34 Sheikh 293 606 1 41 287 778 1 26 264 656 1 09 276 687 1 16 244 800 0 98 407 576 1 43 Lohar 291 506 1 4 323 420 1 41 347 099 1 42 319 847 1 34 322 195 1 28 333 910 1 17 Teli 250 544 1 2 291 513 1 27 309 433 1 27 284 505 1 2 305 122 1 22 339 124 1 19 Pathan 210 613 1 01 221 262 0 97 246 790 1 01 272 547 1 15 261 729 1 04 345 438 1 21 Sayyid 200 728 0 96 217 034 0 95 230 802 0 95 239 160 1 01 247 087 0 98 293 313 1 03 Mirasi 192 107 0 92 230 700 1 01 244 506 1 223 093 0 94 232 280 0 93 242 685 0 85 Machhi 167 882 0 81 196 574 0 86 236 122 0 97 239 702 1 01 280 956 1 12 314 791 1 1 Ahir 165 878 0 8 188 838 0 82 197 805 0 81 201 299 0 85 201 539 0 8 221 897 0 78 Kashmiri 149 733 0 72 141 280 0 62 189 878 0 78 175 334 0 74 166 449 0 66 200 066 0 7 Saini 147 183 0 71 120 507 0 53 121 722 0 5 107 759 0 45 120 376 0 48 157 301 0 55 Sunar 145 903 0 7 164 087 0 72 174 628 0 72 155 993 0 66 127 090 0 51 159 655 0 56 Kamboh 129 468 0 62 150 646 0 66 173 780 0 71 171 536 0 72 180 870 0 72 239 385 0 84 Dhobi 123 767 0 6 139 421 0 61 142 342 0 58 151 566 0 64 163 908 0 65 174 519 0 61 Meo 112 566 0 54 115 916 0 51 133 300 0 55 120 752 0 51 111 564 0 44 124 821 0 44 Faqir 111 995 0 54 300 214 1 31 362 266 1 49 262 511 1 1 270 070 1 08 283 634 1 Ghirath 110 507 0 53 118 631 0 52 121 718 0 5 121 107 0 51 117 949 0 47 122 785 0 43 Chhimba 100 448 0 48 141 819 0 62 147 152 0 6 124 090 0 52 120 695 0 48 92 491 0 32 Qassab 92 571 0 45 109 435 0 48 114 158 0 47 117 363 0 49 120 820 0 48 127 198 0 45 Rathi 82 957 0 4 100 656 0 44 37 793 0 16 97 763 0 41 118 015 0 47 134 093 0 47 Dagi amp Koli 78 559 0 38 167 772 0 73 153 990 0 63 172 269 0 72 165 159 0 66 182 056 0 64 Mughal 92 000 0 44 118 000 0 51 98 000 0 4 99 000 0 42 88 951 0 35 Jogi Rawal 90 000 0 43 91 000 0 4 76 000 0 31 83 000 0 35 80 577 0 32 Dumna 66 169 0 32 64 046 0 28 53 394 0 22 72 250 0 3 36 669 0 15 32 055 0 11 Dhanuk 66 000 0 32 74 000 0 32 77 000 0 32 83 000 0 35 87 278 0 35 Dogar 63 000 0 01 70 000 0 01 75 000 0 01 68 000 0 29 74 369 0 3 Khoja 62 000 0 3 90 000 0 39 99 000 0 41 63 000 0 26 87 461 0 35 Mallah 62 000 0 3 77 000 0 34 73 000 0 3 78 000 0 33 74 233 0 3 Mali 58 672 0 28 95 989 0 42 105 956 0 43 96 883 0 41 92 933 0 37 72 299 0 25 Bharai 56 000 0 27 67 000 0 29 66 000 0 27 58 000 0 24 61 721 0 25 Barwala 55 000 0 26 64 000 0 28 69 000 0 28 64 000 0 27 65 907 0 26 Mahtam 50 313 0 24 56 982 0 25 82 719 0 34 81 805 0 34 94 325 0 38 64 004 0 22 Labana 47 000 0 23 55 000 0 24 56 000 0 23 58 000 0 24 56 316 0 22 Megh 37 373 0 18 41 068 0 18 44 315 0 18 39 549 0 17 30 465 0 12 22 539 0 08 Khokhar 36 000 0 17 130 000 0 57 108 000 0 44 60 000 0 25 69 169 0 28 Darzi 30 190 0 15 36 919 0 16 39 164 0 16 35 508 0 15 38 256 0 15 45 688 0 16 Bawaria 22 013 0 11 26 420 0 12 29 112 0 12 32 849 0 14 34 807 0 14 32 508 0 11 Sansi 19 920 0 1 22 218 0 1 26 000 0 11 24 439 0 1 17 402 0 07 28 262 0 1 Od 15 652 0 08 22 450 0 1 26 160 0 11 31 690 0 13 28 502 0 11 32 719 0 11 Sarera 10 792 0 05 11 366 0 05 9 587 0 04 10 743 0 05 9 873 0 04 11 230 0 04 Pakhiwara 3 741 0 02 3 674 0 02 3 595 0 01 3 711 0 02 2 801 0 01 3 100 0 01 Ghosi 2 221 0 01 2 652 0 01 3 012 0 01 2 419 0 01 502 0 3 836 0 01 Harni 1 318 0 01 4 157 0 02 3 462 0 01 3 360 0 01 2 988 0 01 3 387 0 01 Maliar 81 000 0 33 90 000 0 38 88 755 0 35 Mussalli 57 367 0 24 309 543 1 3 323 549 1 29 412 295 1 45 Qureshi 53 000 0 22 71 000 0 3 97 625 0 39 Aggarwal 339 494 1 43 349 322 1 39 373 014 1 31 Bagaria 1 262 0 01 1 619 0 01 2 446 0 01 Total population 20 800 995 100 22 915 894 100 24 367 113 100 23 791 841 100 25 101 514 100 28 490 869 100 Economy EditMain articles Economy of Punjab Pakistan and Economy of Punjab India The historical region of Punjab produce a relatively high proportion of India and Pakistan s food output respectively citation needed The region has been used for extensive wheat farming In addition rice cotton sugarcane fruit and vegetables are also grown 141 The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan s GDP Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries The Indian state of Punjab is currently the 16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India Pakistani Punjab produces 68 of Pakistan s foodgrain production 142 Its share of Pakistan s GDP has historically ranged from 51 8 to 54 7 143 Called The Granary of India or The Bread Basket of India Indian Punjab produces 1 of the world s rice 2 of its wheat and 2 of its cotton 144 In 2001 it was recorded that farmers made up 39 of Indian Punjab s workforce 145 In the Punjab region of Pakistan 42 3 of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector 146 Alternatively Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the private sector Government schemes such as Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission have brought enhanced employability in the private sector So far 32 420 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12 114 have been skill trained 147 See also Edit Punjab portalHistory of Punjab Sattagydia Chak village Dhani settlement type Jallianwala Bagh Music of Punjab Punjabi cuisine Punjabi danceNotes Edit a b Estimates from combining 2011 Indian census and 2017 Pakistani census with religious data amalgamated from Punjab India Punjab Pakistan Haryana Delhi Himachal Pradesh Islamabad and Chandigarh 134 135 136 From Persian پنج panj meaning five and آب ab meaning water or river Thus Panjab پنجاب or Panj Ab پنج آب translates as five waters 2 Craterus supervised the construction These cities are yet to be identified Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki Hindko and Pahari Pothwari and other related languages or dialects Standard Punjabi 58 34 Lahnda d 17 59 Including Hindustani Hindi and Urdu Braj Bhasha Haryanvi and other related languages or dialects Delhi district is made into a separate territory a b c d Including Ad Dharmis 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts Lahore Sialkot Gujranwala Sheikhupura Gujrat Shahpur Jhelum Rawalpindi Attock Mianwali Montgomery Lyallpur Jhang Multan Muzaffargargh Dera Ghazi Khan one tehsil Shakargarh then part of Gurdaspur District one princely state Bahawalpur and one tract Biloch Trans Frontier in Punjab Province British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line See 1941 census data here 100 42 Immediately following the partition of India in 1947 these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab which also later included Bahawalpur The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab Pakistan a b Including Buddhism Zoroastrianism Judaism Tribals others or not stated 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts Hisar Rohtak Gurgaon Karnal Jalandhar Ludhiana Firozpur Amritsar Simla Kangra Ambala Hoshiarpur and Gurdaspur minus Shakargarh Tehsil and princely states Loharu Dujana Pataudi Kalsia Kapurthala Malerkotla Faridkot Patiala Jind Nabha Sirmoor Simla Hill Bilaspur Mandi Suket and Chamba in Punjab Province British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line See 1941 census data here 100 42 Immediately following the partition of India in 1947 these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union Chief Commissioner s Province of Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur State The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab India Chandigarh Haryana and Himachal Pradesh References Edit Elections in Bihar Campaigning in Punjab to Woo Bihari Migrants 4 October 2015 Punjab as per official estimates is home to some two million migrants from Bihar They are engaged in various jobs and occupations in Punjab Of this over 1 3 million are living in and around the industrial hub of Ludhiana a b H K Manmohan Siṅgh The Punjab The Encyclopedia of Sikhism Editor in Chief Harbans Singh Punjabi University Patiala Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 Retrieved 18 August 2015 a b c d Nayar Kamala Elizabeth 2012 The Punjabis in British Columbia Location Labour First Nations and Multiculturalism McGill Queen s Press MQUP ISBN 978 0 7735 4070 5 Gandhi Rajmohan 2013 Punjab A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten New Delhi India Urbana Illinois Aleph Book Company p 1 Introduction ISBN 978 93 83064 41 0 Punjab Pp 107 in Encyclopaedia Britannica 9th ed vol 20 Kenneth Pletcher ed 2010 The Geography of India Sacred and Historic Places Britannica Educational Publishing p 199 ISBN 978 1 61530 202 4 The word s origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada Sanskrit for five rivers and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata Rajesh Bala 2005 Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab In Sukhdial Singh ed Punjab History Conference Thirty seventh Session March 18 20 2005 Proceedings Punjabi University p 80 ISBN 978 81 7380 990 3 The word Punjab is a compound of two words Panj Five and aab Water thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada Sanskrit for Five rivers the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum Chenab Ravi Beas and Sutlej rivers before they joined the Indus Lassen Christian 1827 Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia Weber p 4 That part of India which today we call by the Persian name Penjab is named Panchanada in the sacred language of the Indians either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Pentapotamia The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian But in truth that final word is never to my knowledge used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way on the other hand there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word e g Doab and Nilab Therefore it is probable that the name Penjab which is today found in all geographical books is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India among whom the Persian language was mostly in use That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the Ramayana and Mahabharata the most ancient Indian poems and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians for Panchala which English translations of the Ramayana render with Penjab is the name of another region entirely distinct from Pentapotamia whose translation Latif Syad Muhammad 1891 History of the Panjab from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time Calcultta Central Press Company p 1 The Panjab the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians the north western region of the empire of Hindostan derives its name from two Persian words panj five an ab water having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features Khalid Kanwal 2015 Lahore of Pre Historic Era PDF Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 52 2 73 The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet In the later period the word Pentapotamia was used by the Greeks to identify this land Penta means 5 and potamia water the land of five rivers Muslim Historians implied the word Punjab for this region Again it was not a new word because in Persian speaking areas there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Minahan James 2012 Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific An Encyclopedia ABC CLIO pp 257 259 ISBN 978 1 59884 659 1 Buddha Parkash Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab p 36 Joshi L M and Fauja Singh History of Panjab Vol I p 4 a b c d e f g h i j Bosworth Albert Brian 1993 The campaign of the Hydaspes Conquest and Empire The Reign of Alexander the Great Cambridge University Press pp 125 130 Holt Frank Lee 2003 Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions University of California Press Rogers p 200 a b Bosworth Albert Brian 1993 From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean Conquest and Empire The Reign of Alexander the Great Cambridge University Press Anson Edward M 2013 Alexander the Great Themes and Issues Bloomsbury p 151 ISBN 9781441193797 Roy 2004 pp 23 28 sfn error no target CITEREFRoy2004 help Heckel Waldemar 2006 Who s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great Prosopography of Alexander s Empire Wiley ISBN 9781405112109 Irfan Habib Vivekanand Jha 2004 Mauryan India A People s History of India Aligarh Historians Society Tulika Books p 16 ISBN 978 81 85229 92 8 a b c History of Punjab Wikipedia 20 January 2023 retrieved 22 January 2023 Seth H C 1937 Did Candragupta Maurya Belong to North Western India Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 18 2 158 165 ISSN 0378 1143 JSTOR 41688339 Mookerji Radhakumud 1 January 2016 Chandragupta Maurya and His Times Motilal Banarsidass p 22 ISBN 978 81 208 0433 3 Gupta Gyan Swarup 1999 India From Indus Valley Civlization to Mauryas Concept Publishing Company ISBN 978 81 7022 763 2 Majumdar Ramesh Chandra 1969 Corporate Life in Ancient India Firma K L Mukhopadhyay p 222 Mookerji Radhakumud 1 January 2016 Chandragupta Maurya and His Times Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0433 3 a b c d e f Rehman 1976 Rahman Abdul 2002 New Light on the Khingal Turk and the Hindu Sahis PDF Ancient Pakistan XV 37 42 The Hindu Sahis were therefore neither Bhattis or Janjuas nor Brahmans They were simply Uḍis Oḍis It can now be seen that the term Hindu Sahi is a misnomer and based as it is merely upon religious discrimination should be discarded and forgotten The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Sahi dynasty Meister Michael W 2005 The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North PDF Ancient Pakistan XVI 41 48 Rehman 2002 41 makes a good case for calling the Hindu Sahis by a more accurate name Uḍi Sahis Rehman 1976 pp 48 50 Richard M Eaton 2019 India in the Persianate Age 1000 1765 p 117 ISBN 978 0520325128 The career of Khizr Khan a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan Mehta Jaswant Lal 1979 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 76 ISBN 978 81 207 0617 0 a b William Lowe Translator Muntakhabu t tawarikh p 296 at Google Books Volume 1 pages 296 301 Tarikh I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni The History of India by its own Historians The Muhammadan Period Volume 3 Trubner London pages 233 234 Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopaedia Britannica Tarikh I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni The History of India by its own Historians The Muhammadan Period Volume 3 Trubner London pp 236 237 Tarikh I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni The History of India by its own Historians The Muhammadan Period Volume 3 Trubner London pp 235 240 Jackson Peter 2003 The Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521543293 Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 242 248 Oxford University Press Crooke William 1890 An Ethnographical Hand book for the N W Provinces and Oudh North Western provinces and Oudh government Press p 144 Proceedings Punjab History Conference Publication Bureau Punjab University 1966 p 82 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 2004 A History of India Psychology Press p 184 ISBN 978 0 415 32919 4 Haque Mohammed Anwarul 1980 Muslim Administration in Orissa 1568 1751 A D Punthi Pustak p 20 Jauhri R C 1990 Firoz Tughluq 1351 1388 A D ABS Publications p 74 ISBN 978 81 7072 029 4 Hutchison John Vogel Jean Philippe 1994 History of the Panjab Hill States Asian Educational Services p 221 ISBN 978 81 206 0942 6 Richard M Eaton 2019 India in the Persianate Age 1000 1765 p 117 ISBN 978 0520325128 Jackson 2003 p 103 sfn error no target CITEREFJackson2003 help a b Kumar 2020 p 583 sfn error no target CITEREFKumar2020 help Kenneth Pletcher 2010 The History of India p 138 ISBN 9781615301225 V D Mahajan 2007 History of Medieval India p 229 ISBN 9788121903646 Proceedings Volume 55 Indian History Congress 1995 p 216 Mahajan V D 1991 reprint 2007 History of Medieval India Part I New Delhi S Chand ISBN 81 219 0364 5 p 237 Rajasthan district Gazetteers Bharatpur Printed at Government Central Press 1971 p 52 Lal Kishori Saran 1980 Twilight of the Sultanate A Political Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398 1526 Munshiram Manoharlal ISBN 978 81 215 0227 6 This considerably depleted Iqbal s strength and encouraged Khizr Khan to collect his forces of Multan Deopalpur and the Punjab V D Mahajan 2007 History of Medieval India Iqtidar Alam Khan 2008 Historical Dictionary of Medieval India p 103 Lal Kishori Saran 1980 Twilight of the Sultanate A Political Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398 1526 Munshiram Manoharlal ISBN 978 81 215 0227 6 Hoshang tried his luck against Sultan of Delhi but he was beaten back by Mubarak Shah Saiyyad to whom he had to pay a handsome tribute Lal Kishori Saran 1980 Twilight of the Sultanate A Political Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398 1526 Munshiram Manoharlal p 109 ISBN 978 81 215 0227 6 Mahajan V D 1991 reprint 2007 History of Medieval India Part I Now Delhi S Chand ISBN 81 219 0364 5 p 244 Ahmed Iftikhar 1984 Territorial Distribution of Jatt Castes in Punjab c 1595 c 1881 Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Indian History Congress 45 429 432 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44140224 Retrieved 28 July 2022 Mubarak A F Blochmann H 1891 The Ain I Akbari Bibliotheca Indica Asiatic Society of Bengal p 321 Retrieved 28 July 2022 Lambrick H T 1975 Sind a general introduction Hyderabad Sindhi Adabi Board p 212 ISBN 0 19 577220 2 OCLC 2404471 Roseberry J R 1987 Imperial Rule in Punjab The Conquest and Administration of Multan 1818 1881 Manohar p 177 ISBN 978 81 85054 28 5 Retrieved 28 July 2022 Battles in chiniot and shorkot PDF UNESCO p 9 Journal of Central Asia Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia Quaid i Azam University 1992 p 84 Retrieved 30 July 2022 Sadullah Khan was the son of Amir Bakhsh a cultivator of Chiniot He belongs to Jat family He was born on Thursday the 10th Safar 1000 A H 1591 A C Quddus S A 1992 Punjab the Land of Beauty Love and Mysticism Royal Book Company p 402 ISBN 978 969 407 130 5 Retrieved 29 July 2022 a b Siddiqui Shabbir A 1986 Relations Between Dara Shukoh and Sa adullah Khan Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 47 273 276 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44141552 Koch Ebba 2006 The complete Taj Mahal and the riverfront gardens of Agra Richard Andre Barraud London Thames amp Hudson p 45 ISBN 978 0 500 34209 1 OCLC 69022179 Chhabra G S 2005 Advance Study in the History of Modern India Volume 1 1707 1803 Lotus Press p 38 ISBN 978 81 89093 06 8 Chisti AA Sheikh Md Asrarul Hoque 2012 Shahbaz Khan In Islam Sirajul Miah Sajahan Khanam Mahfuza Ahmed Sabbir eds Banglapedia the National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Online ed Dhaka Bangladesh Banglapedia Trust Asiatic Society of Bangladesh ISBN 984 32 0576 6 OCLC 52727562 OL 30677644M Retrieved 17 April 2023 Ranjit Singh A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K S Duggal Date 1989 ISBN 8170172446 Exoticindiaart com 3 September 2015 Retrieved 9 August 2009 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Ranjit Singh Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 22 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 892 Grewal J S 1990 The Sikhs of the Punjab Chapter 6 The Sikh empire 1799 1849 The New Cambridge History of India Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 63764 3 Amarinder Singh s The Last Sunset The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar Grewal J S 1998 The Sikh empire 1799 1849 Chapter 6 The Sikhs of the Punjab The New Cambridge History of India Revised ed Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 126 128 ISBN 0 521 63764 3 a b Hibbert Christopher 1980 The great mutiny India 1857 Harmondsworth Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 004752 3 Pakistan Geotagging Partition of Punjab in 1947 3 October 2014 Archived from the original on 8 February 2016 Retrieved 11 February 2016 Daily Times 10 May 2012 Retrieved 12 July 2013 Talbot Ian 2009 Partition of India The Human Dimension Cultural and Social History 6 4 403 410 doi 10 2752 147800409X466254 S2CID 147110854 The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute with figures being claimed that range from 200 000 to 2 million victims D Costa Bina 2011 Nationbuilding Gender and War Crimes in South Asia Routledge p 53 ISBN 978 0415565660 Butalia Urvashi 2000 The Other Side of Silence Voices From the Partition of India Duke University Press Sikand Yoginder 2004 Muslims in India Since 1947 Islamic Perspectives on Inter Faith Relations Routledge p 5 ISBN 978 1134378258 Dyson 2018 pp 188 189 J S Grewal 1998 The Sikhs of the Punjab The New Cambridge History of India Revised ed Cambridge University Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 521 63764 0 Different Types of History Pearson Education India 2009 ISBN 978 81 317 1818 6 Manning Stephen 30 September 2020 Bayonet to Barrage Weaponry on the Victorian Battlefield Pen amp Sword Books Limited ISBN 9781526777249 The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north an area of 200 000 square miles Barczewski Stephanie 22 March 2016 Heroic Failure and the British Yale University Press p 89 ISBN 9780300186819 the Sikh state encompassed over 200 000 square miles 518 000 sq km Khilani N M 1972 British power in the Punjab 1839 1858 Asia Publishing House p 251 ISBN 9780210271872 into existence a kingdom of the Punjab of over 200 000 square miles The Masters Revealed Johnson p 128 Britain and Tibet 1765 1947 Marshall p 116 Pandey Dr Hemant Kumar Singh Manish Raj 2017 India s Major Military and Rescue Operations Horizon Books p 57 ISBN 9789386369390 Deng Jonathan M 2010 Frontier The Making of the Northern and Eastern Border in Ladakh From 1834 to the Present SIT Digital Collections Independent Study Project ISP Collection 920 The Khyber Pass A History of Empire and Invasion Docherty p 187 The Khyber Pass A History of Empire and Invasion Docherty pp 185 187 Bennett Jones Owen Singh Sarina Pakistan amp the Karakoram Highway Page 199 Waheeduddin 1981 p vii sfn error no target CITEREFWaheeduddin1981 help Kartar Singh Duggal 2001 Maharaja Ranjit Singh the Last to Lay Arms Abhinav Publications p 131 ISBN 9788170174103 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Punjab Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 653 a b c d e f g h i Census of India 1911 Vol 14 Punjab Pt 1 Report Retrieved 21 July 2022 a b c d e f g h i j k l CENSUS OF INDIA 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB Retrieved 19 August 2022 a b Pritam Singh Federalism Nationalism and Development India and the Punjab Economy Routledge 19 February 2008 p 54 Provincial Assembly of the Punjab Maps of India Climate of Punjab Archived 30 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Royal Geographical Society Climate and Landscape of the Punjab Archived 30 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Islamabad Climate Normals 1961 1990 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Retrieved 16 January 2012 Extremes of Islamabad Pakistan Meteorological Department Retrieved 1 February 2015 Lahore Climate Normals 1961 1990 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Retrieved 16 January 2013 Extremes of Lahore Pakistan Meteorological Department Retrieved 2 February 2015 Station Chandigarh Climatological Table 1961 1990 PDF Climatological Normals 1961 1990 India Meteorological Department July 2010 pp 179 180 Archived PDF from the original on 16 February 2020 Retrieved 31 March 2020 Extremes of Temperature amp Rainfall for Indian Stations Up to 2012 PDF India Meteorological Department December 2016 p M64 Archived from the original PDF on 5 February 2020 Retrieved 31 March 2020 Punjabi language alphabets and pronunciation Dogri lisindia ciil org Retrieved 17 August 2022 Language District Kangra Government of Himachal Pradesh India Retrieved 17 August 2022 Bagri of Rajasthan Punjab and Haryana A Sociolinguistic Survey SIL International 28 January 2013 Retrieved 17 August 2022 Shackle 1979 p 198 Nayar Kamala Elizabeth 2012 The Punjabis in British Columbia Location Labour First Nations and Multiculturalism McGill Queen s Press MQUP ISBN 978 0 7735 4070 5 Wheeler James Talboys 1874 The History of India from the Earliest Ages Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival N Trubner p 330 The Punjab to say the least was less Brahmanical It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra who was always regarded as an enemy by the Brahmans and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism Hunter W W 5 November 2013 The Indian Empire Its People History and Products Routledge p 80 ISBN 978 1 136 38301 4 In the settlements of the Punjab Indra thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities Virdee Pippa February 2018 From the Ashes of 1947 Cambridge University Press p 24 ISBN 978 1 108 42811 8 The Rig Veda and the Upanishads which belonged to the Vedic religion were a precursor of Hinduism both of which were composed in Punjab Michaels 2004 p 38 harvtxt error no target CITEREFMichaels2004 help The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated The influence of the mythology is indeed great but the religious terminology changed considerably all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts karma the cyclical destruction of the world or the idea of salvation during one s lifetime jivanmukti moksa nirvana the idea of the world as illusion maya must have gone against the grain of ancient India and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system the burning of widows the ban on remarriage images of gods and temples Puja worship Yoga pilgrimages vegetarianism the holiness of cows the doctrine of stages of life asrama or knew them only at their inception Thus it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions Jamison Stephanie Witzel Michael 1992 Vedic Hinduism PDF Harvard University p 3 to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion However Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism See also Halbfass 1991 pp 1 2harvnb error no target CITEREFHalbfass1991 help Flood Gavin 13 July 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 a b c Nayar Kamala Elizabeth 2012 The Punjabis in British Columbia Location Labour First Nations and Multiculturalism McGill Queen s Press MQUP pp 7 8 ISBN 978 0 7735 4070 5 In ancient Punjab religion was fluid not watertight says Romila Thapar The Indian Express 3 May 2019 Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post Mauryan period Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism Jainism and Puranic religions were practised this religion flourished in the state But after the Gupta period Buddhism began to decline Rambo Lewis R Farhadian Charles E 6 March 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion Oxford University Press pp 489 491 ISBN 978 0 19 971354 7 First Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century By the sixteenth century Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community and as far for the mechanisms of conversion the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith shahada the performance of the circumsicion indri vaddani and the ingestion of cow meat bhas khana Chhabra G S 1968 Advanced History of the Punjab Guru and post Guru period upto Ranjit Singh New Academic Publishing Company p 37 Rambo Lewis R Farhadian Charles E 6 March 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion Oxford University Press p 490 ISBN 978 0 19 971354 7 While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab Buddhist communities however had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century Nicholls Ruth J Riddell Peter G 31 July 2020 Insights into Sufism Voices from the Heart Cambridge Scholars Publishing ISBN 978 1 5275 5748 2 With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers Singh Pritam 19 February 2008 Federalism Nationalism and Development India and the Punjab Economy Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 04946 2 Nayar Kamala Elizabeth 2012 The Punjabis in British Columbia Location Labour First Nations and Multiculturalism McGill Queen s Press MQUP pp 7 8 ISBN 978 0 7735 4070 5 Krishan Gopal 2004 Demography of the Punjab 1849 1947 PDF Journal of Punjab Studies 11 1 77 89 Census Reference Tables C Series Population by religious communities Census of India 2001 Archived from the original on 1 July 2010 Retrieved 25 July 2010 Sufi Saints of the Punjab Punjabics com Archived from the original on 30 December 2013 Retrieved 1 July 2018 Kirpal Singh Sant The Punjab Home of Master Saints Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 1 July 2018 a b c d TABLE 9 POPULATION BY SEX RELIGION AND RURAL URBAN PDF Retrieved 13 February 2023 a b c Population by religion community 2011 The Registrar General amp Census Commissioner India Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 Retrieved 13 February 2023 a b c d e f Population by religion community 2011 Census of India 2011 The Registrar General amp Census Commissioner India Archived from the original on 25 August 2015 Retrieved 13 February 2023 Census of India 1921 Vol 15 Punjab and Delhi Pt 1 Report 1921 JSTOR saoa crl 25430164 Retrieved 26 March 2023 Census of India 1921 Vol 15 Punjab and Delhi Pt 2 Tables 1921 JSTOR saoa crl 25430165 Retrieved 26 March 2023 Census of India 1931 Vol 17 Punjab Pt 1 Report 1931 JSTOR saoa crl 25793222 Retrieved 21 March 2023 Census of India 1931 Vol 17 Punjab Pt 2 Tables 1931 JSTOR saoa crl 25793242 Retrieved 21 March 2023 Punjab The Leader in Agricultural Sector Agriculture Today 2013 Agropedia Retrieved 30 September 2020 Pakistani government statistics Archived 8 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 14 April 2007 Provincial Accounts of Pakistan Methodology and Estimates 1973 2000 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 26 December 2017 Retrieved 26 December 2017 Yadav Kiran 11 February 2013 Punjab Agropedia Archived from the original on 6 March 2014 Retrieved 15 March 2013 Ghuman Ranjit Singh 2005 Rural Non Farm Employment Scenario Reflections from Recent Data in Punjab Economic and Political Weekly 40 41 4473 4480 ISSN 0012 9976 JSTOR 4417268 Overview 20 March 2014 Punjab govt to identify poorest among unemployed in villages Amarinder Singh India Today 7 October 2019 Retrieved 7 October 2019 Bibliography EditDyson Tim 2018 A Population History of India From the First Modern People to the Present Day Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 882905 8 Rehman Abdur 1976 The last two dynasties of the Sahis an analysis of their history archaeology coinage and palaeography PhD doi 10 25911 5d74e50054bb9 Shackle Christopher 1979 Problems of classification in Pakistan Panjab Transactions of the Philological Society 77 1 191 210 doi 10 1111 j 1467 968X 1979 tb00857 x ISSN 0079 1636 Further reading EditCondos Mark The Insecurity State Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India 2020 excerpt Narang K S Gupta Dr H R 1969 History of the Punjab 1500 1858 PDF U C Kapur amp Sons Delhi Retrieved 22 January 2014 Quraishee 73 Punjabi Adab De Kahani Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee Azeez Book Depot Lahore 1973 Chopra 77 Punjab as a Sovereign State Gulshan Lal Chopra Al Biruni Lahore 1977 Patwant Singh 1999 The Sikhs New York Doubleday ISBN 0 385 50206 0 The Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab 1971 Buddha Parkash Social and Political Movements in ancient Panjab Delhi 1962 Buddha Parkash History of Porus Patiala Buddha Parkash History of the Panjab Patiala 1976 Fauja Singh L M Joshi Ed The Legacy of the Punjab 1997 R M Chopra The Rise Growth and Decline of Indo Persian Literature R M Chopra 2012 Iran Culture House New Delhi 2nd revised edition published in 2013 Sims Holly The State and Agricultural Productivity Continuity versus Change in the Indian and Pakistani Punjabs Asian Survey 1 April 1986 Vol 26 4 pp 483 500 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Punjab region Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Punjab Official website of Punjab India Official website of Punjab Pakistan Punjab India at Curlie Punjab Pakistan at Curlie Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Punjab amp oldid 1150173605, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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