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Indra

May 03, 2023

This article is about the deity in Indian religions. For the Buddhist deity, see Śakra (Buddhism). For other uses, see Indra (disambiguation).

Indra (/ˈɪndrə/; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war.[4][5][6][7] Indra's powers are similar to other Indo-European deities such as Jupiter, Perun, Perkūnas, Zalmoxis, Taranis, Zeus, and Thor, part of the greater Proto-Indo-European mythology.[7][8][9]

Indra
Painting of Indra Bhagwan on his elephant mount, Airavata, c. 1820.
Other namesDevendra, Mahendra, Surendra, Surapati, Suresha, Devesha, Devaraja, Amaresha, Parjanya, Vendhan,
Devanagariइन्द्र
Sanskrit transliterationIndra
AffiliationAdityas, Deva, Bhagwan, Para brahman , Dikpala, Parjanya, Vishnu
AbodeAmarāvati, the capital of Indraloka in Svarga[1]
MantraOm Indra Devaya Namah
Om Indra Rajaya Vidmahe Mahaindraya Dhimahi Tanno Indraya Prachodayat
WeaponVajra (thunderbolt), Astras, Indrastra, Aindrastra, Vasavi Shakti
SymbolsVajra, Indra's net
MountAiravata (white elephant), Uchchaihshravas (white horse)
TextsVedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas
GenderMale
FestivalsIndra Jatra, Indra Vila, Raksha Bandhan, Lohri, Sawan, Deepavali
Personal information
Parents
SiblingsAdityas including Surya, Varuna, Bhaga, Aaryaman, Mitra, Savitra and Vamana
ConsortShachi
ChildrenJayanta, Rishabha, Midhusha, Jayanti, Devasena (Shashthi), Vali and Arjuna
Equivalents
Greek equivalentZeus
Roman equivalentJupiter
Norse equivalentThor
Slavic equivalentPerun
Indo-European equivalentPerkwunos
Celtic equivalentTaranis
Japanese equivalentSusanoo-no-Mikoto
Nuristani equivalentGreat Gish

Indra is the most referred deity in the Rigveda.[10] He is celebrated for his powers, and as the one who killed the great evil (a malevolent type of asura) named Vritra, who obstructed human prosperity and happiness. Indra destroys Vritra and his "deceiving forces", and thereby brings rains and sunshine as the saviour of mankind.[7][11] He is also an important deity worshipped by the Kalash people, indicating his prominence in ancient Hinduism.[12][13][b][14][c][15][16][d][17][e][18]

Indra's significance diminishes in the post-Vedic Indian literature, but he still plays an important role in various mythological events. He is depicted as a powerful hero, and is known for having sexual relations with sage Gautama's wife, Ahalyā.[19]

According to the Vishnu Purana, Indra is the title borne by the king of the gods, which changes every Manvantara – a cyclic period of time in Hindu cosmology. Each Manvantara has its own Indra and the Indra of the current Manvantara is called Purandhara.[20][21][22][23]

Indra is also depicted in Buddhist (Indā[24] in Pali)[25] and Jain[26] mythologies. Indra rules over the much-sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions.[27] However, like the post-Vedic Hindu texts, Indra is also a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts,[28] shown as a god that suffers rebirth.[27] In Jain traditions, unlike Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is not the king of gods, but the king of superhumans residing in Svarga-Loka, and very much a part of Jain rebirth cosmology.[29] He is also the one who appears with his wife Indrani to celebrate the auspicious moments in the life of a Jain Tirthankara, an iconography that suggests the king and queen of superhumans residing in Svarga (heaven) reverentially marking the spiritual journey of a Jain.[30][31]

Indra's iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt weapon known as Vajra, riding on a white elephant known as Airavata.[32][33] In Buddhist iconography, the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jain icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads. Sometimes, a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks.[32] Indra's abode exists in the capital city of Svarga, Amaravati, though he is also associated with Mount Meru (also called Sumeru).[27][34]

Etymology and nomenclature

 
Indra on his elephant, guarding the entrance of the 1st century BCE Buddhist Cave 19 at Bhaja Caves (Maharashtra).[35]

The etymological roots of Indra are unclear, and it has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals.[36][37] The significant proposals have been:

  • root ind-u, or "rain drop", based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain and brought it down to earth.[32][36]
  • root ind, or "equipped with great power". This was proposed by Vopadeva.[32]
  • root idh or "kindle", and ina or "strong".[38][39]
  • root indha, or "igniter", for his ability to bring light and power (indriya) that ignites the vital forces of life (prana). This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana.[40]
  • root idam-dra, or "It seeing" which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical Brahman. This is based on Aitareya Upanishad.[32]
  • roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities.[41] For example, states John Colarusso, as a reflex of proto-Indo-European *h₂nḗr-, Greek anēr, Sabine nerō, Avestan nar-, Umbrian nerus, Old Irish nert, Pashto nər, Ossetic nart, and others which all refer to "most manly" or "hero".[41]

Colonial era scholarship proposed that Indra shares etymological roots with Avestan Andra, Old High German *antra ("giant"), or Old Church Slavonic jedru ("strong"), but Max Muller critiqued these proposals as untenable.[36][42] Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to Aynar (the Great One) of Circassian, Abaza and Ubykh mythology, and Innara of Hittite mythology.[41][43] Colarusso suggests a Pontic[f] origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology (i.e. *inra).[41]

Other languages

For other languages, he is also known as

Epithets

Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably Śakra (शक्र, powerful one),

  • Vṛṣan (वृषन् , mighty)
  • Vṛtrahan (वृत्रहन् , slayer of Vṛtra)
  • Meghavāhana (मेघवाहन, he whose vehicle is cloud)
  • Devarāja (देवराज, king of deities)
  • Devendra (देवेन्द्र, the lord of deities)[45]
  • Surendra (सुरेन्द्र, chief of deities)
  • Svargapati (स्वर्गपति, the lord of heaven)
  • Śatakratu (शतक्रतु one who performs 100 sacrifices).
  • Vajrapāṇī (वज्रपाणि, wielder of Vajra, i.e., thunderbolt)
  • Vāsava (वासव, lord of Vasus)
  • Purandara (पुरंदर, the breaker of forts)
  • Kaushika (कौशिक, Vishvamitra was born as the embodiment of Indra)
  • Shachin or Shachindra (शचीन, the consort of Shachi).

Origins

 
Banteay Srei temple's pediment carvings depict Indra mounted on Airavata, Cambodia, c. 10th century.

Indra is of ancient but unclear origin. Aspects of Indra as a deity are cognate to other Indo-European gods; there are thunder gods such as Thor, Perun, and Zeus who share parts of his heroic mythologies, act as king of gods, and all are linked to "rain and thunder".[46] The similarities between Indra of Vedic mythology and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant, states Max Müller. Both Indra and Thor are storm gods, with powers over lightning and thunder, both carry a hammer or an equivalent, for both the weapon returns to their hand after they hurl it, both are associated with bulls in the earliest layer of respective texts, both use thunder as a battle-cry, both are protectors of mankind, both are described with legends about "milking the cloud-cows", both are benevolent giants, gods of strength, of life, of marriage and the healing gods.[47]

Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European *trigw-welumos [or rather *trigw-t-welumos] "smasher of the enclosure" (of Vritra, Vala) and diye-snūtyos "impeller of streams" (the liberated rivers, corresponding to Vedic apam ajas "agitator of the waters").[48] Brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian-speaking people of Hittite region.[49]

Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor, as evidenced by the inscriptions on the Boghaz-köi clay tablets dated to about 1400 BCE. This tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi-it-ra, U-ru-w-na, In-da-ra and Na-sa-at-ti-ia. These are respectively, Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya-Asvin of the Vedic pantheon as revered deities, and these are also found in Avestan pantheon but with Indra and Naonhaitya as demons. This at least suggests that Indra and his fellow deities were in vogue in South Asia and Asia minor by about mid 2nd-millennium BCE.[38][50]

Indra is praised as the highest god in 250 hymns of the Rigveda – a Hindu scripture dated to have been composed sometime between 1700 and 1100 BCE. He is co-praised as the supreme in another 50 hymns, thus making him one of the most celebrated Vedic deities.[38] He is also mentioned in ancient Indo-Iranian literature, but with a major inconsistency when contrasted with the Vedas. In the Vedic literature, Indra is a heroic god. In the Avestan (ancient, pre-Islamic Iranian) texts such as Vd. 10.9, Dk. 9.3 and Gbd 27.6-34.27, Indra – or accurately Andra[51] – is a gigantic demon who opposes truth.[41][g] In the Vedic texts, Indra kills the archenemy and demon Vritra who threatens mankind. In the Avestan texts, Vritra is not found.[51]

Indra is called vr̥tragʰná- (literally, "slayer of obstacles") in the Vedas, which corresponds to Verethragna of the Zoroastrian noun verethragna-. According to David Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[52] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[52] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[53] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[53] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were found in this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[54] According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[55]

Iconography

 
 
Indra's iconography shows him holding a thunderbolt or Vajra and a sword. In addition he is shown on top of his elephant Airavata, which reinforces his characteristic of King of the Gods. Sometimes he is accompanied by his wife, Shachi. Left: From Tiruchchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, 1820-1825. Right: From Hoysaleswara temple, 12th century CE.

In Rigveda, Indra is described as strong willed, armed with a thunderbolt, riding a chariot:

5. Let bullish heaven strengthen you, the bull; as bull you travel with your two bullish fallow bays. As bull with a bullish chariot, well-lipped one, as bull with bullish will, you of the mace, set us up in loot.

— Rigveda, Book 5, Hymn 37: Jamison[56]

Indra's weapon, which he used to kill the evil Vritra, is the Vajra or thunderbolt. Other alternate iconographic symbolism for him includes a bow (sometimes as a colorful rainbow), a sword, a net, a noose, a hook, or a conch.[57] The thunderbolt of Indra is called Bhaudhara.[58]

In the post-Vedic period, he rides a large, four-tusked white elephant called Airavata.[32] In sculpture and relief artworks in temples, he typically sits on an elephant or is near one. When he is shown to have two, he holds the Vajra and a bow.[59]

In the Shatapatha Brahmana and in Shaktism traditions, Indra is stated to be same as goddess Shodashi (Tripura Sundari), and her iconography is described similar to those of Indra.[60]

The rainbow is called Indra's Bow (Sanskrit: indradhanus इन्द्रधनुस्).[57]

Literature

Vedic texts

 
Indra is typically featured as a guardian deity on the east side of a Hindu temple.
 
Devraj Indra, Old Kalyan Print

Indra was a prominent deity in the Vedic era of Hinduism.[38] In Vedic times Indra was described in Rig Veda 6.30.4 as superior to any other god. Sayana in his commentary on Rig Veda 6.47.18 described Indra as assuming many forms, making Agni, Vishnu, and Rudra his illusory forms.[61]

Over a quarter of the 1,028 hymns of the Rigveda mention Indra, making him the most referred to deity.[38][62] These hymns present a complex picture of Indra, but some aspects of Indra are often repeated. Of these, the most common theme is where he as the god with thunderbolt kills the evil serpent Vritra that held back rains, and thus released rains and land nourishing rivers.[36] For example, the Rigvedic hymn 1.32 dedicated to Indra reads:

In the myth, Vṛtra has coiled around a mountain and has trapped all the waters, namely the Seven Rivers. All the gods abandon Indra out of fear of Vṛtra. Indra uses his vajra, a mace, to kill Vritra and smash open the mountains to release the waters. In some versions, he is aided by the Maruts or other deities, and sometimes cattle and the sun is also released from the mountain.[65][66] In one interpretation by Oldenberg, the hymns are referring to the snaking thunderstorm clouds that gather with bellowing winds (Vritra), Indra is then seen as the storm god who intervenes in these clouds with his thunderbolts, which then release the rains nourishing the parched land, crops and thus humanity.[67] In another interpretation by Hillebrandt, Indra is a symbolic sun god (Surya) and Vritra is a symbolic winter-giant (historic mini cycles of ice age, cold) in the earliest, not the later, hymns of Rigveda. The Vritra is an ice-demon of colder central Asia and northern latitudes, who holds back the water. Indra is the one who releases the water from the winter demon, an idea that later metamorphosed into his role as storm god.[67] According to Griswold, this is not a completely convincing interpretation, because Indra is simultaneously a lightning god, a rain god and a river-helping god in the Vedas. Further, the Vritra demon that Indra slew is best understood as any obstruction, whether it be clouds that refuse to release rain or mountains or snow that hold back the water.[67] Jamison and Brereton also state that Vritra is best understood as any obstacle. The Vritra myth is associated with the Midday Pressing of soma, which is dedicated to Indra or Indra and the Maruts.[65]

Even though Indra is declared as the king of gods in some verses, there is no consistent subordination of other gods to Indra. In Vedic thought, all gods and goddesses are equivalent and aspects of the same eternal abstract Brahman, none consistently superior, none consistently inferior. All gods obey Indra, but all gods also obey Varuna, Vishnu, Rudra and others when the situation arises. Further, Indra also accepts and follows the instructions of Savitr (solar deity).[68] Indra, like all Vedic deities, is a part of henotheistic theology of ancient India.[69]

The second-most important myth about Indra is about the Vala cave. In this story, the Panis have stolen cattle and hidden them in the Vala cave. Here Indra utilizes the power of the songs he chants to split the cave open to release the cattle and dawn. He is accompanied in the cave by the Angirases (and sometimes Navagvas or the Daśagvas). Here Indra exemplifies his role as a priest-king, called bṛhaspati. Eventually later in the Rigveda, Bṛhaspati and Indra become separate deities as both Indra and the Vedic king lose their priestly functions. The Vala myth was associated with the Morning Pressing of soma, in which cattle was donated to priests, called dakṣiṇā.[65]

Indra is not a visible object of nature in the Vedic texts, nor is he a personification of any object, but that agent which causes the lightning, the rains and the rivers to flow.[70] His myths and adventures in the Vedic literature are numerous, ranging from harnessing the rains, cutting through mountains to help rivers flow, helping land becoming fertile, unleashing sun by defeating the clouds, warming the land by overcoming the winter forces, winning the light and dawn for mankind, putting milk in the cows, rejuvenating the immobile into something mobile and prosperous, and in general, he is depicted as removing any and all sorts of obstacles to human progress.[71] The Vedic prayers to Indra, states Jan Gonda, generally ask "produce success of this rite, throw down those who hate the materialized Brahman".[72] The hymns of Rigveda declare him to be the "king that moves and moves not", the friend of mankind who holds the different tribes on earth together.[73]

Indra is often presented as the twin brother of Agni (fire) – another major Vedic deity.[74] Yet, he is also presented to be the same, states Max Muller, as in Rigvedic hymn 2.1.3, which states, "Thou Agni, art Indra, a bull among all beings; thou art the wide-ruling Vishnu, worthy of adoration. Thou art the Brahman, (...)."[75] He is also part of one of many Vedic trinities as "Agni, Indra and Surya", representing the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" aspects of existence in Hindu thought.[62][h]

Rigveda 2.1.3 Jamison 2014[78]

  1. You, Agni, as bull of beings, are Indra; you, wide-going, worthy of homage, are Viṣṇu. You, o lord of the sacred formulation, finder of wealth, are the Brahman [Formulator]; you, o Apportioner, are accompanied by Plenitude.

Parentage of Indra is inconsistent in Vedic texts, and in fact Rigveda 4.17.12 states that Indra himself may not even know that much about his mother and father. Some verses of Vedas suggest that his mother was a grishti (a cow), while other verses name her Nishtigri. The medieval commentator Sayana identified her with Aditi, the goddess who is his mother in later Hinduism. The Atharvaveda states Indra's mother is Ekashtaka, daughter of Prajapati. Some verses of Vedic texts state that Indra's father is Tvashtr or sometimes the couple Dyaush and Prithvi are mentioned as his parents.[78](pp39, 582)[79][80] According to a legend found in it, before Indra is born, his mother attempts to persuade him to not take an unnatural exit from her womb. Immediately after birth, Indra steals soma from his father, and Indra's mother offers the drink to him. After Indra's birth, Indra's mother reassures Indra that he will prevail in his rivalry with his father, Tvaṣṭar. Both the unnatural exit from the womb and rivalry with the father are universal attributes of heroes.[65] In the Rigveda, Indra's wife is Indrani, alias Shachi, and she is described to be extremely proud about her status.[81] Rigveda 4.18.8 says after his birth Indra got swallowed by a demon Kushava.[82]

Indra is also found in many other myths that are poorly understood. In one, Indra crushes the cart of Ushas (Dawn), and she runs away. In another Indra beats Surya in a chariot race by tearing off the wheel of his chariot. This is connected to a myth where Indra and his sidekick Kutsa ride the same chariot drawn by the horses of the wind to the house of Uśanā Kāvya to receive aid before killing Śuṣṇa, the enemy of Kutsa. In one myth Indra (in some versions helped by Viṣṇu) shoots a boar named Emuṣa in order to obtain special rice porridge hidden inside or behind a mountain. Another myth has Indra kill Namuci by beheading him. In later versions of that myth Indra does this through trickery involving the foam of water. Other beings slain by Indra include Śambara, Pipru, Varcin, Dhuni and Cumuri, and others. Indra's chariot is pulled by fallow bay horses described as hárī. They bring Indra to and from the sacrifice, and are even offered their own roasted grains.[65]

Upanishads

The ancient Aitareya Upanishad equates Indra, along with other deities, with Atman (soul, self) in the Vedanta's spirit of internalization of rituals and gods. It begins with its cosmological theory in verse 1.1.1 by stating that, "in the beginning, Atman, verily one only, was here - no other blinking thing whatever; he bethought himself: let me now create worlds".[83](p294)[84] This soul, which the text refers to as Brahman as well, then proceeds to create the worlds and beings in those worlds wherein all Vedic gods and goddesses such as sun-god, moon-god, Agni, and other divinities become active cooperative organs of the body.[84][83](p295-297)[85] The Atman thereafter creates food, and thus emerges a sustainable non-sentient universe, according to the Upanishad. The eternal Atman then enters each living being making the universe full of sentient beings, but these living beings fail to perceive their Atman. The first one to see the Atman as Brahman, asserts the Upanishad, said, "idam adarsha or "I have seen It".[84] Others then called this first seer as Idam-dra or "It-seeing", which over time came to be cryptically known as "Indra", because, claims Aitareya Upanishad, everyone including the gods like short nicknames.[83](pp297–298) The passing mention of Indra in this Upanishad, states Alain Daniélou, is a symbolic folk etymology.[32]

The section 3.9 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad connects Indra to thunder, thunderbolt and release of waters.[86] In section 5.1 of the Avyakta Upanishad, Indra is praised as he who embodies the qualities of all gods.[62]

Post-Vedic texts

 
Indra with Ahalya, contemporary Pattachitra painting.
 
Krishna holding Govardhan hill from Smithsonian Institution's collections. Mola Ram, c. 1790

In post-Vedic texts, Indra is depicted as an intoxicated hedonistic god, his importance declines, and he evolves into a minor deity in comparison to others in the Hindu pantheon, such as Shiva, Vishnu, or Devi. In Hindu texts, Indra is some times known as an aspect (avatar) of Shiva.[62] Actually, Indra means 'king' or 'greatest'. In Veda, Indra is a name to describe Parabrahman, the supreme lord, while in Puranas, Indra is a person, who is the king of Heaven.

In the Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the divine sage Kashyapa is described as the father of Indra, and Aditi as his mother. In this tradition, he is presented as one of their thirty-three sons.[87][79] Indra married Shachi, the daughter of Danava Puloman. Most texts state that Indra had only one wife, though sometimes other names are mentioned.[79] The text Bhagavata Purana mention that Indra and Shachi had three sons Jayanta, Rishabha, Midhusha.[88] Some listings add Nilambara and Rbhus.[80] Indra and Shachi also had two daughters, Jayanti and Devasena. Goddess Jayanti is the spouse of Shukra, while Devasena marries the war god Kartikeya.[20] Indra is depicted as the spiritual father of Vali in the Ramayana and Arjuna in the Mahabharata.[28] Since he is known for mastering over all weapons in warfare, his spiritual sons Vali and Arjuna are also very good in warfare. He has a charioteer named Matali.[89]

Indra had multiple affairs with other women. One such was Ahalya, wife of sage Gautama. Indra was cursed by the sage. Although the Brahmanas (9th to 6th centuries BCE) are the earliest scriptures to hint at their relationship, the 7th- to 4th-century BCE Hindu epic Ramayana – whose hero is Rama – is the first to explicitly mention the affair in detail.[90]

Indra becomes a source of nuisance rains in the Puranas, out of anger and with an intent to hurt mankind. But, Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu, comes to the rescue by lifting Mount Govardhana on his fingertip, and letting mankind shelter under the mountain till Indra exhausts his anger and relents.[28] Also, according to Mahabharata, Indra disguised himself as a Brahmin approached Karna and asked for his kavacha (body armor) and kundala (earrings) as charity. Although being aware of his true identity, Karna peeled off his kavacha and kundala and fulfilled the wish of Indra. Pleased by this act Indra, gifted Karna a dart called Vasavi Shakthi.

According to the Vishnu Purana, Indra is the position of being the king of the gods which changes in every Manvantara—a cyclic period of time in Hindu cosmology. Each Manvantara has its own Indra and the Indra of the current Manvantara is called Purandhara.[20][21][22][23]

Sangam literature (300 BCE–300 CE)

Sangam literature of the Tamil language contains more stories about Indra by various authors. In Silapathikaram Indra is described as Maalai venkudai mannavan (மாலைவெண் குடை மன்னவன்), literally meaning Indra with the pearl-garland and white umbrella.[91]

The Sangam literature also describes Indira Vizha (festival for Indra), the festival for want of rain, celebrated for one full month starting from the full moon in Ootrai (later name – Cittirai) and completed on the full moon in Puyaazhi (Vaikaasi) (which coincides with Buddhapurnima). It is described in the epic Silappatikaram in detail.[92]

In his work of the Tirukkural (before c. 5th century CE), Valluvar cites Indra to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses.[93][94]

In other religions

Buddhism

Main article: Śakra (Buddhism)
 
Buddhist relief from Loriyan Tangai, showing Indra paying homage to the Buddha at the Indrasala Cave, 2nd century CE, Gandhara.

The Buddhist cosmology places Indra above Mount Sumeru, in Trayastrimsha heaven.[25] He resides and rules over one of the six realms of rebirth, the Devas realm of Saṃsāra, that is widely sought in the Buddhist tradition.[95][j] Rebirth in the realm of Indra is a consequence of very good Karma (Pali: kamma) and accumulated merit during a human life.[98]

 
Many official seals in southeast Asia feature Indra.[99] Above: seal of Bangkok, Thailand.

In Buddhism, Indra is commonly called by his other name, Śakra or Sakka, ruler of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven.[100] Śakra is sometimes referred to as Devānām Indra or "Lord of the Devas". Buddhist texts also refer to Indra by numerous names and epithets, as is the case with Hindu and Jain texts. For example, Asvaghosha's Buddhacarita in different sections refers to Indra with terms such as "the thousand eyed",[101] Puramdara,[102] Lekharshabha,[103] Mahendra, Marutvat, Valabhid and Maghavat.[104] Elsewhere, he is known as Devarajan (literally, "the king of gods"). These names reflect a large overlap between Hinduism and Buddhism, and the adoption of many Vedic terminology and concepts into Buddhist thought.[105] Even the term Śakra, which means "mighty", appears in the Vedic texts such as in hymn 5.34 of the Rigveda.[32][106]

In Theravada Buddhism Indra is referred to as Indā in evening chanting such as the Udissanādiṭṭhānagāthā (Iminā).[107]

 
Bimaran casket: the Buddha (middle) is flanked by Brahma (left) and Indra, in one of the earliest Buddhist depictions (1st century CE).[108]

The Bimaran Casket made of gold inset with garnet, dated to be around 60 CE, but some proposals dating it to the 1st century BCE, is among the earliest archaeological evidences available that establish the importance of Indra in Buddhist mythology. The artwork shows the Buddha flanked by gods Brahma and Indra.[108][109]

In China, Korea, and Japan, he is known by the characters 帝釋天 (Chinese: 釋提桓因, pinyin: shì dī huán yīn, Korean: "Je-seok-cheon" or 桓因 Hwan-in, Japanese: "Tai-shaku-ten", kanji: 帝釈天) and usually appears opposite Brahma in Buddhist art. Brahma and Indra are revered together as protectors of the historical Buddha (Chinese: 釋迦, kanji: 釈迦, also known as Shakyamuni), and are frequently shown giving the infant Buddha his first bath. Although Indra is often depicted like a bodhisattva in the Far East, typically in Tang dynasty costume, his iconography also includes a martial aspect, wielding a thunderbolt from atop his elephant mount.[citation needed]

In some schools of Buddhism and in Hinduism, the image of Indra's net is a metaphor for the emptiness of all things, and at the same time a metaphor for the understanding of the universe as a web of connections and interdependences[110][circular reference].

In China, Indra (帝釋天 Dìshìtiān) is regarded as one of the twenty-four protective devas (二十四諸天 Èrshísì zhūtiān) of Buddhism. In Chinese Buddhist temples, his statue is usually enshrined in the Mahavira Hall along with the other devas.

In Japan, Indra (帝釈天 Taishakuten) is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist temples (十二天Jūni-ten).[111][112][113][114]

The ceremonial name of Bangkok claims that the city was "given by Indra and built by Vishvakarman."[115]

Jainism

 
Left: Indra as a guardian deity sitting on elephant in Jain cave temple at Ellora, c. 600–1000 CE
 
Right: Indra, Indrani with elephant at the 9th-century Mirpur Jain Temple in Rajasthan (rebuilt 15th-century).

Indra in Jain mythology always serves the Tirthankara teachers. Indra most commonly appears in stories related to Tirthankaras, in which Indra himself manages and celebrates the five auspicious events in that Tirthankara's life, such as Chavan kalyanak, Janma kalyanak, Diksha kalyanak, Kevala Jnana kalyanak, and moksha kalyanak.[116]

There are sixty-four Indras in Jain literature, each ruling over different heavenly realms where heavenly souls who have not yet gained Kaivalya (moksha) are reborn according to Jainism.[30][117] Among these many Indras, the ruler of the first Kalpa heaven is the Indra who is known as Saudharma in Digambara, and Sakra in Śvētāmbara tradition. He is most preferred, discussed and often depicted in Jain caves and marble temples, often with his wife Indrani.[117](pp25–28)[118] They greet the devotee as he or she walks in, flank the entrance to an idol of Jina (conqueror), and lead the gods as they are shown celebrating the five auspicious moments in a Jina's life, including his birth.[30] These Indra-related stories are enacted by laypeople in Jainism tradition during special Puja (worship) or festive remembrances.[30][117](pp29–33)

In the South Indian Digambara Jain community, Indra is also the title of hereditary priests who preside over Jain temple functions.[30]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ These are his parents in the Epics and Puranas. For various earlier versions, see #Literature
  2. ^ Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.[13]
  3. ^ Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam — and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.[14]
  4. ^ Some of their deities who are worshiped in Kalash tribe are similar to the Hindu god and goddess like Mahadev in Hinduism is called Mahandeo in Kalash tribe. ... All the tribal also visit the Mahandeo for worship and pray. After that they reach to the gree (dancing place).[16]
  5. ^ The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghan and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the ancient Greeks ... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.[17]
  6. ^ The Pontic is the region near Black Sea.
  7. ^ In deities that are similar to Indra in the Hittite and European mythologies, he is also heroic.[41]
  8. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations".[76](pp218–219) Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others.[76](pp212–226)</ref>[77]
  9. ^ For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth.[96]
  10. ^ Scholars[96][i][97] note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists. This is sought in the Buddhist traditions through merit accumulation and good kamma.

References

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External links

  • Lee, Phil. "Indra and Skanda deities in Korean Buddhism". Chicago Divinity School. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.
  • "Indra, Lord of Storms and King of the Gods' Realm". Philadelphia, PA: Philadelphia Museum of Art.
  • "Indra wood idol – 13th century, Kamakura period". Nara, Japan.

May 03, 2023
indra, this, article, about, deity, indian, religions, buddhist, deity, Śakra, buddhism, other, uses, disambiguation, sanskrit, इन, king, devas, like, deities, svarga, heaven, hinduism, associated, with, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river, flows. This article is about the deity in Indian religions For the Buddhist deity see Sakra Buddhism For other uses see Indra disambiguation Indra ˈ ɪ n d r e Sanskrit इन द र is the king of the devas god like deities and Svarga heaven in Hinduism He is associated with the sky lightning weather thunder storms rains river flows and war 4 5 6 7 Indra s powers are similar to other Indo European deities such as Jupiter Perun Perkunas Zalmoxis Taranis Zeus and Thor part of the greater Proto Indo European mythology 7 8 9 IndraKing of the DevasKing of SvargaGod of Weather Universe Lightning Thunder Storms Rain Sky Rainbow Cloud Prakriti Maya water River River flows and War Painting of Indra Bhagwan on his elephant mount Airavata c 1820 Other namesDevendra Mahendra Surendra Surapati Suresha Devesha Devaraja Amaresha Parjanya Vendhan Devanagariइन द रSanskrit transliterationIndraAffiliationAdityas Deva Bhagwan Para brahman Dikpala Parjanya VishnuAbodeAmaravati the capital of Indraloka in Svarga 1 MantraOm Indra Devaya Namah Om Indra Rajaya Vidmahe Mahaindraya Dhimahi Tanno Indraya PrachodayatWeaponVajra thunderbolt Astras Indrastra Aindrastra Vasavi ShaktiSymbolsVajra Indra s netMountAiravata white elephant Uchchaihshravas white horse TextsVedas Ramayana Mahabharata PuranasGenderMaleFestivalsIndra Jatra Indra Vila Raksha Bandhan Lohri Sawan DeepavaliPersonal informationParentsKashyapa Aditi mother 2 3 a SiblingsAdityas including Surya Varuna Bhaga Aaryaman Mitra Savitra and VamanaConsortShachiChildrenJayanta Rishabha Midhusha Jayanti Devasena Shashthi Vali and ArjunaEquivalentsGreek equivalentZeusRoman equivalentJupiterNorse equivalentThorSlavic equivalentPerunIndo European equivalentPerkwunosCeltic equivalentTaranisJapanese equivalentSusanoo no MikotoNuristani equivalentGreat GishIndra is the most referred deity in the Rigveda 10 He is celebrated for his powers and as the one who killed the great evil a malevolent type of asura named Vritra who obstructed human prosperity and happiness Indra destroys Vritra and his deceiving forces and thereby brings rains and sunshine as the saviour of mankind 7 11 He is also an important deity worshipped by the Kalash people indicating his prominence in ancient Hinduism 12 13 b 14 c 15 16 d 17 e 18 Indra s significance diminishes in the post Vedic Indian literature but he still plays an important role in various mythological events He is depicted as a powerful hero and is known for having sexual relations with sage Gautama s wife Ahalya 19 According to the Vishnu Purana Indra is the title borne by the king of the gods which changes every Manvantara a cyclic period of time in Hindu cosmology Each Manvantara has its own Indra and the Indra of the current Manvantara is called Purandhara 20 21 22 23 Indra is also depicted in Buddhist Inda 24 in Pali 25 and Jain 26 mythologies Indra rules over the much sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions 27 However like the post Vedic Hindu texts Indra is also a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts 28 shown as a god that suffers rebirth 27 In Jain traditions unlike Buddhism and Hinduism Indra is not the king of gods but the king of superhumans residing in Svarga Loka and very much a part of Jain rebirth cosmology 29 He is also the one who appears with his wife Indrani to celebrate the auspicious moments in the life of a Jain Tirthankara an iconography that suggests the king and queen of superhumans residing in Svarga heaven reverentially marking the spiritual journey of a Jain 30 31 Indra s iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt weapon known as Vajra riding on a white elephant known as Airavata 32 33 In Buddhist iconography the elephant sometimes features three heads while Jain icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads Sometimes a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks 32 Indra s abode exists in the capital city of Svarga Amaravati though he is also associated with Mount Meru also called Sumeru 27 34 Contents 1 Etymology and nomenclature 1 1 Other languages 1 2 Epithets 2 Origins 3 Iconography 4 Literature 4 1 Vedic texts 4 1 1 Upanishads 4 2 Post Vedic texts 4 3 Sangam literature 300 BCE 300 CE 5 In other religions 5 1 Buddhism 5 2 Jainism 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8 1 Bibliography 9 External linksEtymology and nomenclature Edit Indra on his elephant guarding the entrance of the 1st century BCE Buddhist Cave 19 at Bhaja Caves Maharashtra 35 The etymological roots of Indra are unclear and it has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th century one with many proposals 36 37 The significant proposals have been root ind u or rain drop based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain and brought it down to earth 32 36 root ind or equipped with great power This was proposed by Vopadeva 32 root idh or kindle and ina or strong 38 39 root indha or igniter for his ability to bring light and power indriya that ignites the vital forces of life prana This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana 40 root idam dra or It seeing which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self sufficient metaphysical Brahman This is based on Aitareya Upanishad 32 roots in ancient Indo European Indo Aryan deities 41 For example states John Colarusso as a reflex of proto Indo European h nḗr Greek aner Sabine nerō Avestan nar Umbrian nerus Old Irish nert Pashto ner Ossetic nart and others which all refer to most manly or hero 41 Colonial era scholarship proposed that Indra shares etymological roots with Avestan Andra Old High German antra giant or Old Church Slavonic jedru strong but Max Muller critiqued these proposals as untenable 36 42 Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to Aynar the Great One of Circassian Abaza and Ubykh mythology and Innara of Hittite mythology 41 43 Colarusso suggests a Pontic f origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology i e inra 41 Other languages Edit For other languages he is also known as Ashkun Indra Bengali ইন দ র Indro Burmese သ က မင dedʑa mɪ ɰ Chinese 因陀羅 Yintuoluo or 帝釋天 Dishitian Indonesian Malay Indera Japanese 帝釈天 Taishakuten 44 Javanese ꦧꦛꦫꦲ ꦤ ꦢ Bathara Indra Kamkata vari Inra Kannada ಇ ದ ರ Indra Khmer ព រ ឥន ទ រ Preah In pronounced preah ʔen Korean 제석천 Jeseokcheon Lao ພະອ ນ Pha In or ພະຍາອ ນ Pha Nya In Malayalam ഇന ദ രൻ Indran Mon ဣန In Mongolian Indra Indra Odia ଇନ ଦ ର Indro Prasun Indr Sinhala ඉඳ In du or ඉන ද ර Indra Tai Lue ᦀᦲᧃ In or ᦘᦍᦱᦀᦲᧃ Pha Ya In Tamil இந த ரன Inthiran Telugu ఇ ద ర డ Indrudu or Indra Tibetan དབང པ dbang po Thai phraxinthr Phra In Waigali Indr Epithets Edit Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions notably Sakra शक र powerful one Vṛṣan व षन mighty Vṛtrahan व त रहन slayer of Vṛtra Meghavahana म घव हन he whose vehicle is cloud Devaraja द वर ज king of deities Devendra द व न द र the lord of deities 45 Surendra स र न द र chief of deities Svargapati स वर गपत the lord of heaven Satakratu शतक रत one who performs 100 sacrifices Vajrapaṇi वज रप ण wielder of Vajra i e thunderbolt Vasava व सव lord of Vasus Purandara प र दर the breaker of forts Kaushika क श क Vishvamitra was born as the embodiment of Indra Shachin or Shachindra शच न the consort of Shachi Parjanya पर जन य Rain Origins Edit Banteay Srei temple s pediment carvings depict Indra mounted on Airavata Cambodia c 10th century Indra is of ancient but unclear origin Aspects of Indra as a deity are cognate to other Indo European gods there are thunder gods such as Thor Perun and Zeus who share parts of his heroic mythologies act as king of gods and all are linked to rain and thunder 46 The similarities between Indra of Vedic mythology and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant states Max Muller Both Indra and Thor are storm gods with powers over lightning and thunder both carry a hammer or an equivalent for both the weapon returns to their hand after they hurl it both are associated with bulls in the earliest layer of respective texts both use thunder as a battle cry both are protectors of mankind both are described with legends about milking the cloud cows both are benevolent giants gods of strength of life of marriage and the healing gods 47 Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo European trigw welumos or rather trigw t welumos smasher of the enclosure of Vritra Vala and diye snutyos impeller of streams the liberated rivers corresponding to Vedic apam ajas agitator of the waters 48 Brave and heroic Innara or Inra which sounds like Indra is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni a Hurrian speaking people of Hittite region 49 Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor as evidenced by the inscriptions on the Boghaz koi clay tablets dated to about 1400 BCE This tablet mentions a treaty but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi it ra U ru w na In da ra and Na sa at ti ia These are respectively Mitra Varuna Indra and Nasatya Asvin of the Vedic pantheon as revered deities and these are also found in Avestan pantheon but with Indra and Naonhaitya as demons This at least suggests that Indra and his fellow deities were in vogue in South Asia and Asia minor by about mid 2nd millennium BCE 38 50 Indra is praised as the highest god in 250 hymns of the Rigveda a Hindu scripture dated to have been composed sometime between 1700 and 1100 BCE He is co praised as the supreme in another 50 hymns thus making him one of the most celebrated Vedic deities 38 He is also mentioned in ancient Indo Iranian literature but with a major inconsistency when contrasted with the Vedas In the Vedic literature Indra is a heroic god In the Avestan ancient pre Islamic Iranian texts such as Vd 10 9 Dk 9 3 and Gbd 27 6 34 27 Indra or accurately Andra 51 is a gigantic demon who opposes truth 41 g In the Vedic texts Indra kills the archenemy and demon Vritra who threatens mankind In the Avestan texts Vritra is not found 51 Indra is called vr tragʰna literally slayer of obstacles in the Vedas which corresponds to Verethragna of the Zoroastrian noun verethragna According to David Anthony the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River present day Uzbekistan and present day Iran 52 It was a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo European elements 52 which borrowed distinctive religious beliefs and practices 53 from the Bactria Margiana Culture 53 At least 383 non Indo European words were found in this culture including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma 54 According to Anthony Many of the qualities of Indo Iranian god of might victory Verethraghna were transferred to the god Indra who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture Indra was the subject of 250 hymns a quarter of the Rig Veda He was associated more than any other deity with Soma a stimulant drug perhaps derived from Ephedra probably borrowed from the BMAC religion His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers 55 Iconography Edit Indra s iconography shows him holding a thunderbolt or Vajra and a sword In addition he is shown on top of his elephant Airavata which reinforces his characteristic of King of the Gods Sometimes he is accompanied by his wife Shachi Left From Tiruchchirappalli Tamil Nadu 1820 1825 Right From Hoysaleswara temple 12th century CE In Rigveda Indra is described as strong willed armed with a thunderbolt riding a chariot 5 Let bullish heaven strengthen you the bull as bull you travel with your two bullish fallow bays As bull with a bullish chariot well lipped one as bull with bullish will you of the mace set us up in loot Rigveda Book 5 Hymn 37 Jamison 56 Indra s weapon which he used to kill the evil Vritra is the Vajra or thunderbolt Other alternate iconographic symbolism for him includes a bow sometimes as a colorful rainbow a sword a net a noose a hook or a conch 57 The thunderbolt of Indra is called Bhaudhara 58 In the post Vedic period he rides a large four tusked white elephant called Airavata 32 In sculpture and relief artworks in temples he typically sits on an elephant or is near one When he is shown to have two he holds the Vajra and a bow 59 In the Shatapatha Brahmana and in Shaktism traditions Indra is stated to be same as goddess Shodashi Tripura Sundari and her iconography is described similar to those of Indra 60 The rainbow is called Indra s Bow Sanskrit indradhanus इन द रधन स 57 Literature EditVedic texts Edit Indra is typically featured as a guardian deity on the east side of a Hindu temple Devraj Indra Old Kalyan Print Indra was a prominent deity in the Vedic era of Hinduism 38 In Vedic times Indra was described in Rig Veda 6 30 4 as superior to any other god Sayana in his commentary on Rig Veda 6 47 18 described Indra as assuming many forms making Agni Vishnu and Rudra his illusory forms 61 Over a quarter of the 1 028 hymns of the Rigveda mention Indra making him the most referred to deity 38 62 These hymns present a complex picture of Indra but some aspects of Indra are often repeated Of these the most common theme is where he as the god with thunderbolt kills the evil serpent Vritra that held back rains and thus released rains and land nourishing rivers 36 For example the Rigvedic hymn 1 32 dedicated to Indra reads इन द रस य न व र य ण प र व च य न चक र प रथम न वज र अहन नह मन वपस ततर द प र वक षण अभ नत पर वत न म १ अहन नह पर वत श श र य ण त वष ट स म वज र स वर य ततक ष व श र इव ध नव स यन दम न अञ ज सम द रमव जग म र प २ 1 Now I shall proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra those foremost deeds that the mace wielder performed He smashed the serpent He bored out the waters He split the bellies of the mountains 2 He smashed the serpent resting on the mountain for him Tvaṣṭar had fashioned the resounding sunlike mace Like bellowing milk cows streaming out the waters went straight down to the sea 64 Rigveda 1 32 1 2 63 In the myth Vṛtra has coiled around a mountain and has trapped all the waters namely the Seven Rivers All the gods abandon Indra out of fear of Vṛtra Indra uses his vajra a mace to kill Vritra and smash open the mountains to release the waters In some versions he is aided by the Maruts or other deities and sometimes cattle and the sun is also released from the mountain 65 66 In one interpretation by Oldenberg the hymns are referring to the snaking thunderstorm clouds that gather with bellowing winds Vritra Indra is then seen as the storm god who intervenes in these clouds with his thunderbolts which then release the rains nourishing the parched land crops and thus humanity 67 In another interpretation by Hillebrandt Indra is a symbolic sun god Surya and Vritra is a symbolic winter giant historic mini cycles of ice age cold in the earliest not the later hymns of Rigveda The Vritra is an ice demon of colder central Asia and northern latitudes who holds back the water Indra is the one who releases the water from the winter demon an idea that later metamorphosed into his role as storm god 67 According to Griswold this is not a completely convincing interpretation because Indra is simultaneously a lightning god a rain god and a river helping god in the Vedas Further the Vritra demon that Indra slew is best understood as any obstruction whether it be clouds that refuse to release rain or mountains or snow that hold back the water 67 Jamison and Brereton also state that Vritra is best understood as any obstacle The Vritra myth is associated with the Midday Pressing of soma which is dedicated to Indra or Indra and the Maruts 65 Even though Indra is declared as the king of gods in some verses there is no consistent subordination of other gods to Indra In Vedic thought all gods and goddesses are equivalent and aspects of the same eternal abstract Brahman none consistently superior none consistently inferior All gods obey Indra but all gods also obey Varuna Vishnu Rudra and others when the situation arises Further Indra also accepts and follows the instructions of Savitr solar deity 68 Indra like all Vedic deities is a part of henotheistic theology of ancient India 69 The second most important myth about Indra is about the Vala cave In this story the Panis have stolen cattle and hidden them in the Vala cave Here Indra utilizes the power of the songs he chants to split the cave open to release the cattle and dawn He is accompanied in the cave by the Angirases and sometimes Navagvas or the Dasagvas Here Indra exemplifies his role as a priest king called bṛhaspati Eventually later in the Rigveda Bṛhaspati and Indra become separate deities as both Indra and the Vedic king lose their priestly functions The Vala myth was associated with the Morning Pressing of soma in which cattle was donated to priests called dakṣiṇa 65 Indra is not a visible object of nature in the Vedic texts nor is he a personification of any object but that agent which causes the lightning the rains and the rivers to flow 70 His myths and adventures in the Vedic literature are numerous ranging from harnessing the rains cutting through mountains to help rivers flow helping land becoming fertile unleashing sun by defeating the clouds warming the land by overcoming the winter forces winning the light and dawn for mankind putting milk in the cows rejuvenating the immobile into something mobile and prosperous and in general he is depicted as removing any and all sorts of obstacles to human progress 71 The Vedic prayers to Indra states Jan Gonda generally ask produce success of this rite throw down those who hate the materialized Brahman 72 The hymns of Rigveda declare him to be the king that moves and moves not the friend of mankind who holds the different tribes on earth together 73 Indra is often presented as the twin brother of Agni fire another major Vedic deity 74 Yet he is also presented to be the same states Max Muller as in Rigvedic hymn 2 1 3 which states Thou Agni art Indra a bull among all beings thou art the wide ruling Vishnu worthy of adoration Thou art the Brahman 75 He is also part of one of many Vedic trinities as Agni Indra and Surya representing the creator maintainer destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought 62 h Rigveda 2 1 3 Jamison 2014 78 You Agni as bull of beings are Indra you wide going worthy of homage are Viṣṇu You o lord of the sacred formulation finder of wealth are the Brahman Formulator you o Apportioner are accompanied by Plenitude Parentage of Indra is inconsistent in Vedic texts and in fact Rigveda 4 17 12 states that Indra himself may not even know that much about his mother and father Some verses of Vedas suggest that his mother was a grishti a cow while other verses name her Nishtigri The medieval commentator Sayana identified her with Aditi the goddess who is his mother in later Hinduism The Atharvaveda states Indra s mother is Ekashtaka daughter of Prajapati Some verses of Vedic texts state that Indra s father is Tvashtr or sometimes the couple Dyaush and Prithvi are mentioned as his parents 78 pp39 582 79 80 According to a legend found in it before Indra is born his mother attempts to persuade him to not take an unnatural exit from her womb Immediately after birth Indra steals soma from his father and Indra s mother offers the drink to him After Indra s birth Indra s mother reassures Indra that he will prevail in his rivalry with his father Tvaṣṭar Both the unnatural exit from the womb and rivalry with the father are universal attributes of heroes 65 In the Rigveda Indra s wife is Indrani alias Shachi and she is described to be extremely proud about her status 81 Rigveda 4 18 8 says after his birth Indra got swallowed by a demon Kushava 82 Indra is also found in many other myths that are poorly understood In one Indra crushes the cart of Ushas Dawn and she runs away In another Indra beats Surya in a chariot race by tearing off the wheel of his chariot This is connected to a myth where Indra and his sidekick Kutsa ride the same chariot drawn by the horses of the wind to the house of Usana Kavya to receive aid before killing Suṣṇa the enemy of Kutsa In one myth Indra in some versions helped by Viṣṇu shoots a boar named Emuṣa in order to obtain special rice porridge hidden inside or behind a mountain Another myth has Indra kill Namuci by beheading him In later versions of that myth Indra does this through trickery involving the foam of water Other beings slain by Indra include Sambara Pipru Varcin Dhuni and Cumuri and others Indra s chariot is pulled by fallow bay horses described as hari They bring Indra to and from the sacrifice and are even offered their own roasted grains 65 Upanishads Edit The ancient Aitareya Upanishad equates Indra along with other deities with Atman soul self in the Vedanta s spirit of internalization of rituals and gods It begins with its cosmological theory in verse 1 1 1 by stating that in the beginning Atman verily one only was here no other blinking thing whatever he bethought himself let me now create worlds 83 p294 84 This soul which the text refers to as Brahman as well then proceeds to create the worlds and beings in those worlds wherein all Vedic gods and goddesses such as sun god moon god Agni and other divinities become active cooperative organs of the body 84 83 p295 297 85 The Atman thereafter creates food and thus emerges a sustainable non sentient universe according to the Upanishad The eternal Atman then enters each living being making the universe full of sentient beings but these living beings fail to perceive their Atman The first one to see the Atman as Brahman asserts the Upanishad said idam adarsha or I have seen It 84 Others then called this first seer as Idam dra or It seeing which over time came to be cryptically known as Indra because claims Aitareya Upanishad everyone including the gods like short nicknames 83 pp297 298 The passing mention of Indra in this Upanishad states Alain Danielou is a symbolic folk etymology 32 The section 3 9 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad connects Indra to thunder thunderbolt and release of waters 86 In section 5 1 of the Avyakta Upanishad Indra is praised as he who embodies the qualities of all gods 62 Post Vedic texts Edit Indra with Ahalya contemporary Pattachitra painting Krishna holding Govardhan hill from Smithsonian Institution s collections Mola Ram c 1790 In post Vedic texts Indra is depicted as an intoxicated hedonistic god his importance declines and he evolves into a minor deity in comparison to others in the Hindu pantheon such as Shiva Vishnu or Devi In Hindu texts Indra is some times known as an aspect avatar of Shiva 62 Actually Indra means king or greatest In Veda Indra is a name to describe Parabrahman the supreme lord while in Puranas Indra is a person who is the king of Heaven In the Puranas Ramayana and Mahabharata the divine sage Kashyapa is described as the father of Indra and Aditi as his mother In this tradition he is presented as one of their thirty three sons 87 79 Indra married Shachi the daughter of Danava Puloman Most texts state that Indra had only one wife though sometimes other names are mentioned 79 The text Bhagavata Purana mention that Indra and Shachi had three sons Jayanta Rishabha Midhusha 88 Some listings add Nilambara and Rbhus 80 Indra and Shachi also had two daughters Jayanti and Devasena Goddess Jayanti is the spouse of Shukra while Devasena marries the war god Kartikeya 20 Indra is depicted as the spiritual father of Vali in the Ramayana and Arjuna in the Mahabharata 28 Since he is known for mastering over all weapons in warfare his spiritual sons Vali and Arjuna are also very good in warfare He has a charioteer named Matali 89 Indra had multiple affairs with other women One such was Ahalya wife of sage Gautama Indra was cursed by the sage Although the Brahmanas 9th to 6th centuries BCE are the earliest scriptures to hint at their relationship the 7th to 4th century BCE Hindu epic Ramayana whose hero is Rama is the first to explicitly mention the affair in detail 90 Indra becomes a source of nuisance rains in the Puranas out of anger and with an intent to hurt mankind But Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu comes to the rescue by lifting Mount Govardhana on his fingertip and letting mankind shelter under the mountain till Indra exhausts his anger and relents 28 Also according to Mahabharata Indra disguised himself as a Brahmin approached Karna and asked for his kavacha body armor and kundala earrings as charity Although being aware of his true identity Karna peeled off his kavacha and kundala and fulfilled the wish of Indra Pleased by this act Indra gifted Karna a dart called Vasavi Shakthi According to the Vishnu Purana Indra is the position of being the king of the gods which changes in every Manvantara a cyclic period of time in Hindu cosmology Each Manvantara has its own Indra and the Indra of the current Manvantara is called Purandhara 20 21 22 23 Sangam literature 300 BCE 300 CE Edit Sangam literature of the Tamil language contains more stories about Indra by various authors In Silapathikaram Indra is described as Maalai venkudai mannavan ம ல வ ண க ட மன னவன literally meaning Indra with the pearl garland and white umbrella 91 The Sangam literature also describes Indira Vizha festival for Indra the festival for want of rain celebrated for one full month starting from the full moon in Ootrai later name Cittirai and completed on the full moon in Puyaazhi Vaikaasi which coincides with Buddhapurnima It is described in the epic Silappatikaram in detail 92 In his work of the Tirukkural before c 5th century CE Valluvar cites Indra to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one s senses 93 94 In other religions EditBuddhism Edit Main article Sakra Buddhism Buddhist relief from Loriyan Tangai showing Indra paying homage to the Buddha at the Indrasala Cave 2nd century CE Gandhara The Buddhist cosmology places Indra above Mount Sumeru in Trayastrimsha heaven 25 He resides and rules over one of the six realms of rebirth the Devas realm of Saṃsara that is widely sought in the Buddhist tradition 95 j Rebirth in the realm of Indra is a consequence of very good Karma Pali kamma and accumulated merit during a human life 98 Many official seals in southeast Asia feature Indra 99 Above seal of Bangkok Thailand In Buddhism Indra is commonly called by his other name Sakra or Sakka ruler of the Trayastriṃsa heaven 100 Sakra is sometimes referred to as Devanam Indra or Lord of the Devas Buddhist texts also refer to Indra by numerous names and epithets as is the case with Hindu and Jain texts For example Asvaghosha s Buddhacarita in different sections refers to Indra with terms such as the thousand eyed 101 Puramdara 102 Lekharshabha 103 Mahendra Marutvat Valabhid and Maghavat 104 Elsewhere he is known as Devarajan literally the king of gods These names reflect a large overlap between Hinduism and Buddhism and the adoption of many Vedic terminology and concepts into Buddhist thought 105 Even the term Sakra which means mighty appears in the Vedic texts such as in hymn 5 34 of the Rigveda 32 106 In Theravada Buddhism Indra is referred to as Inda in evening chanting such as the Udissanadiṭṭhanagatha Imina 107 Bimaran casket the Buddha middle is flanked by Brahma left and Indra in one of the earliest Buddhist depictions 1st century CE 108 The Bimaran Casket made of gold inset with garnet dated to be around 60 CE but some proposals dating it to the 1st century BCE is among the earliest archaeological evidences available that establish the importance of Indra in Buddhist mythology The artwork shows the Buddha flanked by gods Brahma and Indra 108 109 In China Korea and Japan he is known by the characters 帝釋天 Chinese 釋提桓因 pinyin shi di huan yin Korean Je seok cheon or 桓因 Hwan in Japanese Tai shaku ten kanji 帝釈天 and usually appears opposite Brahma in Buddhist art Brahma and Indra are revered together as protectors of the historical Buddha Chinese 釋迦 kanji 釈迦 also known as Shakyamuni and are frequently shown giving the infant Buddha his first bath Although Indra is often depicted like a bodhisattva in the Far East typically in Tang dynasty costume his iconography also includes a martial aspect wielding a thunderbolt from atop his elephant mount citation needed In some schools of Buddhism and in Hinduism the image of Indra s net is a metaphor for the emptiness of all things and at the same time a metaphor for the understanding of the universe as a web of connections and interdependences 110 circular reference In China Indra 帝釋天 Dishitian is regarded as one of the twenty four protective devas 二十四諸天 Ershisi zhutian of Buddhism In Chinese Buddhist temples his statue is usually enshrined in the Mahavira Hall along with the other devas In Japan Indra 帝釈天 Taishakuten is one of the twelve Devas as guardian deities who are found in or around Buddhist temples 十二天Juni ten 111 112 113 114 The ceremonial name of Bangkok claims that the city was given by Indra and built by Vishvakarman 115 Jainism Edit Left Indra as a guardian deity sitting on elephant in Jain cave temple at Ellora c 600 1000 CE Right Indra Indrani with elephant at the 9th century Mirpur Jain Temple in Rajasthan rebuilt 15th century Indra in Jain mythology always serves the Tirthankara teachers Indra most commonly appears in stories related to Tirthankaras in which Indra himself manages and celebrates the five auspicious events in that Tirthankara s life such as Chavan kalyanak Janma kalyanak Diksha kalyanak Kevala Jnana kalyanak and moksha kalyanak 116 There are sixty four Indras in Jain literature each ruling over different heavenly realms where heavenly souls who have not yet gained Kaivalya moksha are reborn according to Jainism 30 117 Among these many Indras the ruler of the first Kalpa heaven is the Indra who is known as Saudharma in Digambara and Sakra in Svetambara tradition He is most preferred discussed and often depicted in Jain caves and marble temples often with his wife Indrani 117 pp25 28 118 They greet the devotee as he or she walks in flank the entrance to an idol of Jina conqueror and lead the gods as they are shown celebrating the five auspicious moments in a Jina s life including his birth 30 These Indra related stories are enacted by laypeople in Jainism tradition during special Puja worship or festive remembrances 30 117 pp29 33 In the South Indian Digambara Jain community Indra is also the title of hereditary priests who preside over Jain temple functions 30 See also EditRigvedic deities Indreshwar Deva Nahusha Aditya Lokapala Dikpala Indraloka Astra Astra of Indrajit Indra Dhwaja Indrajala Vajra also Bhaudhara Vijaya Dhanush Trayastriṃsa Nat Ten bu Dharmapala Sakra or Sakka Indranama Saman Taishakuten Thagyamin Vajrapani Yuanshi Tianzun Jade Emperor Hwanin TengriNotes Edit These are his parents in the Epics and Puranas For various earlier versions see Literature Prominent sites include Hadda near Jalalabad but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism 13 Up until the late nineteenth century many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam and the conversion was accomplished by the sword 14 Some of their deities who are worshiped in Kalash tribe are similar to the Hindu god and goddess like Mahadev in Hinduism is called Mahandeo in Kalash tribe All the tribal also visit the Mahandeo for worship and pray After that they reach to the gree dancing place 16 The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral Pakistan the capital of North West Frontier Province which borders Afghanistan Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghan and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam During the mid 20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the ancient Greeks given their Indo Aryan language the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies 17 The Pontic is the region near Black Sea In deities that are similar to Indra in the Hittite and European mythologies he is also heroic 41 The Trimurti idea of Hinduism states Jan Gonda seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god in the first place of Agni whose births are three or threefold and who is threefold light has three bodies and three stations 76 pp218 219 Other trinities beyond the more common Brahma Vishnu Shiva mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include Indra Vishnu Brahmanaspati Agni Indra Surya Agni Vayu Aditya Mahalakshmi Mahasarasvati and Mahakali and others 76 pp212 226 lt ref gt 77 For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries however the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth 96 Scholars 96 i 97 note that better rebirth not nirvana has been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists This is sought in the Buddhist traditions through merit accumulation and good kamma References Edit Dalal Roshen 2014 Hinduism An alphabetical guide Penguin Books ISBN 9788184752779 via Google Books Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books India ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 Mani 1975 Gopal Madan 1990 India Through the Ages Publication Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India p 66 via Internet Archive Shaw Jeffrey M Ph D Demy Timothy J Ph D 27 March 2017 War and Religion An encyclopedia of faith and conflict Google Ksiazki ISBN 9781610695176 3 volumes Perry Edward Delavan 1885 Indra in the Rig Veda Journal of the American Oriental Society 11 1885 121 doi 10 2307 592191 JSTOR 592191 a b c Berry Thomas 1996 Religions of India Hinduism Yoga Buddhism Columbia University Press pp 20 21 ISBN 978 0 231 10781 5 Madan T N 2003 The Hinduism Omnibus Oxford University Press p 81 ISBN 978 0 19 566411 9 Bhattacharji Sukumari 2015 The Indian Theogony Cambridge University Press pp 280 281 Gonda Jan 1989 The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda Brill Archive p 3 ISBN 90 04 09139 4 Griswold Hervey de Witt 1971 The Religion of the Ṛigveda Motilal Banarsidass pp 177 180 ISBN 978 81 208 0745 7 Bezhan Frud 19 April 2017 Pakistan s Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Retrieved 11 July 2017 About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs a b Barrington Nicholas Kendrick Joseph T Schlagintweit Reinhard 18 April 2006 A Passage to Nuristan Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland I B Tauris p 111 ISBN 9781845111755 a b Weiss Mitch Maurer Kevin 31 December 2012 No Way Out A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan Berkley Caliber p 299 ISBN 9780425253403 Ghai Rajat 17 February 2014 Save the Kalash Business Standard India Retrieved 8 March 2021 a b Jamil Kashif 19 August 2019 Uchal a festival of shepherds and farmers of the Kalash tribe Daily Times Retrieved 23 January 2020 a b West Barbara A 19 May 2010 Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania Infobase Publishing p 357 ISBN 9781438119137 Witzel M 2004 Extract Kalash religion The Ṛgvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents In Griffiths A Houben J E M eds The Vedas Texts language and ritual PDF Groningen Forsten pp 581 636 Archived PDF from the original on 17 August 2010 Retrieved 11 March 2022 Ahalya Ahalya 15 definitions Wisdom Library n d Retrieved 14 December 2022 a b c Roshen Dalal 2010 The Religions of India A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths Penguin Books India pp 190 251 ISBN 978 0 14 341517 6 a b Dutt Manmath Nath Vishnu Purana pp 170 173 a b Wilson Horace Hayman 1840 The Vishnu Purana www sacred texts com Book III Chapter I pages 259 265 Retrieved 15 June 2021 a b Gita Press Gorakhpur Vishnu Puran Illustrated With Hindi Translations Gita Press Gorakhpur in Sanskrit and Hindi pp 180 183 Dictionary Buddhistdoor www buddhistdoor net Retrieved 18 January 2019 a b Helen Josephine Baroni 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism The Rosen Publishing Group p 153 ISBN 978 0 8239 2240 6 Lisa Owen 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora BRILL Academic p 25 ISBN 978 90 04 20629 8 a b c Robert E Buswell Jr Donald S Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press pp 739 740 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 a b c Wendy Doniger 2015 Indra Indian deity Encyclopaedia Britannica Naomi Appleton 2014 Narrating Karma and Rebirth Buddhist and Jain Multi Life Stories Cambridge University Press pp 50 98 ISBN 978 1 139 91640 0 a b c d e Kristi L Wiley 2009 The A to Z of Jainism Scarecrow Press p 99 ISBN 978 0 8108 6821 2 John E Cort 22 March 2001 Jains in the World Religious Values and Ideology in India Oxford University Press pp 161 162 ISBN 978 0 19 803037 9 a b c d e f g h Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions pp 108 109 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 T A Gopinatha Rao 1993 Elements of Hindu iconography Motilal Banarsidass p 111 ISBN 978 81 208 0878 2 Wilkings 1882 p 52 sfn error no target CITEREFWilkings1882 help Sita Pieris Ellen Raven 2010 ABIA South and Southeast Asian Art and Archaeology Index Volume Three South Asia BRILL Academic p 232 ISBN 978 90 04 19148 8 a b c d Friedrich Max Muller 1903 Anthropological Religion The Gifford Lectures Delivered Before the University of Glasgow in 1891 Longmans Green pp 395 398 Chakravarty Uma 1995 On the etymology of the word INDRA Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 76 1 4 27 33 JSTOR 41694367 a b c d e Hervey De Witt Griswold 1971 The Religion of the Ṛigveda Motilal Banarsidass pp 177 178 with footnote 1 ISBN 978 81 208 0745 7 Edward Delavan Perry 1885 Indra in the Rig Veda Journal of the American Oriental Society 11 121 doi 10 2307 592191 JSTOR 592191 Annette Wilke Oliver Moebus 2011 Sound and Communication An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism Walter de Gruyter pp 418 with footnote 148 ISBN 978 3 11 024003 0 a b c d e f John Colarusso 2014 Nart Sagas from the Caucasus Myths and Legends from the Circassians Abazas Abkhaz and Ubykhs Princeton University Press p 329 ISBN 978 1 4008 6528 4 Winn Shan M M 1995 Heaven Heroes and Happiness The Indo European roots of Western ideology University Press of America p 371 note 1 ISBN 978 0 8191 9860 0 Chakraborty Uma 1997 Indra and Other Vedic Deities A euhemeristic study DK Printworld pp 91 220 ISBN 978 81 246 0080 1 Presidential Address W H D Rouse Folklore Vol 18 No 1 Mar 1907 pp 12 23 King of the Gods is Sakka or Indra Wilkings 1882 p 53 sfn error no target CITEREFWilkings1882 help Alexander Stuart Murray 1891 Manual of Mythology Greek and Roman Norse and Old German Hindoo and Egyptian Mythology 2nd Edition C Scribner s sons pp 329 331 Friedrich Max Muller 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green pp 744 749 Janda Michael 2000 Eleusis Das Indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien Institut fur Sprachwissenschaft der Universitat Innsbruck pp 261 262 ISBN 978 3 85124 675 9 von Dassow Eva 2008 State and Society in the Late Bronze Age University Press of Maryland pp 77 85 86 ISBN 978 1 934309 14 8 Rapson Edward James 1955 The Cambridge History of India Cambridge University Press pp 320 321 GGKEY FP2CEFT2WJH a b Muller Friedrich Max 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green pp 756 759 a b Anthony 2007 p 462 a b Beckwith 2009 p 32 Anthony 2007 p 454 455 Anthony 2007 p 454 Jamison Stephanie Brereton Joel 23 February 2020 The Rigveda ISBN 9780190633394 a b Danielou Alain 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions pp 110 111 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 Gopal Madan 1990 Gautam K S ed India through the Ages Publication Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India p 75 Masson Oursel amp Morin 1976 p 326 sfn error no target CITEREFMasson OurselMorin1976 help Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions p 278 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 Rig Veda 6 47 18 English translation 27 August 2021 a b c d Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions pp 106 107 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 ऋग व द स क त १ ३२ Wikisource Rigveda Sanskrit text Stephanie Jamison 2015 The Rigveda Earliest Religious Poetry of India Oxford University Press p 135 ISBN 978 0190633394 a b c d e Stephanie Jamison 2015 The Rigveda Earliest Religious Poetry of India Oxford University Press pp 38 40 ISBN 978 0190633394 Oldenberg Hermann 2004 1894 First Edition 1916 Second Edition Die Religion Des Veda The Religion of the Veda in German Translated by Shrotri Shridhar B Motilal Banarsidass p 77 a b c Hervey De Witt Griswold 1971 The Religion of the Ṛigveda Motilal Banarsidass pp 180 183 with footnotes ISBN 978 81 208 0745 7 Arthur Berriedale Keith 1925 The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads Motilal Banarsidass pp 93 94 ISBN 978 81 208 0645 0 Friedrich Max Muller 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green p 758 Friedrich Max Muller 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green p 757 Jan Gonda 1989 The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda Brill Archive pp 4 5 ISBN 90 04 09139 4 Jan Gonda 1989 The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda Brill Archive p 12 ISBN 90 04 09139 4 Hervey De Witt Griswold 1971 The Religion of the Ṛigveda Motilal Banarsidass p 180 verse 1 32 15 ISBN 978 81 208 0745 7 Friedrich Max Muller 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green p 827 Muller Friedrich Max 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green p 828 a b Gonda Jan 1969 The Hindu trinity Anthropos 63 64 1 2 212 226 JSTOR 40457085 White David 2006 Kiss of the Yogini University of Chicago Press pp 4 29 ISBN 978 0226894843 a b Jamison Stephanie W 2014 The Rigveda Earliest religious poetry of India Oxford University Press pp 39 582 ISBN 9780199370184 a b c Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books India pp 164 165 ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 a b Jordan Michael 14 May 2014 Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses Infobase Publishing ISBN 978 1 4381 0985 5 Kinsley David 1988 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the divine feminine in the Hindu religious tradition University of California Press pp 17 18 ISBN 978 0 520 90883 3 Griffith R T H ed 1920 The Hymns of the Rigveda Benares IN E J Lazarus and Co a b c Hume Robert 1921 verses 1 1 1 and 1 3 13 3 14 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pp 294 298 with footnotes a b c Deussen Paul 1997 A Sixty Upanishads Of the Veda Vol 1 Motilal Banarsidass pp 15 18 ISBN 978 81 208 0430 2 Bronkhorst Johannes 2007 Greater Magadha Studies in the culture of early India BRILL p 128 ISBN 978 90 04 15719 4 Olivelle Patrick 1998 The Early Upanishads Annotated text and translation Oxford University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 19 535242 9 Mani Vettam 1975 Puraṇic Encyclopaedia A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puraṇic Literature Motilal Banarsidass p 318 ISBN 978 81 208 0597 2 Danielou Alain December 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions Bear amp Co p 109 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 Dowson John 5 November 2013 A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion Geography History and Literature Routledge p 205 ISBN 978 1 136 39029 6 Sohnen Renate February 1991 Indra and Women Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 54 1 68 74 doi 10 1017 S0041977X00009617 ISSN 1474 0699 S2CID 162225024 S Krishnamoorthy 2011 Silappadikaram Bharathi Puthakalayam S Krishnamoorthy 2011 Silappadikaram Bharathi Puthakalayam pp 31 36 P S Sundaram 1987 Kural Tiruvalluvar Penguin Books pp 21 159 ISBN 978 93 5118 015 9 S N Kandasamy 2017 த ர க க றள ஆய வ த த ள வ ர அறத த ப ப ல Tirukkural Research commentary Book of Aram Chennai Manivasagar Padhippagam pp 42 43 Trainor 2004 p 62 a b Fowler Merv 1999 Buddhism Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press p 65 ISBN 978 1 898723 66 0 permanent dead link Gowans Christopher 2004 Philosophy of the Buddha An Introduction Routledge p 169 ISBN 978 1 134 46973 4 Buswell Robert E Jr Lopez Donald S Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press pp 230 231 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Poopongpan Waraporn 2007 Thai kingship during the Ayutthaya period A note on its divine aspects concerning Indra Silpakorn University International Journal 7 143 171 Holt John Clifford Kinnard Jacob N Walters Jonathan S 2012 Constituting Communities Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of south and southeast Asia State University of New York Press pp 45 46 57 64 108 ISBN 978 0 7914 8705 1 Cowell amp Davis 1969 pp 5 21 sfn error no target CITEREFCowellDavis1969 help Cowell amp Davis 1969 p 44 sfn error no target CITEREFCowellDavis1969 help E B Cowell amp Francis A Davis 1969 p 71 footnote 1 sfn error no target CITEREFE B CowellFrancis A Davis1969 help E B Cowell amp Francis A Davis 1969 p 205 sfn error no target CITEREFE B CowellFrancis A Davis1969 help Robert E Buswell Jr Donald S Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press p 235 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 Sanskrit Rigveda 5 34 Wikisource English Translation Wilson H H 1857 Rig veda Sanhita A collection of ancient Hindu hymns Trubner amp Company pp 288 291 58 61 Part 2 Evening Chanting www Watpasantidhamma org Retrieved 18 January 2019 a b Lopez Donald S Jr 2013 From Stone to Flesh A short history of the Buddha University of Chicago Press p 37 ISBN 978 0 226 49321 3 Dobbins K Walton March June 1968 Two Gandharan reliquaries East and West 18 1 2 151 162 JSTOR 29755217 Indra s Net book cite note FOOTNOTEMalhotra20144 10 Twelve heavenly deities devas Nara Japan Nara National Museum Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 31 December 2015 Biswas S 2000 Art of Japan Northern p 184 ISBN 978 817211269 1 Stutterheim Willem Frederik et al 1995 Rama legends and Rama reliefs in Indonesia pp xiv xvi ISBN 978 817017251 2 Snodgrass A 2007 The Symbolism of the Stupa Motilal Banarsidass pp 120 124 298 300 ISBN 978 812080781 5 krungethphmhankhr Bangkok Royal Institute Newsletter in Thai 3 31 December 1993 Reproduced in krungethphmhankhr Krung Thep Mahanakhon in Thai Archived from the original on 10 December 2016 Retrieved 12 September 2012 Goswamy 2014 p 245 a b c Owen Lisa 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora BRILL Academic pp 25 28 29 33 ISBN 978 90 04 20629 8 von Glasenapp Helmuth 1999 Jainism An Indian religion of salvation Motilal Banarsidass pp 268 269 ISBN 978 81 208 1376 2 Bibliography Edit Mani Vettam 1 January 2015 Puranic Encyclopedia A comprehensive work with special reference to the epic and puranic literature Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0597 2 Goswamy B N 2014 The Spirit of Indian Painting Close encounters with 100 great works 1100 1900 Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 670 08657 3 Anthony David W 2007 The Horse the Wheel and Language How Bronze Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world Princeton University Press Beckwith Christopher I 2009 Empires of the Silk Road Princeton University Press Cowell E B Davis Francis A 1969 Buddhist Mahayana Texts Courier Corporation ISBN 978 0 486 25552 1 Wilkings W J 2001 1882 Hindu mythology Vedic amp Puranic reprint ed Elibron Classics ISBN 9780766188815 Archived from the original on 9 October 2014 Reprint of original Thaker Spink amp Co Calcutta IN Masson Oursel P Morin Louise 1976 Indian Mythology New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology New York NY The Hamlyn Publishing Group pp 325 359 Janda M Eleusis das indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien 1998 Trainor Kevin 2004 Buddhism The Illustrated Guide Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517398 7 External links EditIndra at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Lee Phil Indra and Skanda deities in Korean Buddhism Chicago Divinity School Chicago IL University of Chicago Indra Lord of Storms and King of the Gods Realm Philadelphia PA Philadelphia Museum of Art Indra wood idol 13th century Kamakura period Nara Japan Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indra amp oldid 1151425974, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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