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Peshawar

January 18, 2023

This article is about the city in Pakistan. For other uses, see Peshawar (disambiguation).
"Peshawari" redirects here. For other uses, see Peshawari (disambiguation).

Peshawar (/pəˈʃɑːwər/;[9] Pashto: پېښور [peˈχəwər] (listen); Hindko: پشور; [pɪˈʃɔːɾ] (listen); Urdu: پشاور [pɪˈʃɑːʋər] (listen)) is the sixth most populous city in Pakistan, with a population of over 2.3 million. It is situated in the north-west of the country, close to the International border with Afghanistan. It is the capital of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where it is the largest city.[10] Peshawar is primarily populated by Pashtuns, who comprise the second-largest ethnic group in the country.[11][12] Situated in the Valley of Peshawar, a broad area situated east of the historic Khyber Pass, Peshawar's recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in South Asia.[13] Peshawer is among the oldest continuously inhabited cities of the country.[14]

Peshawar
  • پېښور
  • پشور
  • پشاور
City
Nickname: 
City of Flowers[1]
Peshawar
Location within Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Peshawar
Location within Pakistan
Coordinates: 34°00′52″N 71°34′03″E / 34.01444°N 71.56750°E / 34.01444; 71.56750Coordinates: 34°00′52″N 71°34′03″E / 34.01444°N 71.56750°E / 34.01444; 71.56750
Country Pakistan
Province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
DistrictPeshawar District
Union councils92
Government
[6][7]
 • TypeMayor–council
 • BodyDistrict government
 • MayorZubair Ali[2] (JUI-F)
 • Deputy MayorTBA
 • CommissionerRiaz Khan Mehsud[3]
 • Deputy CommissionerKhalid Mahmood[4]
 • Assistant CommissionerDr. Ehtesham[5]
Area
 • City215 km2 (83 sq mi)
 • Metro
1,257 km2 (485 sq mi)
Elevation
331 m (1,086 ft)
Highest elevation
450 m (1,480 ft)
Population
 (2017)[8]
 • City1,970,042
 • Rank6th, Pakistan
 • Density9,200/km2 (24,000/sq mi)
Time zoneUTC+5:00 (PKT)
Area code091
LanguagesPashto, Hindko, Urdu
Websitecmgp.gkp.pk

The area encompassing modern-day Peshawar is mentioned in Vedic scriptures; it served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka[15][16][17] and was home to the Kanishka Stupa, which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world.[18] Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites, followed by the Hindu Shahis, before the arrival of a variety of Muslim empires. The city was an important trading centre of the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747, after which it served as the Durrani winter capital from 1776 until the capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in 1823. In 1849, the city was captured by the East India Company and subsequently became part of British Raj, under whose rule it remained until the Partition of British India and subsequent independence of Pakistan in 1947.

Etymology

 
A vintage photo postcard of the main street, Peshawar. Digitized by Panjab Digital Library.

The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" (Sanskrit: पुरूषपुर Puruṣapura, meaning "City of Men" or “City of Purusha").[19][20][21] It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar, the meaning of which Akbar didn't understand.[22][23] The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja (king) named Purush; the word pur means "city" in Sanskrit.[24][25][26] Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period.[27] The city's name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers," Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar.[28]

Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang's seventh century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-sha-pu-lo (Chinese: 布路沙布邏, bùlùshābùló), and an earlier fifth century account by Fa-Hien records the city's name as Fou-lou-sha (Chinese: 弗樓沙, fùlóshā), the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura.[29][30] An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar.[31]

The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city was known as Parashāwar. The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al-Biruni.[32]

The city began to be known as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar.[33] The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for "frontier town"[33] or, more literally, "forward city," though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city," as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass.[34][35] Akbar's bibliographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the city's name as both Parashāwar, transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر,[36] and Peshāwar (پشاور).[37]

History

 
In ancient Indian subcontinent, the city of Purushapura (which became Peshawar), was established near the Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati
Main articles: History of Peshawar and Timeline of Peshawar

Ancient history

Peshawar alongside the modern day Ghandara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati.[38]

Foundation

Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura,[19][39][40] on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE.[41][42] It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush.[24] The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE,[43] within the cultural sphere of ancient India.[44] Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati, near present-day Charsadda.[45][21]

Greek Rule

In the winter of 327–26 BCE, Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley,[46] as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys.[47] Following Alexander's conquest, the Valley of Peshawar came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire. A locally-made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles' play Antigone.[48]

Mauryan empire

 
The nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery was established in 46 CE,[49] and was once a major centre of Buddhist learning.

Following the Seleucid–Mauryan war, the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE.[50] Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura (ancient Peshawar) was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire's capital at Pataliputra, near the city of Patna in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar.[51][52]

As Mauryan power declined, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized ancient Peshawar around 190 BCE.[50] The city was then captured by Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. Gondophares established the nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE.[49]

Kushan empire

 
Peshawar's Kanishka stupa once kept sacred Buddhist relics in the Kanishka casket.

In the first century of the Common era, Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire.[53] The city was made the empire's winter capital.[54][failed verification] The Kushan's summer capital at Kapisi (modern Bagram, Afghanistan[55] was seen as the secondary capital of the empire,[54] while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital.[54] Ancient Peshawar's population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time.[56][43] As a devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery.[57] After his death, the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king, Vasudeva I.

Around 260 CE, the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar,[58] and severely damage Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar.[43] Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery.[43] The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled,[59] as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city.[43]

Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion,[43] but the city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE.[60]

White Huns

The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE,[61] and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries.[62] The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base,[54] and crowned with a 13-layer copper-gilded chatra.[54] In the 400s CE, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" in the "terrestrial world",[54] which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall,[54] though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft (120 m).[54]

In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it was in conflict with nearby Kapisa.[63][64] The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE,[65] after Kapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin[66]—although some monks studying Hinayana Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins.[67] Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital.[62]

Medieval history

 
Clock Tower Peshawar

Until the mid seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent,[63] who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul.[63]

Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist, Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century.

As the first Pashtun tribe to settle the region, the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar,[68] and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century.[68] The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known as Parashāwar.

Ghaznavid empire

Further information: Battle of Peshawar (1001)

In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded the area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal.[33]

On 28 November 1001, Sabuktigin's son Mahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army of Raja Jayapala, son of Anandpal, at the Battle of Peshawar,[69] and established rule of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region.

During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore.[33] During the tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis,[55] who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics.[55]

Delhi sultanate

In 1179–80, Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols.[33] Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.

The Ghoryakhel Pashtuns Khalil, Muhmands, Daudzai, Chamkani tribes and some Khashi Khel Pashtuns, ancestors of modern-day Yusufzai and Gigyani Pashtuns, began settling rural regions around Peshawar in the late 15th and 16th centuries.[70] The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan.[70]

Early modern history

Mughal empire

 
Bestowed by Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan in 1630, the white-marble façade of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is one of Peshawar's most iconic sights.
 
The interior of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is elaborately frescoed with elegant and intricately detailed floral and geometric motifs.

Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes.[71] Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586.[71] Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar.[72]

In July 1526, Emperor Babur captured Peshawar from Daulat Khan Lodi.[73] During Babur's rule, the city was known as Begram, and he rebuilt the city's fort.[74] Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns in Pashtunistan.[33]

Under the reign of Babur's son, Humayun, direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, Sher Shah Suri, who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on Sher Shah Suri's Grand Trunk Road.[52] During Akbar's rule, the name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar.[33] In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan,[75] founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement, who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587.[75]

Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during the reign of Shah Jahan,[76] which no longer exist.

 
Peshawar's Sunehri Mosque dates from the Mughal era.

Emperor Aurangzeb's Governor of Kabul, Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famous Mohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630.[33]

Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667,[71] and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock.[71] Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s.[71] The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes.[77] Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674.[71]

Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I, former Governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened.[78]

On 18 November 1738, Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the Afsharid armies during the Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire under Nader Shah.[79][80]

Durrani empire

 
Peshawar's Bala Hissar fort was once the royal residence of the Durrani Afghan kings.

In 1747, Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire.[81] Under the reign of his son Timur Shah, the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced,[33][82] with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion.[83] Peshawar's Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s.[84] Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit.[84]

Timur Shah's grandson, Mahmud Shah Durrani, became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, Shah Shujah Durrani.[85] Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape.[85] In 1809, the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans.[85] His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823.[85]

Maratha Empire

The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758[86][87][88][89] when Maratha Empire in alliance with the Sikhs, defeated the Durrani Empire.[90][91][92] The Marathas and the Sikhs were victorious in battle and Peshawar was captured thereafter.[88][91][93][92][94] Before that, the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan. When Raghunathrao, Malhar Rao Holkar and Sikh alliance of Charat Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia left Peshawar, Tukoji Rao Holkar was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub-continent. Tukoji Rao Holkar along with Sardar Santajirao Wable and Khandoji Kadam defeated the Afghan garrison.[95][91][96]

 
Maratha Empire circa 1759

Peshawar was captured on 8 May 1758 by the Maratha Empire, in alliance with the Sikhs, from the Durrani Empire. The Marathas and Sikhs were victorious in the campaign in the province and Peshawar was captured. After being defeated by the army of Marathas and Sikhs, Durranis with Jahan Khan and Timur Shah Durrani left the fort and fled to Afghanistan meanwhile Marathas captured and took control of the fort.[97][92] The Marathas' victory extended their rule to the Afghan border, about 2000 km from Pune.[95][98][99]

Sikh empire

Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818 but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals.[100][101] Following the Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor.[101][100] By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined,[84] with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields.[84]

Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces,[84] as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces.[84] Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute,[84] while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India.[84] Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.[102]

The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa[100]—bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's Lahore Durbar.[100] An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy the city failed when his army refused to engage in combat with the Dal Khalsa.[100] Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly-settle Sikhs.[103] The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city.[85]

British Raj

 
The British-era Islamia College was built in an Indo-Saracenic Revival style.
 
Built for wealthy local merchants in a Central Asian architectural style, the Sethi Mohallah features several homes dating from the British era.

Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845-46 and the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company. The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule.[84] During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;[104] the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.[105]

The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.[106] Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.[102] British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan.

The British built Cunningham clock tower in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall (now home of the Peshawar Museum) in memory of Queen Victoria.[102] The British introduced Western-style education into Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913, along with several schools run by the Anglican Church.[102] For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901,[107] after which Peshawar became capital of the new province.[33]

 
Edwardes College was built during the British-era, and is now one of Peshawar's most prestigious educational institutions.

Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindko and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as xāryān ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.[108] Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Army opened fire on the demonstrators.[109]

Modern era

In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar.[110][111] The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into the university.[112] Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union, with the 1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail.[113]

During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter-Services Intelligence-trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees. It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,[114] with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.[114] The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[115] and drastically altered the city's demography.[115] Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group, Tehrik-i-Taliban. Local poets' shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban,[116] a suicide bomb attack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children.

Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010,[117] which had declined to 18 in 2014,[117] before the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb, which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. More civilians died in acts of violence in 2014 compared to 2010 – largely a result of the Peshawar school massacre. A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people.

Geography

 
The city serves as a gateway to the Khyber Pass, whose beginning is marked by the Khyber Gate.

Topography

 
Peshawar sits at the eastern end of the Khyber Pass, which has been used as a trade route since the Kushan era approximately 2,000 years ago.

Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains.[55]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Peshawar

With an influence from the local steppe climate, Peshawar features a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh), with very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).

Peshawar is not a monsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 mm (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007,[118] while the highest summer rainfall of 402 mm (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010;[119] during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 mm (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010[119]—the previous record was 187 mm (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009.[118] The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 mm (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 mm (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003.[118] Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 kn (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995,[118] while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.[118]

Climate data for Peshawar (1961–1990)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.0
(80.6) 		30.0
(86.0) 		36.0
(96.8) 		42.2
(108.0) 		45.2
(113.4) 		48.0
(118.4) 		46.6
(115.9) 		46.0
(114.8) 		42.0
(107.6) 		38.5
(101.3) 		35.0
(95.0) 		29.0
(84.2) 		48.0
(118.4)
Average high °C (°F) 18.3
(64.9) 		19.5
(67.1) 		23.7
(74.7) 		30.0
(86.0) 		35.9
(96.6) 		40.4
(104.7) 		37.7
(99.9) 		35.7
(96.3) 		35.0
(95.0) 		31.2
(88.2) 		25.6
(78.1) 		20.1
(68.2) 		29.4
(84.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 11.2
(52.2) 		12.9
(55.2) 		17.4
(63.3) 		23.2
(73.8) 		28.6
(83.5) 		33.1
(91.6) 		32.2
(90.0) 		30.7
(87.3) 		28.9
(84.0) 		23.7
(74.7) 		17.6
(63.7) 		12.5
(54.5) 		22.7
(72.9)
Average low °C (°F) 4.0
(39.2) 		6.3
(43.3) 		11.2
(52.2) 		16.4
(61.5) 		21.3
(70.3) 		25.7
(78.3) 		26.6
(79.9) 		25.7
(78.3) 		22.7
(72.9) 		16.1
(61.0) 		7.6
(45.7) 		4.9
(40.8) 		15.9
(60.6)
Record low °C (°F) −3.9
(25.0) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		1.7
(35.1) 		6.7
(44.1) 		11.7
(53.1) 		13.3
(55.9) 		18.0
(64.4) 		19.4
(66.9) 		12.0
(53.6) 		8.3
(46.9) 		1.1
(34.0) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		−3.9
(25.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 26.0
(1.02) 		42.7
(1.68) 		78.4
(3.09) 		48.9
(1.93) 		27.0
(1.06) 		7.7
(0.30) 		42.3
(1.67) 		67.7
(2.67) 		17.9
(0.70) 		9.7
(0.38) 		12.3
(0.48) 		23.3
(0.92) 		403.9
(15.9)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 195.5 189.5 194.5 231.3 297.1 299.5 273.8 263.2 257.3 266.1 234.8 184.4 2,887
Source 1: NOAA (1961-1990) [120]
Source 2: PMD[121]


Cityscape

 
A view of old Peshawar's famous Qissa Khawani Bazaar.
 
Much of Peshawar's old city still features examples of traditional style architecture.
 
Some buildings in the old city feature carved wooden balconies.

Peshawer's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such as Lahore, Multan and Delhi - all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city, as well as a royal citadel.[122]

Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city's old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection.

The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.[123]

Demographics

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1881 79,982—    
1891 84,191+5.3%
1901 95,147+13.0%
1911 97,935+2.9%
1921 104,452+6.7%
1931 121,866+16.7%
1941 130,967+7.5%
1951 151,776+15.9%
1961 218,000+43.6%
1972 273,000+25.2%
1981 555,000+103.3%
1998 982,816+77.1%
2017 1,970,042+100.4%
2021 2,203,003+11.8%
Source: Macrotrends (2021)
[124][125] (PDF) (Report). Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. 2017. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2018.</ref>Census of India (1921)

Population

The population of Peshawar district in 1998 was 2,026,851.[126] The city's annual growth rate is estimated at 3.29% per year,[127] and the 2016 population of Peshawar district is estimated to be 3,405,414.[128] With a population of 1,970,042 according to the 2017 census, Peshawar is the sixth-largest city of Pakistan.[129] and the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with a population five times higher than the second-largest city in the province.

Language

Languages by number of speakers in the Peshawar district[130]

  Pashto (90.17%)
  Hindko (5.33%)
  Urdu (1.96%)
  Punjabi (1.08%)
  Others (1.46%)

The primary native language spoken in Peshawar is Pashto, while Hindko is native minority language,[131] though English is used in the city's educational institutions, while Urdu is understood throughout the city - as the national language of the country.[132]

The district of Peshawar is overwhelmingly Pashto-speaking, though the Hindko-speaking minority is concentrated in Peshawar's old city,[133] Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech.[134]

Religion

Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim, with Muslims making up 98.5% of the city's population in the 1998 census.[135] Christians make up the second largest religious group with around 20,000 adherents, while over 7,000 members of the Ahmadiyya Community live in Peshawar.[135] Hindus and Sikhs are also found in the city − though most of the city's Hindu and Sikh community migrated en masse to India following the Partition of British India in 1947.

Though the city's Sikh population drastically declined after Partition, the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4,000 Sikh refugees from conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas;[136] In 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar.[137] Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue.[138] There was a small, but, thriving Jewish community until the late 1940s. After the partition and the emergence of the State of Israel, Jews left for Israel.[139]

Afghan refugees

Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of the Afghan civil war in 1978, though the rate of migration drastically increased following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,[114] with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.[114] The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[115] and drastically altered the city's demography.[115] During the 1988 national elections, an estimated 100,000 Afghans refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar.[140]

With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists,[141] as well as a major centre of Pashto literature.[142] Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar, and play an important role in the city's economy.[143]

In recent years, Peshawar district hosts up to 20% of all Afghan refugees in Pakistan.[114] In 2005, Peshawar district was home to 611,501 Afghan refugees — who constituted 19.7% of the district's total population.[114] Peshawar's immediate environs were home to large Afghan refugee camps, with Jalozai camp hosting up to 300,000 refugees in 2001[144] – making it the largest refugee camp in Asia at the time.[144]

Afghan refugees began to be frequently accused of involvement with terrorist attacks that occurred during Pakistan's war against radical Islamists.[145] By 2015 the Pakistani government adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees, including many who had spent their entire life in Pakistan.[145] The policy of repatriation was also encouraged by the government of Afghanistan,[146] though many refugees had not registered themselves in Pakistan. Unregistered refugees returning to Afghanistan without their old Afghan identification documents now have no official status in Afghanistan either.[146]

Economy

 
City Center Road is the major trade zone in Peshawar.

Peshawar's economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to the Khyber Pass – the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent passed. Peshawar's economy also benefited from tourism in the mid-20th century, as the city formed a crucial part of the Hippie trail.

Peshawar's estimated monthly per capita income was ₨55,246 in 2015,[117] compared to ₨117,924 in Islamabad,[117] and ₨66,359 in Karachi.[117] Peshawar's surrounding region is also relatively poor − Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20% less than Pakistan's national average for urban residents.[117]

Peshawar was noted by the World Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship, freelance jobs, and technology.[147] The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth Summit 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine — an annual event to connect the city and province's youths to opportunities in the digital economy. The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers, and approximately 3,000 delegates in attendance.[148]

Industry

Peshawar's Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road is an industrial zone established in the 1960s on 868 acres. The industrial estate hosts furniture, marble industries, and food processing industries, though many of its plots remain underutilized.[149] The Hayatabad Industrial Estate hosts 646 industrial units in Peshawar's western suburbs, though several of the units are no longer in use.[150] As part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor, 4 special economic zones are to be established in the province, with roads, electricity, gas, water, and security to be provided by the government.[150] The nearby Hattar SEZ is envisioned to provide employment to 30,000 people,[150] and is being developed at a cost of approximately $200 million with completion expected in 2017.[150]

Employment

As a result of large numbers of displaced persons in the city, only 12% of Peshawar's residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012.[143] Approximately 41% of residents in 2012 were employed in personal services,[143] while 55% of Afghan refugees in the city in 2012 were daily wage earners.[143] By 2016, Pakistan adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees.

Wages for unskilled workers in Peshawar grew on average 9.1% per year between 2002 and 2008.[117] Following the outbreak of widespread Islamist violence in 2007, wages rose only 1.5% between 2008 and 2014.[117] Real wages dropped for some skilled craftsmen during the period between 2008 and 2014.[117]

Constraints

Peshawar's economy has been negatively impacted by political instability since 1979 resulting from the War in Afghanistan and subsequent strain on Peshawar's infrastructure from the influx of refugees.[143] The poor security environment resulting from Islamist violence also impacted the city's economy. With the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014, the country's security environment has drastically improved.[151]

The metropolitan economy suffers from poor infrastructure. The city's economy has also been adversely impacted by shortages of electricity and natural gas.[152] The $54 billion China Pakistan Economic Corridor will generate over 10,000 MW by 2018[153] – greater than the current electricity deficit of approximately 4,500 MW.[154] Peshawar will also be linked to ports in Karachi by uninterrupted motorway access, while passenger and freight railway tracks will be upgraded between Peshawar and Karachi.[citation needed]

Poor transportation is estimated to cause a loss of 4–6% of the Pakistani GDP.[155] Peshawar for decades has suffered from chaotic, mismanaged, and inadequate public transportation and the poor public transportation also has been detrimental to the city's economy.[156] Therefore, the government has since a new rapid bus service called BRT Peshawar covering the entire Peshawar. BRT Peshawar is now believed to be one the most advanced BRT of Pakistan[157]

Transportation

Road

 
New flyovers, such as this one near the suburb of Hayatabad, have been constructed in recent years to improve traffic flow.

Peshawar's east–west growth axis is centred on the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The road is roughly paralleled by the M-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad, while the M-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass.

Peshawar is to be completely encircled by the Peshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city's congested centre. The road is currently under construction, with some portions open to traffic.

The Karakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang.

The Indus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar, with a terminus in the southern port city of Karachi via Dera Ismail Khan and northern Sindh. The 1.9 km (1.2 mi) Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city of Kohat along the Indus Highway.

Motorways

Peshawar is connected to Islamabad and Rawalpindi by the 155 kilometre long M-1 Motorway. The motorway also links Peshawar to major cities in the province, such as Charsadda and Mardan. The M-1 motorway continues onwards to Lahore as part of the M-2 motorway.

Pakistan's motorway network links Peshawar to Faisalabad by the M-4 Motorway, while a new motorway network to Karachi is being built as part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.

The Hazara Motorway is being constructed as part of CPEC, and is providing control-access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra and Thakot via the M-1 and Hazara Motorways.

Rail

Peshawar Cantonment railway station serves as the terminus for Pakistan's 1,687 km (1,048 mi)-long Main Line-1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi and passes through the Peshawar City railway station. The Peshawar to Karachi route is served by the Awam Express, Khushhal Khan Khattak Express, and the Khyber Mail services.

The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project,[158] with completion by 2021.[159] Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km/h (37 to 65 mph) speed currently possible on existing tracks.[160]

Peshawar was also once the terminus of the Khyber Train Safari, a tourist-oriented train that provided rail access to Landi Kotal. The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region's Taliban insurgency.

Air

Peshawar is served by the Bacha Khan International Airport, located in the Peshawar Cantonment. The airport served 1,255,303 passengers between 2014 and 2015,[161] the vast majority of whom were international travelers.[161] The airport offers direct flights throughout Pakistan, as well as to Bahrain, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Public transit

BRT Peshawar is a modern & third generation rapid bus service of Peshawar, which has started its service on 13 August 2020.[162] It has 32 stations and 220 buses, which covers area from Chamkani to Karkhano Market. BRT Peshawar has replaced Peshawar's old, chaotic, dilapidated, and inadequate transportation system. The system has 32 stations and is mostly at grade, with four kilometres of elevated sections.[163] The system also contains 3.5 kilometres of underpasses.[163] BRT Peshawar is also complemented by a feeder system, with an additional 100 stations along those feeder lines.[157]

 
Pakistan's of the most advanced Metro (BRT) system.

Intercity bus

Peshawar is well-served by private buses (locally referred to as "flying coaches") and vans that offer frequent connections to throughout Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, as well as all major cities of Pakistan. The city's Daewoo Express bus terminal is located along the G.T. Road adjacent to the departure points for several other transportation companies.[164]

Administration

Civic government

Politics

Peshawar has historically served as the political centre of the region, and is currently the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The city and province have been historically regarded to be strongholds of the Awami National Party – a secular left-wing and moderate-nationalist party.[165][166] The Pakistan Peoples Party had also enjoyed considerable support in the province due to its socialist agenda.[165]

Despite being a centre for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar is still generally known throughout Pakistan for its social conservatism.[167] Sunni Muslims in the city are regarded to be socially conservative,[167] while the city's Shia population is considered to be more socially liberal.[167]

A plurality of voters in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, of which Peshawar is the capital, elected one of Pakistan's only religiously based provincial governments during the period of military dictatorship of Pervez Musharraf. A ground-swell of anti-American sentiment after the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the Islamist coalition's victory.[168]

The Islamists introduced a range of social restrictions following the election of the Islamist Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal coalition in 2002, though Islamic Shariah law was never fully enacted.[168] Restrictions on public musical performances were introduced, as well as a ban prohibiting music to be played in any public places, including on public transportation – which lead to the creation of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar.[169] In 2005, the coalition successfully passed the "Prohibition of Use of Women in Photograph Bill, 2005,"[170] leading to the removal of all public advertisements in Peshawar that featured women.[171]

The religious coalition was swept out of power by the secular and leftist Awami National Party in elections after the fall of Musharraf in 2008,[168] leading to the removal of the MMA's socially conservative laws.[172] 62% of eligible voters voted in the election.[117] The Awami National Party was targeted by Taliban militants, with hundreds of its members having been assassinated by the Pakistani Taliban.[173]

In 2013, the centrist Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf was elected to power in the province on an anti-corruption platform. Peshawar city recorded a voter turnout of 80% for the 2013 elections.[117]

Municipal services

86% of Peshawar's households have access to municipal piped water as of 2015,[117] though 39% of Peshawar's households purchase water from private companies in 2015.[117]

42% of Peshawar households are connected to municipal sewerage as of 2015.[117]

Culture

Music

After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances, a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar.[169] After the start of Pakistan's Taliban insurgency in 2007–2008, militants began targeting members of Peshawar's cultural establishment. By 2007, Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region, leading to the closure of many others.[174] In 2009, Pashto musical artist Ayman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city's outskirts. In June 2012, a Pashto singer, Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in Peshawar, after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar.[175]

Musicians began to return to the city by 2016,[176] with a security environment greatly improved following the Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country. The provincial government in 2016 announced a monthly income of $300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work,[176] as well as a $5 million fund to "revive the rich cultural heritage of the province".[176]

Museums

The Peshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria. The building features an amalgamation of British, South Asian, Hindu, Buddhist and Mughal Islamic architectural styles. The museum's collection has almost 14,000 items, and is well known for its collection of Greco-Buddhist art. The museum's ancient collection features pieces from the Gandharan, Kushan, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.

Notable people

Main article: List of people from Peshawar

Education

 
Museum of Peshawar University
 
FAST Peshawar Campus
Main article: List of universities in Peshawar

Numerous educational institutes — schools, colleges and universities — are located in Peshawar. 21.6% of children between the ages of 5 and 9 were not enrolled in any school in 2013,[117] while 16.6% of children in the 10 to 14 age range were out of school.[117]

Currently, Peshawar has universities for all major disciplines ranging from Humanities, General Sciences, Sciences, Engineering, Medical, Agriculture and Management Sciences. The first public sector university, University of Peshawar[177] (UOP) was established in October 1950 by the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar[178] was established in 1980 while Agriculture University Peshawar[179] started working in 1981. The first private sector university CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences[180] was established in 1986. Institute of Management Sciences started functioning in 1995, which become degree awarding institution in 2005.[181]

There are currently 9 Medical colleges in Peshawar, 2 in public sector while 7 in private sector.[182] The first Medical College, Khyber Medical College,[183] was established in 1954 as part of University of Peshawar. The first Medical University, Khyber Medical University[184][183] while a women only Medical college, Khyber Girls Medical College was established in 2007.

At the start of the 21st century, a host of new private sector universities started working in Peshawar. Qurtuba University,[185] Sarhad University of Science and IT,[186] Fast University, Peshawar Campus[187] and City University of Science and IT[188] were established in 2001 while Gandhara University[189] was inaugurated in 2002 and Abasyn University[190] in 2007.

Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University,[191][192] the first women university of Peshawar, started working in 2009 while private sector IQRA National University[193] was established in 2012.

Apart from good range of universities, Peshawar has host of high quality further education (Post School) educational institutes. The most renowned are, Edwardes College founded in 1900 by Herbert Edwardes, is the oldest college in the province and Islamia College Peshawar, which was established in 1913. Islamia College became university and named as Islamia College University in 2008.[194]

The following is a list of some of the public and private universities and colleges in Peshawar:

Landmarks

The following is a list of other significant landmarks in the city that still exist in the 21st century:

Sports

There are hosts of sporting facilities in Peshawar. The most renowned are Arbab Niaz Stadium,[197] and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium, which are the International cricket grounds of Peshawar and Qayyum Stadium,[198][199] which is the multi sports facilities located in Peshawar cantonment.

Cricket is the most popular sport in Peshawar[200] with Arbab Niaz Stadium as the main ground coupled with Cricket Academy. There is also small cricket ground, Peshawar Gymkhana ground,[201] which is located adjacent to Arbab Niaz Stadium, a popular club cricket ground. The oldest international cricket ground in Peshawar however is Peshawar Club Ground, which hosted the first ever test match between Pakistan and India in 1955.[202] The Peshawar Zalmi represents the city in the Pakistan Super League.[203]

In 1975, the first sports complex, Qayyum Stadium was built in Peshawar[199] while Hayatabad Sports Complex was built in the early 1990s.[204] Both Qayyum Stadium and Hayatabad Sports Complexes are multiple sports complexes with facilities for all major indoor and outdoor sports such as football,[205] Field Hockey ground,[206] Squash, Swimming, Gymnasium, Board Games section, Wrestling, Boxing and Badminton. In 1991, Qayyum Stadium hosted Barcelona Olympics Qualifier Football match between Pakistan and Qatar[205] plus it also hosted National Games in 2010.[207] Hockey and squash are also popular in Peshawar.

Professional sports teams from Peshawar

Twin towns and sister cities

Main article: List of twin towns and sister cities in Pakistan

Peshawar is twinned with:

See also

References

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Bibliography

See also: Bibliography of the history of Peshawar
  • Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. "Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier." Saqi Books (1 March 2003). ISBN 0-86356-438-0.
  • Beal, Samuel. 1884. "Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang." 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
  • Beal, Samuel. 1911. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing". Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
  • Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1985. "Peshawar 27 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine: Historic city of the Frontier" Sang-e-Meel Publications (1995). ISBN 969-35-0554-9.
  • Dobbins, K. Walton. 1971. "The Stūpa and Vihāra of Kanishka I". The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series, Vol. XVIII. Calcutta.
  • Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India; comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969).
  • Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369.
  • Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī"; Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11, pp. 25–32.
  • Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu 6 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine." 2nd Draft Edition.
  • Hill, John E. 2004. "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 23 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine" 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
  • Hopkirk, Peter. 1984. "The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia" Kodansha Globe; Reprint edition. ISBN 1-56836-022-3.
  • Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. "Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825", Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
  • Reeves, Richard. 1985. "Passage to Peshawar: Pakistan: Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea." Holiday House September 1985. ISBN 0-671-60539-9.
  • Imran, Imran Rashid. 2006. "Baghaat-i-Peshawar." Sarhad Conservation Network. July 2006.
  • Imran, Imran Rashid. 2012. "Peshawar – Faseel-e-Shehr aur Darwazay." Sarhad Conservation Network. March 2012.

External links

  •   Peshawar travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • Peshawar at Curlie

January 18, 2023
peshawar, this, article, about, city, pakistan, other, uses, disambiguation, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, ɑː, pashto, پېښور, peˈχəwər, listen, hindko, پشور, pɪˈʃɔːɾ, listen, urdu, پشاور, pɪˈʃɑːʋər, listen, sixth, most, populous, city, pakistan. This article is about the city in Pakistan For other uses see Peshawar disambiguation Peshawari redirects here For other uses see Peshawari disambiguation Peshawar p e ˈ ʃ ɑː w er 9 Pashto پېښور peˈxewer listen Hindko پشور pɪˈʃɔːɾ listen Urdu پشاور pɪˈʃɑːʋer listen is the sixth most populous city in Pakistan with a population of over 2 3 million It is situated in the north west of the country close to the International border with Afghanistan It is the capital of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa where it is the largest city 10 Peshawar is primarily populated by Pashtuns who comprise the second largest ethnic group in the country 11 12 Situated in the Valley of Peshawar a broad area situated east of the historic Khyber Pass Peshawar s recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE making it one of the oldest cities in South Asia 13 Peshawer is among the oldest continuously inhabited cities of the country 14 Peshawar پېښورپشورپشاورCityClockwise from top Islamia College University Cunningham Clock Tower Sunehri Mosque Bala Hissar Bab e Khyber Mahabat Khan MosqueNickname City of Flowers 1 PeshawarLocation within Khyber PakhtunkhwaShow map of Khyber PakhtunkhwaPeshawarLocation within PakistanShow map of PakistanCoordinates 34 00 52 N 71 34 03 E 34 01444 N 71 56750 E 34 01444 71 56750 Coordinates 34 00 52 N 71 34 03 E 34 01444 N 71 56750 E 34 01444 71 56750Country PakistanProvince Khyber PakhtunkhwaDistrictPeshawar DistrictUnion councils92Government 6 7 TypeMayor council BodyDistrict government MayorZubair Ali 2 JUI F Deputy MayorTBA CommissionerRiaz Khan Mehsud 3 Deputy CommissionerKhalid Mahmood 4 Assistant CommissionerDr Ehtesham 5 Area City215 km2 83 sq mi Metro1 257 km2 485 sq mi Elevation331 m 1 086 ft Highest elevation450 m 1 480 ft Population 2017 8 City1 970 042 Rank6th Pakistan Density9 200 km2 24 000 sq mi Time zoneUTC 5 00 PKT Area code091LanguagesPashto Hindko UrduWebsitecmgp wbr gkp wbr pkThe area encompassing modern day Peshawar is mentioned in Vedic scriptures it served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka 15 16 17 and was home to the Kanishka Stupa which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world 18 Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites followed by the Hindu Shahis before the arrival of a variety of Muslim empires The city was an important trading centre of the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747 after which it served as the Durrani winter capital from 1776 until the capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in 1823 In 1849 the city was captured by the East India Company and subsequently became part of British Raj under whose rule it remained until the Partition of British India and subsequent independence of Pakistan in 1947 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Ancient history 2 1 1 Foundation 2 1 2 Greek Rule 2 1 3 Mauryan empire 2 1 4 Kushan empire 2 1 5 White Huns 2 2 Medieval history 2 2 1 Ghaznavid empire 2 2 2 Delhi sultanate 2 3 Early modern history 2 3 1 Mughal empire 2 3 2 Durrani empire 2 3 3 Maratha Empire 2 3 4 Sikh empire 2 3 5 British Raj 2 4 Modern era 3 Geography 3 1 Topography 3 2 Climate 3 3 Cityscape 4 Demographics 4 1 Population 4 2 Language 4 3 Religion 4 4 Afghan refugees 5 Economy 5 1 Industry 5 2 Employment 5 3 Constraints 6 Transportation 6 1 Road 6 1 1 Motorways 6 2 Rail 6 3 Air 6 4 Public transit 6 5 Intercity bus 7 Administration 7 1 Civic government 7 2 Politics 7 3 Municipal services 8 Culture 8 1 Music 8 2 Museums 9 Notable people 10 Education 11 Landmarks 12 Sports 13 Twin towns and sister cities 14 See also 15 References 15 1 Bibliography 16 External linksEtymology A vintage photo postcard of the main street Peshawar Digitized by Panjab Digital Library The modern name of the city Peshawar is possibly derived from the reconstructed Sanskrit word Purushapura Sanskrit प र षप र Puruṣapura meaning City of Men or City of Purusha 19 20 21 It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar the meaning of which Akbar didn t understand 22 23 The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja king named Purush the word pur means city in Sanskrit 24 25 26 Sanskrit written in the Kharosthi script was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period 27 The city s name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for City of Flowers Poshapura a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar 28 Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang s seventh century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po la sha pu lo Chinese 布路沙布邏 bulushabulo and an earlier fifth century account by Fa Hien records the city s name as Fou lou sha Chinese 弗樓沙 fulosha the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city Purushapura 29 30 An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr which may be a reference to Peshawar 31 The Arab historian and geographer Al Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century the city was known as Parashawar The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al Biruni 32 The city began to be known as Peshawar by the era of Emperor Akbar 33 The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for frontier town 33 or more literally forward city though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city s new name One theory suggests that the city s name is derived from the Persian name Pesh Awardan meaning place of first arrival or frontier city as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass 34 35 Akbar s bibliographer Abu l Fazl ibn Mubarak lists the city s name as both Parashawar transcribed in Persian as پ ر ش او ر 36 and Peshawar پشاور 37 History In ancient Indian subcontinent the city of Purushapura which became Peshawar was established near the Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati Main articles History of Peshawar and Timeline of Peshawar Ancient history Peshawar alongside the modern day Ghandara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati 38 Foundation Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura 19 39 40 on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE 41 42 It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush 24 The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE 43 within the cultural sphere of ancient India 44 Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati near present day Charsadda 45 21 Greek Rule In the winter of 327 26 BCE Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley 46 as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys 47 Following Alexander s conquest the Valley of Peshawar came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator founder of the Seleucid Empire A locally made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles play Antigone 48 Mauryan empire The nearby Takht i Bahi monastery was established in 46 CE 49 and was once a major centre of Buddhist learning Following the Seleucid Mauryan war the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE 50 Around 300 BCE the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura ancient Peshawar was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire s capital at Pataliputra near the city of Patna in the modern day Indian state of Bihar 51 52 As Mauryan power declined the Greco Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire and quickly seized ancient Peshawar around 190 BCE 50 The city was then captured by Gondophares founder of the Indo Parthian Kingdom Gondophares established the nearby Takht i Bahi monastery in 46 CE 49 Kushan empire Peshawar s Kanishka stupa once kept sacred Buddhist relics in the Kanishka casket In the first century of the Common era Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises founder of the Kushan Empire 53 The city was made the empire s winter capital 54 failed verification The Kushan s summer capital at Kapisi modern Bagram Afghanistan 55 was seen as the secondary capital of the empire 54 while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire s primary capital 54 Ancient Peshawar s population was estimated to be 120 000 which would make it the seventh most populous city in the world at the time 56 43 As a devout Buddhist the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery 57 After his death the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king Vasudeva I Around 260 CE the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar 58 and severely damage Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar 43 Shapur s campaign also resulted in damage to the city s monumental stupa and monastery 43 The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled 59 as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city 43 Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur s invasion 43 but the city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE 60 White Huns The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE 61 and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara destroying its numerous monasteries 62 The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure built atop a stone base 54 and crowned with a 13 layer copper gilded chatra 54 In the 400s CE the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited the structure and described it as the highest of all the towers in the terrestrial world 54 which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft 170 m tall 54 though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft 120 m 54 In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era and noted that it was in conflict with nearby Kapisa 63 64 The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE 65 after Kapisa victory and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin 66 although some monks studying Hinayana Buddhism continued to study at the monastery s ruins 67 Xuanzang estimated that only about 1 000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital 62 Medieval history Clock Tower Peshawar Until the mid seventh century the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent 63 who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul 63 Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century As the first Pashtun tribe to settle the region the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar 68 and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century 68 The Arab historian and geographer Al Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century the city had become known as Parashawar Ghaznavid empire Further information Battle of Peshawar 1001 In 986 87 CE Peshawar s first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded the area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king Anandpal 33 On 28 November 1001 Sabuktigin s son Mahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army of Raja Jayapala son of Anandpal at the Battle of Peshawar 69 and established rule of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region During the Ghaznavid era Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore 33 During the tenth 12th century Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis 55 who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics 55 Delhi sultanate In 1179 80 Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols 33 Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate The Ghoryakhel Pashtuns Khalil Muhmands Daudzai Chamkani tribes and some Khashi Khel Pashtuns ancestors of modern day Yusufzai and Gigyani Pashtuns began settling rural regions around Peshawar in the late 15th and 16th centuries 70 The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan 70 Early modern history Mughal empire Bestowed by Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan in 1630 the white marble facade of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is one of Peshawar s most iconic sights The interior of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is elaborately frescoed with elegant and intricately detailed floral and geometric motifs Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods peoples and ideas would pass along trade routes 71 Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586 71 Mughal rule in the area was tenuous as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar 72 In July 1526 Emperor Babur captured Peshawar from Daulat Khan Lodi 73 During Babur s rule the city was known as Begram and he rebuilt the city s fort 74 Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns in Pashtunistan 33 Under the reign of Babur s son Humayun direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king Sher Shah Suri who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century Peshawar was an important trading centre on Sher Shah Suri s Grand Trunk Road 52 During Akbar s rule the name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar 33 In 1586 Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan 75 founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587 75 Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during the reign of Shah Jahan 76 which no longer exist Peshawar s Sunehri Mosque dates from the Mughal era Emperor Aurangzeb s Governor of Kabul Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century and bestowed the city with its famous Mohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630 33 Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667 71 and engaged in pitched battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock 71 Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s 71 The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes 77 Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674 71 Following Aurangzeb s death in 1707 his son Bahadur Shah I former Governor of Peshawar and Kabul was selected to be the Mughal Emperor As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb the empire s defenses were weakened 78 On 18 November 1738 Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the Afsharid armies during the Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire under Nader Shah 79 80 Durrani empire Peshawar s Bala Hissar fort was once the royal residence of the Durrani Afghan kings In 1747 Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire 81 Under the reign of his son Timur Shah the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced 33 82 with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion 83 Peshawar s Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s 84 Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India s dried fruit 84 Timur Shah s grandson Mahmud Shah Durrani became king and quickly seized Peshawar from his half brother Shah Shujah Durrani 85 Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803 and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape 85 In 1809 the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans 85 His half brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823 85 Maratha Empire The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758 86 87 88 89 when Maratha Empire in alliance with the Sikhs defeated the Durrani Empire 90 91 92 The Marathas and the Sikhs were victorious in battle and Peshawar was captured thereafter 88 91 93 92 94 Before that the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan When Raghunathrao Malhar Rao Holkar and Sikh alliance of Charat Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia left Peshawar Tukoji Rao Holkar was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub continent Tukoji Rao Holkar along with Sardar Santajirao Wable and Khandoji Kadam defeated the Afghan garrison 95 91 96 Maratha Empire circa 1759 Peshawar was captured on 8 May 1758 by the Maratha Empire in alliance with the Sikhs from the Durrani Empire The Marathas and Sikhs were victorious in the campaign in the province and Peshawar was captured After being defeated by the army of Marathas and Sikhs Durranis with Jahan Khan and Timur Shah Durrani left the fort and fled to Afghanistan meanwhile Marathas captured and took control of the fort 97 92 The Marathas victory extended their rule to the Afghan border about 2000 km from Pune 95 98 99 Sikh empire Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818 but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals 100 101 Following the Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823 Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor 101 100 By 1830 Peshawar s economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined 84 with Ranjit Singh s forces having destroyed the city s palace and agricultural fields 84 Much of Peshawar s caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces 84 as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh s forces 84 Singh s government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute 84 while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India 84 Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror His time in Peshawar is known as a time of gallows and gibbets The city s famous Mahabat Khan built in 1630 in the Jeweler s Bazaar was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors 102 The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa 100 bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire s Lahore Durbar 100 An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re occupy the city failed when his army refused to engage in combat with the Dal Khalsa 100 Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule The city s only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settle Sikhs 103 The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city 85 British Raj The British era Islamia College was built in an Indo Saracenic Revival style Built for wealthy local merchants in a Central Asian architectural style the Sethi Mohallah features several homes dating from the British era Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo Sikh War in 1845 46 and the Second Anglo Sikh War in 1849 some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company The British re established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule 84 During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 the 4 000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed 104 the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident 105 The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868 and made the city its frontier headquarters 106 Additionally several projects were initiated in Peshawar including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs 102 British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand foreign secretary of the British Indian government who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan The British built Cunningham clock tower in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall now home of the Peshawar Museum in memory of Queen Victoria 102 The British introduced Western style education into Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913 along with several schools run by the Anglican Church 102 For better administration of the region Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901 107 after which Peshawar became capital of the new province 33 Edwardes College was built during the British era and is now one of Peshawar s most prestigious educational institutions Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindko and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era Hindko speakers also referred to as xaryan city dwellers in Pashto were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule 108 Peshawar was also home to a non violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi In April 1930 Khan leading a large group of his followers protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Army opened fire on the demonstrators 109 Modern era In 1947 Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan and emerged as a cultural centre in the country s northwest The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar 110 111 The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950 and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British era institutions into the university 112 Until the mid 1950s Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates In the 1960s Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union with the 1960 U 2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar From the 1960s until the late 1970s Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail 113 During the Soviet Afghan War in the 1980s Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter Services Intelligence trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees By 1980 100 000 refugees a month were entering the province 114 with 25 of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981 114 The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar s infrastructure 115 and drastically altered the city s demography 115 Like much of northwest Pakistan Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group Tehrik i Taliban Local poets shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban 116 a suicide bomb attack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013 and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010 117 which had declined to 18 in 2014 117 before the launch of Operation Zarb e Azb which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan More civilians died in acts of violence in 2014 compared to 2010 largely a result of the Peshawar school massacre A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people Geography The city serves as a gateway to the Khyber Pass whose beginning is marked by the Khyber Gate Topography Peshawar sits at the eastern end of the Khyber Pass which has been used as a trade route since the Kushan era approximately 2 000 years ago Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains The city is located in the generally level base of the valley known as the Gandhara Plains 55 Climate Main article Climate of Peshawar With an influence from the local steppe climate Peshawar features a hot semi arid climate Koppen BSh with very hot prolonged summers and brief mild to cool winters Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March though it sometimes extends into mid April while the summer months are from mid May to mid September The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 C 104 F during the hottest month and the mean minimum temperature is 25 C 77 F The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 C 39 F while the maximum is 18 3 C 64 9 F Peshawar is not a monsoon region unlike other parts of Pakistan however rainfall occurs in both winter and summer Due to western disturbances the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April The highest amount of winter rainfall measuring 236 mm 9 3 in was recorded in February 2007 118 while the highest summer rainfall of 402 mm 15 8 in was recorded in July 2010 119 during this month a record breaking rainfall level of 274 mm 10 8 in fell within a 24 hour period on 29 July 2010 119 the previous record was 187 mm 7 4 in of rain recorded in April 2009 118 The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer Based on a 30 year record the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 mm 16 in and the highest annual rainfall level of 904 5 mm 35 61 in was recorded in 2003 118 Wind speeds vary during the year from 5 kn 5 8 mph 9 3 km h in December to 24 kn 28 mph 44 km h in June The relative humidity varies from 46 in June to 76 in August The highest temperature of 50 C 122 F was recorded on 18 June 1995 118 while the lowest 3 9 C 25 0 F occurred on 7 January 1970 118 Climate data for Peshawar 1961 1990 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 27 0 80 6 30 0 86 0 36 0 96 8 42 2 108 0 45 2 113 4 48 0 118 4 46 6 115 9 46 0 114 8 42 0 107 6 38 5 101 3 35 0 95 0 29 0 84 2 48 0 118 4 Average high C F 18 3 64 9 19 5 67 1 23 7 74 7 30 0 86 0 35 9 96 6 40 4 104 7 37 7 99 9 35 7 96 3 35 0 95 0 31 2 88 2 25 6 78 1 20 1 68 2 29 4 84 9 Daily mean C F 11 2 52 2 12 9 55 2 17 4 63 3 23 2 73 8 28 6 83 5 33 1 91 6 32 2 90 0 30 7 87 3 28 9 84 0 23 7 74 7 17 6 63 7 12 5 54 5 22 7 72 9 Average low C F 4 0 39 2 6 3 43 3 11 2 52 2 16 4 61 5 21 3 70 3 25 7 78 3 26 6 79 9 25 7 78 3 22 7 72 9 16 1 61 0 7 6 45 7 4 9 40 8 15 9 60 6 Record low C F 3 9 25 0 1 0 30 2 1 7 35 1 6 7 44 1 11 7 53 1 13 3 55 9 18 0 64 4 19 4 66 9 12 0 53 6 8 3 46 9 1 1 34 0 1 3 29 7 3 9 25 0 Average precipitation mm inches 26 0 1 02 42 7 1 68 78 4 3 09 48 9 1 93 27 0 1 06 7 7 0 30 42 3 1 67 67 7 2 67 17 9 0 70 9 7 0 38 12 3 0 48 23 3 0 92 403 9 15 9 Mean monthly sunshine hours 195 5 189 5 194 5 231 3 297 1 299 5 273 8 263 2 257 3 266 1 234 8 184 4 2 887Source 1 NOAA 1961 1990 120 Source 2 PMD 121 Cityscape A view of old Peshawar s famous Qissa Khawani Bazaar Much of Peshawar s old city still features examples of traditional style architecture Some buildings in the old city feature carved wooden balconies Peshawer s urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia such as Lahore Multan and Delhi all of which were founded near a major river and included an old walled city as well as a royal citadel 122 Historically the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls In the 21st century only remnants of the walls remain but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies Numerous examples of the city s old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah In the old city located in inner Peshawar many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque Kotla Mohsin Khan Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city in January 2012 an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non existent over time with all of the gates targeted for restoration 123 DemographicsHistorical populationYearPop 188179 982 189184 191 5 3 190195 147 13 0 191197 935 2 9 1921104 452 6 7 1931121 866 16 7 1941130 967 7 5 1951151 776 15 9 1961218 000 43 6 1972273 000 25 2 1981555 000 103 3 1998982 816 77 1 20171 970 042 100 4 20212 203 003 11 8 Source Macrotrends 2021 124 125 DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017 PDF Report Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2017 p 13 Archived from the original PDF on 29 August 2017 Retrieved 29 March 2018 lt ref gt Census of India 1921 Population The population of Peshawar district in 1998 was 2 026 851 126 The city s annual growth rate is estimated at 3 29 per year 127 and the 2016 population of Peshawar district is estimated to be 3 405 414 128 With a population of 1 970 042 according to the 2017 census Peshawar is the sixth largest city of Pakistan 129 and the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa with a population five times higher than the second largest city in the province Language Languages by number of speakers in the Peshawar district 130 Pashto 90 17 Hindko 5 33 Urdu 1 96 Punjabi 1 08 Others 1 46 The primary native language spoken in Peshawar is Pashto while Hindko is native minority language 131 though English is used in the city s educational institutions while Urdu is understood throughout the city as the national language of the country 132 The district of Peshawar is overwhelmingly Pashto speaking though the Hindko speaking minority is concentrated in Peshawar s old city 133 Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech 134 Religion Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim with Muslims making up 98 5 of the city s population in the 1998 census 135 Christians make up the second largest religious group with around 20 000 adherents while over 7 000 members of the Ahmadiyya Community live in Peshawar 135 Hindus and Sikhs are also found in the city though most of the city s Hindu and Sikh community migrated en masse to India following the Partition of British India in 1947 Though the city s Sikh population drastically declined after Partition the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4 000 Sikh refugees from conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas 136 In 2008 the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar 137 Sikhs in Peshawar self identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue 138 There was a small but thriving Jewish community until the late 1940s After the partition and the emergence of the State of Israel Jews left for Israel 139 Afghan refugees Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of the Afghan civil war in 1978 though the rate of migration drastically increased following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 By 1980 100 000 refugees a month were entering the province 114 with 25 of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981 114 The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar s infrastructure 115 and drastically altered the city s demography 115 During the 1988 national elections an estimated 100 000 Afghans refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar 140 With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists 141 as well as a major centre of Pashto literature 142 Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar and play an important role in the city s economy 143 In recent years Peshawar district hosts up to 20 of all Afghan refugees in Pakistan 114 In 2005 Peshawar district was home to 611 501 Afghan refugees who constituted 19 7 of the district s total population 114 Peshawar s immediate environs were home to large Afghan refugee camps with Jalozai camp hosting up to 300 000 refugees in 2001 144 making it the largest refugee camp in Asia at the time 144 Afghan refugees began to be frequently accused of involvement with terrorist attacks that occurred during Pakistan s war against radical Islamists 145 By 2015 the Pakistani government adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees including many who had spent their entire life in Pakistan 145 The policy of repatriation was also encouraged by the government of Afghanistan 146 though many refugees had not registered themselves in Pakistan Unregistered refugees returning to Afghanistan without their old Afghan identification documents now have no official status in Afghanistan either 146 Economy City Center Road is the major trade zone in Peshawar Peshawar s economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to the Khyber Pass the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent passed Peshawar s economy also benefited from tourism in the mid 20th century as the city formed a crucial part of the Hippie trail Peshawar s estimated monthly per capita income was 55 246 in 2015 117 compared to 117 924 in Islamabad 117 and 66 359 in Karachi 117 Peshawar s surrounding region is also relatively poor Khyber Pakhtunkhwa s cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20 less than Pakistan s national average for urban residents 117 Peshawar was noted by the World Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship freelance jobs and technology 147 The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth Summit Archived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine an annual event to connect the city and province s youths to opportunities in the digital economy The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers and approximately 3 000 delegates in attendance 148 Industry Peshawar s Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road is an industrial zone established in the 1960s on 868 acres The industrial estate hosts furniture marble industries and food processing industries though many of its plots remain underutilized 149 The Hayatabad Industrial Estate hosts 646 industrial units in Peshawar s western suburbs though several of the units are no longer in use 150 As part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor 4 special economic zones are to be established in the province with roads electricity gas water and security to be provided by the government 150 The nearby Hattar SEZ is envisioned to provide employment to 30 000 people 150 and is being developed at a cost of approximately 200 million with completion expected in 2017 150 Employment As a result of large numbers of displaced persons in the city only 12 of Peshawar s residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012 143 Approximately 41 of residents in 2012 were employed in personal services 143 while 55 of Afghan refugees in the city in 2012 were daily wage earners 143 By 2016 Pakistan adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees Wages for unskilled workers in Peshawar grew on average 9 1 per year between 2002 and 2008 117 Following the outbreak of widespread Islamist violence in 2007 wages rose only 1 5 between 2008 and 2014 117 Real wages dropped for some skilled craftsmen during the period between 2008 and 2014 117 Constraints Peshawar s economy has been negatively impacted by political instability since 1979 resulting from the War in Afghanistan and subsequent strain on Peshawar s infrastructure from the influx of refugees 143 The poor security environment resulting from Islamist violence also impacted the city s economy With the launch of Operation Zarb e Azb in 2014 the country s security environment has drastically improved 151 The metropolitan economy suffers from poor infrastructure The city s economy has also been adversely impacted by shortages of electricity and natural gas 152 The 54 billion China Pakistan Economic Corridor will generate over 10 000 MW by 2018 153 greater than the current electricity deficit of approximately 4 500 MW 154 Peshawar will also be linked to ports in Karachi by uninterrupted motorway access while passenger and freight railway tracks will be upgraded between Peshawar and Karachi citation needed Poor transportation is estimated to cause a loss of 4 6 of the Pakistani GDP 155 Peshawar for decades has suffered from chaotic mismanaged and inadequate public transportation and the poor public transportation also has been detrimental to the city s economy 156 Therefore the government has since a new rapid bus service called BRT Peshawar covering the entire Peshawar BRT Peshawar is now believed to be one the most advanced BRT of Pakistan 157 TransportationRoad New flyovers such as this one near the suburb of Hayatabad have been constructed in recent years to improve traffic flow Peshawar s east west growth axis is centred on the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore The road is roughly paralleled by the M 1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad while the M 2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass Peshawar is to be completely encircled by the Peshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city s congested centre The road is currently under construction with some portions open to traffic The Karakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang The Indus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar with a terminus in the southern port city of Karachi via Dera Ismail Khan and northern Sindh The 1 9 km 1 2 mi Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city of Kohat along the Indus Highway Motorways Peshawar is connected to Islamabad and Rawalpindi by the 155 kilometre long M 1 Motorway The motorway also links Peshawar to major cities in the province such as Charsadda and Mardan The M 1 motorway continues onwards to Lahore as part of the M 2 motorway Pakistan s motorway network links Peshawar to Faisalabad by the M 4 Motorway while a new motorway network to Karachi is being built as part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor The Hazara Motorway is being constructed as part of CPEC and is providing control access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra and Thakot via the M 1 and Hazara Motorways Rail Peshawar Cantonment railway station serves as the terminus for Pakistan s 1 687 km 1 048 mi long Main Line 1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi and passes through the Peshawar City railway station The Peshawar to Karachi route is served by the Awam Express Khushhal Khan Khattak Express and the Khyber Mail services The entire Main Line 1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of 3 65 billion for the first phase of the project 158 with completion by 2021 159 Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour versus the average 60 to 105 km h 37 to 65 mph speed currently possible on existing tracks 160 Peshawar was also once the terminus of the Khyber Train Safari a tourist oriented train that provided rail access to Landi Kotal The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region s Taliban insurgency Air Peshawar is served by the Bacha Khan International Airport located in the Peshawar Cantonment The airport served 1 255 303 passengers between 2014 and 2015 161 the vast majority of whom were international travelers 161 The airport offers direct flights throughout Pakistan as well as to Bahrain Malaysia Qatar Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates Public transit BRT Peshawar is a modern amp third generation rapid bus service of Peshawar which has started its service on 13 August 2020 162 It has 32 stations and 220 buses which covers area from Chamkani to Karkhano Market BRT Peshawar has replaced Peshawar s old chaotic dilapidated and inadequate transportation system The system has 32 stations and is mostly at grade with four kilometres of elevated sections 163 The system also contains 3 5 kilometres of underpasses 163 BRT Peshawar is also complemented by a feeder system with an additional 100 stations along those feeder lines 157 Pakistan s of the most advanced Metro BRT system Intercity bus Peshawar is well served by private buses locally referred to as flying coaches and vans that offer frequent connections to throughout Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well as all major cities of Pakistan The city s Daewoo Express bus terminal is located along the G T Road adjacent to the departure points for several other transportation companies 164 AdministrationCivic government This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it October 2017 Politics Peshawar has historically served as the political centre of the region and is currently the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province The city and province have been historically regarded to be strongholds of the Awami National Party a secular left wing and moderate nationalist party 165 166 The Pakistan Peoples Party had also enjoyed considerable support in the province due to its socialist agenda 165 Despite being a centre for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Peshawar is still generally known throughout Pakistan for its social conservatism 167 Sunni Muslims in the city are regarded to be socially conservative 167 while the city s Shia population is considered to be more socially liberal 167 A plurality of voters in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of which Peshawar is the capital elected one of Pakistan s only religiously based provincial governments during the period of military dictatorship of Pervez Musharraf A ground swell of anti American sentiment after the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the Islamist coalition s victory 168 The Islamists introduced a range of social restrictions following the election of the Islamist Muttahida Majlis e Amal coalition in 2002 though Islamic Shariah law was never fully enacted 168 Restrictions on public musical performances were introduced as well as a ban prohibiting music to be played in any public places including on public transportation which lead to the creation of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar 169 In 2005 the coalition successfully passed the Prohibition of Use of Women in Photograph Bill 2005 170 leading to the removal of all public advertisements in Peshawar that featured women 171 The religious coalition was swept out of power by the secular and leftist Awami National Party in elections after the fall of Musharraf in 2008 168 leading to the removal of the MMA s socially conservative laws 172 62 of eligible voters voted in the election 117 The Awami National Party was targeted by Taliban militants with hundreds of its members having been assassinated by the Pakistani Taliban 173 In 2013 the centrist Pakistan Tehreek e Insaf was elected to power in the province on an anti corruption platform Peshawar city recorded a voter turnout of 80 for the 2013 elections 117 Municipal services 86 of Peshawar s households have access to municipal piped water as of 2015 117 though 39 of Peshawar s households purchase water from private companies in 2015 117 42 of Peshawar households are connected to municipal sewerage as of 2015 117 CultureMusic After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar 169 After the start of Pakistan s Taliban insurgency in 2007 2008 militants began targeting members of Peshawar s cultural establishment By 2007 Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region leading to the closure of many others 174 In 2009 Pashto musical artist Ayman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city s outskirts In June 2012 a Pashto singer Ghazala Javed and her father were killed in Peshawar after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar 175 Musicians began to return to the city by 2016 176 with a security environment greatly improved following the Operation Zarb e Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country The provincial government in 2016 announced a monthly income of 300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work 176 as well as a 5 million fund to revive the rich cultural heritage of the province 176 Museums The Peshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria The building features an amalgamation of British South Asian Hindu Buddhist and Mughal Islamic architectural styles The museum s collection has almost 14 000 items and is well known for its collection of Greco Buddhist art The museum s ancient collection features pieces from the Gandharan Kushan Parthian and Indo Scythian periods Notable peopleMain article List of people from PeshawarEducation Museum of Peshawar University FAST Peshawar Campus Main article List of universities in Peshawar Numerous educational institutes schools colleges and universities are located in Peshawar 21 6 of children between the ages of 5 and 9 were not enrolled in any school in 2013 117 while 16 6 of children in the 10 to 14 age range were out of school 117 Currently Peshawar has universities for all major disciplines ranging from Humanities General Sciences Sciences Engineering Medical Agriculture and Management Sciences The first public sector university University of Peshawar 177 UOP was established in October 1950 by the first Prime Minister of Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar 178 was established in 1980 while Agriculture University Peshawar 179 started working in 1981 The first private sector university CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences 180 was established in 1986 Institute of Management Sciences started functioning in 1995 which become degree awarding institution in 2005 181 There are currently 9 Medical colleges in Peshawar 2 in public sector while 7 in private sector 182 The first Medical College Khyber Medical College 183 was established in 1954 as part of University of Peshawar The first Medical University Khyber Medical University 184 183 while a women only Medical college Khyber Girls Medical College was established in 2007 At the start of the 21st century a host of new private sector universities started working in Peshawar Qurtuba University 185 Sarhad University of Science and IT 186 Fast University Peshawar Campus 187 and City University of Science and IT 188 were established in 2001 while Gandhara University 189 was inaugurated in 2002 and Abasyn University 190 in 2007 Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University 191 192 the first women university of Peshawar started working in 2009 while private sector IQRA National University 193 was established in 2012 Apart from good range of universities Peshawar has host of high quality further education Post School educational institutes The most renowned are Edwardes College founded in 1900 by Herbert Edwardes is the oldest college in the province and Islamia College Peshawar which was established in 1913 Islamia College became university and named as Islamia College University in 2008 194 The following is a list of some of the public and private universities and colleges in Peshawar Abasyn University Abasyn University Peshawar Agricultural University Peshawar CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences City University of Science and Information Technology Peshawar Edwardes College Forward Degree College Frontier Women University Gandhara University Government College Hayatabad Peshawar Government College Peshawar Government Girls Degree College Peshawar Government Superior Science College Peshawar IMSciences Institute of Management Sciences Iqra National University Peshawar formerly Peshawar Campus of Iqra University Karachi Islamia College University Jinnah College for Women Jinnah Medical College Khyber Girls Medical College Khyber Medical College Khyber Medical University National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences Peshawar Campus NU FAST Pakistan Forest Institute Peshawar Peshawar Medical College Preston University Qurtuba University Qurtuba University of Science amp Information Technology Rehman Medical College Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University University of Agriculture Peshawar University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar University of PeshawarLandmarksThe following is a list of other significant landmarks in the city that still exist in the 21st century General Governor s House Peshawar Garrison Club situated on Sir Syed Road near the Mall Kotla Mohsin Khan the residence of Mazullah Khan 17th century Pashtu poet Qissa Khwani Bazaar Kapoor Haveli Former residence of Prithviraj Kapoor famous actor Forts Bala Hisar Fort Colonial monuments Chowk Yadgar formerly the Hastings Memorial Cunningham clock tower built in 1900 and called Ghanta Ghar Buddhist Gorkhatri an ancient site of Buddha s alms or begging bowl and the headquarters of Syed Ahmad Shaheed Governor Avitabile Pashto Academy the site of an ancient Buddhist university Shahji ki Dheri the site of the famous Kanishka stupa Hindu Panch Tirath an ancient Hindu site with five sacred ponds Gorkhatri sacred site for Hindu yogis 195 Guru Gorkhnath temple Aasamai temple near Lady Reading Hospital LRH 196 Sikh Sikh Gurudwara at Jogan Shah Parks Army Stadium Wazir Bagh laid in 1802 by Fatteh Khan Prime Minister of Shah Mahmud Khan Ali Mardan Khan Gardens also known as Khalid bin Waleed Park formerly named Company Bagh Shahi Bagh a small portion constitutes the site of Arbab Niaz Stadium Jinnah Park A park on GT Road opposite Balahisar fort Tatara Park A Park located in Hayatabad Bagh e Naran A large park in Hayatabad A portion of the park also has a Zoo Mosques Mohabbat Khan Mosque Qasim Ali Khan Mosque Museums Peshawar Museum Zoo Peshawar ZooSportsThere are hosts of sporting facilities in Peshawar The most renowned are Arbab Niaz Stadium 197 and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium which are the International cricket grounds of Peshawar and Qayyum Stadium 198 199 which is the multi sports facilities located in Peshawar cantonment Cricket is the most popular sport in Peshawar 200 with Arbab Niaz Stadium as the main ground coupled with Cricket Academy There is also small cricket ground Peshawar Gymkhana ground 201 which is located adjacent to Arbab Niaz Stadium a popular club cricket ground The oldest international cricket ground in Peshawar however is Peshawar Club Ground which hosted the first ever test match between Pakistan and India in 1955 202 The Peshawar Zalmi represents the city in the Pakistan Super League 203 In 1975 the first sports complex Qayyum Stadium was built in Peshawar 199 while Hayatabad Sports Complex was built in the early 1990s 204 Both Qayyum Stadium and Hayatabad Sports Complexes are multiple sports complexes with facilities for all major indoor and outdoor sports such as football 205 Field Hockey ground 206 Squash Swimming Gymnasium Board Games section Wrestling Boxing and Badminton In 1991 Qayyum Stadium hosted Barcelona Olympics Qualifier Football match between Pakistan and Qatar 205 plus it also hosted National Games in 2010 207 Hockey and squash are also popular in Peshawar Professional sports teams from PeshawarClub League Sport Venue EstablishedPeshawar Zalmi Pakistan Super League Cricket Arbab Niaz Stadium 2015Peshawar Panthers National T20 League National One day Championship Cricket Arbab Niaz Stadium 2004Peshawar Haiders Super Kabaddi League Kabaddi Tehmas Khan Stadium 2018Tribe F C Peshawar Geo Super Football League Football Qayyum Stadium 2007Twin towns and sister citiesMain article List of twin towns and sister cities in Pakistan Peshawar is twinned with Makassar Indonesia 208 See alsoPortal Pakistan Peshawari chappal Peshawari turban Karkhano Kushan Empire Kanishka Bacha Khan Khudai Khidmatgar 2014 Peshawar school attack 2020 Peshawar school bombing Chapli KababReferences 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Baltistan Sang e Meel Publications p 124 ISBN 9789693516142 Within the next decade emerged the great kingdom of Gandhara under the great Kushan king Kaniskha 125 160 AD The seat of his central government was Purushpura which is today known as Peshawar Chaurasia Radhey Shyam 2002 History of Ancient India Earliest Times to 1000 A D Atlantic Publishers amp Dist p 148 ISBN 9788126900275 Kanishka s coins have been found as far as Ghaznipur and Gorakhpur These point to the wide extent of his Indian dominion which stretched from Gandhara to Banaras The eastern portion of this empire was governed by Mahakshatrapa and a Kshatrapa while the northern portion by military governors He fixed his capital at Purushpura or Peshawar which he adorned with many noble buildings The Listener Volume 39 British Broadcasting Corporation 1948 p 27 Of course the Kushan capital established by Kanishka in India was at Purushpura Peshawar not Mathura where the Saka satraps had held sway and probably continued under 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957 AD also known as the Herodotus of the Arabs for he wrote a 30 volume history of the world spelt Peshawar as Pershadwar Purshawar or Purushavar Abu Rayhan Al Biruni 973 1048 AD the Arab geographer and historian records two variants for Peshawar Purshawar and Purushavar a b c d e f g h i j Bosworth Clifford Edmund 2007 Historic Cities of the Islamic World BRILL ISBN 9789004153882 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 24 March 2017 Dani Ahmad Hasan 1995 Peshawar Historic City of the Frontier Sang e Meel Publications ISBN 9789693505542 Peshawar has long been known as the Fountier town Standing right at the mout of the world famous Khyber Pass it holds the key to the gateway of the subcontinent of Pakistan and India Pakistan Research Society of 1965 Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 3 October 2020 Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan Volume 2 Issue 1 Volume 3 Issue 2 Research Society of Pakistan 1965 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Peshawar p 102 Whereas according to Nizam ai Din Ahmad it was on the next day that Akbar sent Zain Khan Kukah with a well equipped army against the Afghans of Sawad Swat and Bajaur for the extirpation of those turbulent tubes Khwajah Nizam al Din Ahmad The Tabaqat i Akbari A History of India from the early Musalman Invasions to the thirty eight year of the reign of Akbar vol 2 trans Brajendra Nath De rev and ed Baini Prashad low Price Publications Delhi 1992 p 607 Henry Miers Elliot 21 March 2013 1867 The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period Cambridge University Press published 2013 ISBN 9781108055871 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 3 October 2020 Aykroyd Clarissa 2005 Pakistan Mason Crest Publishers ISBN 9781590848395 a b The Cambridge History of India Volume 3 CUP Archive 1928 Ahmad Hasan Dani 1999 History of Civilizations of Central Asia The crossroads of civilizations A D 250 to 750 Motilal Banarsidass Publ ISBN 9788120815407 Retrieved 29 March 2017 Richards John F 1996 Imperial expansion under Aurangzeb 1658 1869 Testing the limits of the empire the Northwest The Mughal Empire New Cambridge history of India The Mughals and their contemporaries vol 5 illustrated reprint ed Cambridge University Press pp 170 171 ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 archived from the original on 31 December 2013 retrieved 24 March 2017 Wynbrandt James 2009 A Brief History of Pakistan Infobase ISBN 9780816061846 Sharma S R 1999 Mughal Empire in India A Systematic Study Including Source Material Volume 3 Atlantic Publishers amp Dist ISBN 9788171568192 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 24 March 2017 Nadiem Ihsan H 2007 Peshawar heritage history monuments Sang e Meel ISBN 9789693519716 Alikuzai Hamid Wahed October 2013 A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes Volume 14 ISBN 9781490714417 Archived from the original on 27 November 2021 Retrieved 29 December 2014 Hanifi Shah 11 February 2011 Connecting Histories in Afghanistan Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 7777 3 Archived from the original on 15 August 2021 Retrieved 13 December 2012 Timur Shah transferred the Durrani capital from Qandahar during the period of 1775 and 1776 Kabul and Peshawar then shared time as the dual capital cities of Durrani the former during the summer and the latter during the winter season Caroe Olaf 1957 The Pathans a b c d e f g h i Hopkins B 2008 The Making of Modern Afghanistan Springer ISBN 9780230228764 a b c d e Dani Ahmad Hasan 2003 History of Civilizations of Central Asia Development in contrast from the sixteenth to the mid nineteenth century UNESCO ISBN 9789231038761 Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia 2 Volumes By Alexander Mikaberidze https www google co in books edition Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic Wor jBBYD2J2oE4C hl en amp gbpv 1 Page 43 The Marathas assisted by Sikhs defeated the Afghans and captured Attock Peshwar and Multan in the spring of 1758 https www google co in books edition Chhatrapati Shivaji ngCqCQAAQBAJ hl en amp gbpv 1 amp dq Peshawar 1758 wikipedia amp pg PA22 amp printsec frontcover Page 22 a b https www google co in books edition Chhatrapati Shivaji ngCqCQAAQBAJ hl en amp gbpv 1 amp dq 22Battle of Peshawar 22 1758 amp pg PP1 amp printsec frontcover Page 37 Black Jeremy 7 December 2012 War in the Eighteenth Century World Macmillan International Higher Education ISBN 978 0 230 37000 5 https www google co in books edition Marathas and Panipat TmU9AAAAMAAJ hl en amp gbpv 0 amp bsq Peshawar 201758 20 wikipedia Page 94 a b c Mehta Jaswant Lal 2005 Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707 1813 New Dawn Press Incorporated pp 236 256 260 ISBN 9781932705546 The province of Multan and northwest frontier were also overrun by Marathas and the forts of Peshawar and Attock were garrisoned by their troops a b c Barua Pradeep 2005 The state at war in South Asia University of Nebraska Press p 55 ISBN 9780803213449 The Marathas attacked soon after and with some help from the Sikhs managed to capture Attock Peshawar and Multan between April and May 1758 Pletcher Kenneth 2010 The History of India Britannica Educational Pub p 198 ISBN 9781615301225 https www google co in books edition The State at War in South Asia FIIQhuAOGaIC hl en amp gbpv 0 Page 55 managed to capture Attock Peshawar and Multan between April and May a b Third Battle of Panipat by Abhas Verma ISBN 9788180903397 Bharatiya Kala Prakashan Sharma S R 1999 Mughal Empire in India A Systematic Study Including Source Material Atlantic Publishers amp Dist ISBN 978 81 7156 817 8 War Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia 1740 1849 Roy Kaushik 2004 India s Historic Battles From Alexander the Great to Kargil Permanent Black India pp 80 1 ISBN 978 8178241098 S R Sharma 1999 Mughal empire in India a systematic study including source material Atlantic Publishers amp Dist p 763 ISBN 978 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West Pakistan By Mohammad Asif Khan 1 Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine The North West Frontier Province was separated from Punjab Province in 1901 The Frontier Town of Peshawar A Brief History by Sayed Amjad Hussain APP 24 April 2008 PESHAWAR Qissa Khwani martyrs remembered DAWN The Internet Edition DAWN Media Group Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 Retrieved 13 December 2012 Papers in language and linguistics Volume 1 Bahri Publications 1986 p 50 Essentially what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko speaking Hindus and Sikhs The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan Christian Study Centre p 38 Shackle suggests Hindko simply means Indian language and describes it as a collective label for the variety of Indo Aryan dialects either alongside or in vicinity of Pushto in the northwest of the country Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP represented in nearly one fifth 18 7 of the province s total households The Influence of Pushto on Hazara appears to have become more pronounced due in part to an Influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko speaking Sikhs and Hindus who formerly held key trading positions and who departed at independence Dani Ahmad Hasan 1995 Peshawar Historic City of the Frontier Sang e Meel Publications ISBN 9789693505542 Retrieved 14 June 2017 peshawar independence The Lonely Planet Journey The Hippie Trail The Independent 5 November 2011 Archived from the original on 15 June 2017 Retrieved 14 June 2017 a b c d e f Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit January 2006 AFGHANS IN PESHAWAR Migration Settlements and Social Networks PDF Collective for Social Science Research United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Archived PDF from the original on 5 April 2017 Retrieved 5 April 2017 a b c d HAIDER MURTAZA 20 June 2012 Of refugees cities 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June 2007 Peshawar underground It s difficult to be a rock star in the land the epitomises conservatism yet something shocking is happening There is a rock scene waiting to burst out of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rahim Shah was just the beginning Sajid and Zeeshan were proof that originality can spring out of unlikely places and there are others who are making their riffs and ragas heard slowly but surely The News on Sunday Instep Archived from the original on 25 August 2012 Retrieved 13 December 2012 Clarke Michael E Misra Ashutosh 1 March 2013 Pakistan s Stability Paradox Domestic Regional and International Dimensions Routledge ISBN 9781136639340 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 6 April 2017 PESHAWAR Advertisers forced to deface billboards Dawn 3 May 2006 Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 Retrieved 6 April 2017 Musicians in Pakistan s northwest long for better times Reuters 15 March 2008 Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 Retrieved 7 April 2017 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24 December 2010 Archived from the original on 24 December 2017 Retrieved 24 December 2017 Farooq Umer 6 January 2012 Indonesia seeking to enhance trade with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa The Express Tribune The Express Tribune News Network Archived from the original on 6 January 2019 Retrieved 13 December 2012 Bibliography See also Bibliography of the history of Peshawar Ahmad Aisha and Boase Roger 2003 Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan Afghan Frontier From the Pakistan Afghan Frontier Saqi Books 1 March 2003 ISBN 0 86356 438 0 Beal Samuel 1884 Si Yu Ki Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang 2 vols Trans by Samuel Beal London Reprint Delhi Oriental Books Reprint Corporation 1969 Beal Samuel 1911 The Life of Hiuen Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I Tsing Trans by Samuel Beal London 1911 Reprint Munshiram Manoharlal New Delhi 1973 Dani Ahmad Hasan 1985 Peshawar Archived 27 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Historic city of the Frontier Sang e Meel Publications 1995 ISBN 969 35 0554 9 Dobbins K Walton 1971 The Stupa and Vihara of Kanishka I The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series Vol XVIII Calcutta Elphinstone Mountstuart 1815 An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia Tartary and India comprising a view of the Afghaun nation Akadem Druck u Verlagsanst 1969 Foucher M A 1901 Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhara commentaire a un chaptaire de Hiuen Tsang BEFEO No 4 Oct 1901 pp 322 369 Hargreaves H 1910 11 Excavations at Shah ji ki Dheri Archaeological Survey of India 1910 11 pp 25 32 Hill John E 2003 Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu Archived 6 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine 2nd Draft Edition Hill John E 2004 The Peoples of the West from the Weilue Archived 23 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft annotated English translation Hopkirk Peter 1984 The Great Game The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia Kodansha Globe Reprint edition ISBN 1 56836 022 3 Moorcroft William and Trebeck George 1841 Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab in Ladakh and Kashmir in Peshawar Kabul Kunduz and Bokhara from 1819 to 1825 Vol II Reprint New Delhi Sagar Publications 1971 Reeves Richard 1985 Passage to Peshawar Pakistan Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea Holiday House September 1985 ISBN 0 671 60539 9 Imran Imran Rashid 2006 Baghaat i Peshawar Sarhad Conservation Network July 2006 Imran Imran Rashid 2012 Peshawar Faseel e Shehr aur Darwazay Sarhad Conservation Network March 2012 External linksPeshawar at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Peshawar travel guide from Wikivoyage Peshawar at Curlie Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Peshawar amp oldid 1134191968, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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