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Ganges

April 22, 2023

This article is about the river. For other uses, see Ganges (disambiguation), Ganga (disambiguation), and Ganga (goddess).

The Ganges (/ˈɡændʒiːz/ GAN-jeez) (in India: Ganga (/ˈɡʌŋɡə/ GUNG-ə); in Bangladesh: Padma (/ˈpʌdmə/ PUD-mə))[5][6][7][8] is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through Bangladesh and India. The 2,525 km (1,569 mi) river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It flows south and east through the Gangetic plain of North India, receiving the right-bank tributary, the Yamuna, which also rises in the western Indian Himalayas, and several left-bank tributaries from Nepal that account for the bulk of its flow.[9][10] In West Bengal state, India, a feeder canal taking off from its right bank diverts 50% of its flow southwards, artificially connecting it to the Hooghly river. The Ganges continues into Bangladesh, its name changing to the Padma. It is then joined by the Jamuna, the lower stream of the Brahmaputra, and eventually the Meghna, forming the major estuary of the Ganges Delta, and emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the second largest river on earth by discharge.[11][12]

Ganges
Ganga (India)
Padma (Bangladesh)
The Ganges in Varanasi
Map of the combined drainage basins of the Ganges (yellow), Brahmaputra (violet) and Meghna (green)
EtymologyGanga (goddess)
Location
CountryIndia (as Ganga), Bangladesh (as Padma)
CitiesUttarakhand: Rishikesh, Haridwar

Uttar Pradesh: Fatehgarh, Bijnor, Kannauj, Hardoi, Bithoor, Kasganj, Kanpur, Prayagraj, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Ballia, Lucknow (Gomti tributary), Farrukhabad, Narora

Bihar: Begusarai, Bhagalpur, Patna, Vaishali, Munger, Khagaria, Katihar

Jharkhand: Sahibganj

West Bengal: Murshidabad, Palashi, Nabadwip, Shantipur, Kolkata, Uttarpara, Baranagar, Diamond Harbour, Haldia, Budge Budge, Howrah, Uluberia, Barrackpore

Delhi: (Yamuna) tributary

Rajshahi Division: Rajshahi, Pabna, Ishwardi

Dhaka Division: Dhaka, Narayanganj, Gazipur, Munshiganj, Faridpur

Chittagong Division: Chandpur, Noakhali

Barisal Division: Bhola
Physical characteristics
SourceConfluence at Devprayag, Uttarakhand of the Alaknanda river (the source stream in hydrology because of its greater length) and the Bhagirathi river (the source stream in Hindu tradition). The headwaters of the river include: Mandakini, Nandakini, Pindar and the Dhauliganga, all tributaries of the Alaknanda.[1]
 • locationDevprayag, the beginning of the main stem of the Ganges
MouthBay of Bengal
 • location
Ganges Delta
Length2,525 km (1,569 mi)[2]
Basin size1,999,000 km2 (772,000 sq mi)[3]
Discharge 
 • locationMouth of the Ganges (Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna; Basin size 1,999,000 km2 (772,000 sq mi), Bay of Bengal[3]
 • average38,129 m3/s (1,346,500 cu ft/s)[4] to

43,900 m3/s (1,550,000 cu ft/s)[3]

1,389 km3/a (44,000 m3/s)
Discharge 
 • locationGanges Delta, Bay of Bengal
 • average18,691 m3/s (660,100 cu ft/s)[3]
Discharge 
 • locationFarakka Barrage[4]
 • average16,648 m3/s (587,900 cu ft/s)
 • minimum180 m3/s (6,400 cu ft/s)
 • maximum70,000 m3/s (2,500,000 cu ft/s)
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftRamganga, Garra, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda, Brahmaputra, Meghna
 • rightYamuna, Tamsa (also called Tons), Karamnasa, Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan

Coordinates: 25°18′N 83°01′E / 25.30°N 83.01°E / 25.30; 83.01

The main stem of the Ganges begins at the town of Devprayag,[1] at the confluence of the Alaknanda, which is the source stream in hydrology on account of its greater length, and the Bhagirathi, which is considered the source stream in Hindu Mythology.

The Ganges is a lifeline to millions of people who live in its basin and depend on it for their daily needs.[13][14] It has been important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals such as Pataliputra,[15] Kannauj,[15] Kara, Munger, Kashi, Patna, Hajipur, Delhi, Bhagalpur, Murshidabad, Baharampur, Kampilya, and Kolkata located on its banks or the banks of tributaries and connected waterways. The river is home to approximately 140 species of fish, 90 species of amphibians, and also reptiles and mammals, including critically endangered species such as the gharial and South Asian river dolphin.[16] The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus.[17] It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism.[18]

The Ganges is threatened by severe pollution. This poses a danger not only to humans but also to animals. The levels of fecal coliform bacteria from human waste in the river near Varanasi are more than a hundred times the Indian government's official limit.[16] The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been considered a failure[a][b][19] which is variously attributed to corruption, a lack of will in the government, poor technical expertise,[c] poor environmental planning[d] and a lack of support from religious authorities.[e]

Course

 
Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.
 
Devprayag, confluence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left), and beginning of the Ganges proper.
 
The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges River in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, India.
 
The Gandhi Setu Bridge across the Ganges in Patna, Bihar
 
A sailboat on the main distributary of the Ganges in Bangladesh, the Padma river.
 
The Ganges delta in a 2020 satellite image.
 
The Ganges at Sultanganj.

The upper phase of the river Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. The Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and therefore, hydrologically the source stream.[20][21] The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snow melt from peaks such as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gomukh, at an elevation of 4,356 m (14,291 ft) and being mythologically referred to as residing in the matted locks of Shiva; symbolically Tapovan, which is a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling, just 5 km (3.1 mi) away.[22][23]

Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini and Bhagirathi. Their confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins; Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges.[20]

After flowing for 256.90 km (159.63 mi)[23] through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar.[20] At Haridwar, a dam diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.

The Ganges river follows a 900 km (560 mi) arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an average annual flow of about 495 m3/s (17,500 cu ft/s) to the river.[24] The Ganges joins the 1,444 km (897 mi) long River Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Prayagraj(previously Allahabad), a confluence considered holy in Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges contributing about 58.5% of the combined flow,[25] with an average flow of 2,948 m3/s (104,100 cu ft/s).[24]

Now flowing east, the river meets the 400 km (250 mi) long Tamsa River (also called Tons), which flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about 187 m3/s (6,600 cu ft/s). After the Tamsa, the 625 km (388 mi) long Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about 234 m3/s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the 1,156 km (718 mi) long Ghaghara River (Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Tibet through Nepal joins. The Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about 2,991 m3/s (105,600 cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge. After the Ghaghara confluence, the Ganges is joined from the south by the 784 km (487 mi) long Son River, which contributes about 1,008 m3/s (35,600 cu ft/s). The 814 km (506 mi) long Gandaki River, then the 729 km (453 mi) long Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about 1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge, after Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.[24] The Kosi merges into the Ganges near Kursela in Bihar.

Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges river passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Ara, Patna, Chapra, Hajipur, Mokama, Begusarai, Munger, Sahibganj, Rajmahal, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Farakka. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Farakka, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the 408 km (254 mi) long Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes on to become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls the flow of Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Ajay River at Katwa, and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar River, which is 625 km (388 mi) long, with a drainage basin of 25,820 km2 (9,970 sq mi).[26] The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.[27] Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.

After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges river is known as the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Jamuna River, the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Padma joins the Meghna River, the converged flow of Surma-Meghna River System taking on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal. Here it forms the 1,430 by 3,000 km (890 by 1,860 mi) Bengal Fan, the world's largest submarine fan,[28] which alone accounts for 10–20% of the global burial of organic carbon.[29]

The Ganges Delta, formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about 64,000 km2 (25,000 sq mi).[30] It stretches 400 km (250 mi) along the Bay of Bengal.[31]

Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.[31] In full flood only the Amazon is larger.[32]

Geology

The Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[33] Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, it began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[33] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.[33] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries,[34] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[35]

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin.[36]

Hydrology

 
A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.

Major left-bank tributaries include the Gomti River, Ghaghara River, Gandaki River and Kosi River; major right-bank tributaries include the Yamuna River, Son River, Punpun and Damodar. The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region. One result is different ways to determine the river's length, its discharge, and the size of its drainage basin.

 
The River Ganges at Kolkata, with Howrah Bridge in the background
 
Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh

The name Ganges is used for the river between the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the first bifurcation of the river, near the Farakka Barrage and the India-Bangladesh Border. The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over 2,600 km (1,600 mi) long, about 2,601 km (1,616 mi),[37] 2,525 km (1,569 mi)[25][38] or 2,650 km (1,650 mi).[39] In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.[25][37][38][39] Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.[40]

In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given by its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about 2,704 km (1,680 mi), if taken from the source of the Bhagirathi,[30] or 2,321.50 km (1,442.51 mi), if from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth.[41] In other cases the length is said to be about 2,304 km (1,432 mi), from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to Padma.[42]

For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi.[43] The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about 1,080,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi), of which 861,000 km2 (332,000 sq mi) is in India (about 80%), 140,000 km2 (54,000 sq mi) in Nepal (13%), 46,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi) in China (3%).[44] Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi)[32] or 1,621,000 km2 (626,000 sq mi).[31] The combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.[45]

The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin.[46] The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are Kangchenjunga,[47] Lhotse,[48] Makalu,[49] Cho Oyu,[50] Dhaulagiri,[51] Manaslu,[52] Annapurna[53] and Shishapangma.[54] The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.[citation needed]

The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a total average annual discharge of about 38,000 m3/s (1,300,000 cu ft/s),[31] or 42,470 m3/s (1,500,000 cu ft/s).[30] In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about 16,650 m3/s (588,000 cu ft/s) for the Ganges, about 19,820 m3/s (700,000 cu ft/s) for the Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s) for the Meghna.[38]

 
Hardinge Bridge, Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River. It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges.

The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded 70,000 m3/s (2,500,000 cu ft/s).[55] The minimum recorded at the same place was about 180 m3/s (6,400 cu ft/s), in 1997.[56]

The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest Monsoon. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, streamflow in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region.[42] The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and floods. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.[56]

In the Ganges Delta, many large rivers come together, both merging and bifurcating in a complicated network of channels. The two largest rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining the Bay of Bengal. But this current channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have often changed course, sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.

Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the Adi Ganga. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the 16th century, the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges.[27] It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River. By the end of the 18th century, the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges.[30] One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges now joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna was formed very recently, about 150 years ago.[57]

Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, significantly altering its relationship with the Ganges. In 1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River, which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges-Padma River. The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course, an avulsion, shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River. It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma. During ancient times, the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.[58] The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality of Langalbandh, is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence is a major early historic site called Wari-Bateshwar.[59]

In the rainy season of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again and was nearly of the same size as the upper channel but both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel.[60]

History

The first European traveller to mention the Ganges was the Greek envoy Megasthenes (ca. 350–290 BCE). He did so several times in his work Indica: "India, again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges. Now this river, which at its source is 30 stadia broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the Gangaridai, a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants." (Diodorus II.37).[61]

In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage. The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to 1,100 m3/s (39,000 cu ft/s) of water from the Ganges to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary to restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata. It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow would be around 1,400 to 1,600 m3/s (49,000 to 57,000 cu ft/s), thus leaving 280 to 420 m3/s (9,900 to 14,800 cu ft/s) for the then East Pakistan.[62] East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed with Bangladesh. The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence, they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than 2,000 m3/s (71,000 cu ft/s) then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s) for alternating ten-day periods. However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water. In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever, 180 m3/s (6,400 cu ft/s). Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts were made to address the problem. One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka. This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the Ganges.[f]

Religious and cultural significance

See also: Ganga in Hinduism

Embodiment of sacredness

 
Chromolithograph, Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges, by William Simpson, 1867

The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters,[63] paying homage to their ancestors and their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it, and letting it fall back into the river; they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).[63] On the journey back home from the Ganges, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals; Ganga Jal, literally "the water of the Ganges".[64]

The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology.[65] Local rivers are said to be like the Ganges and are sometimes called the local Ganges.[65] The Godavari River of Maharashtra in Western India is called the Ganges of the South or the 'Dakshin Ganga'; the Godavari is the Ganges that was led by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India.[65] The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual and is therefore present in all sacred waters.[65] Despite this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous tirthas such as Varanasi, Gangotri, Haridwar, or the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad.[65] The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindus, even their skeptics, have agreed upon.[66] Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges.[66] "The Ganga", he wrote in his will, "is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga."[66]

Avatarana - Descent of Ganges

 
Descent of Ganga, painting by Raja Ravi Varma c. 1910

In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the karunasiri and the rise of the Ganges from earth to heaven.[67] The day of the celebration, Ganga Dashahara, the Dashami (tenth day) of the waxing moon of the Hindu calendar month Jyestha, brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river.[67] A dip in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit "ten"; hara = to destroy) or ten lifetimes of sins.[67] Those who cannot journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.[67]

The karunasiri is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story.[67] In the Vedic version, Indra, the Lord of Swarga (Heaven) slays the celestial serpent, Vritra, releasing the celestial liquid, soma, or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.[67]

In the Vaishnava version of the myth, the heavenly waters were then a river called Vishnupadi (Sanskrit: "from the foot of Vishnu").[67] As Lord Vishnu as the avatar Vamana completes his celebrated three strides —of earth, sky, and heaven— he stubs his toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole and releases the Vishnupadi, which until now had been circling the cosmic egg.[68] Flowing out of the vault, she plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by Dhruva, once a steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the Pole star.[68] Next, she streams across the sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon.[68] She then flows down earthwards to Brahma's realm, a divine lotus atop Mount Meru, whose petals form the earthly continents.[68] There, the divine waters break up, with one stream, the Bhagirathi, flowing down one petal into Bharatvarsha (India) as the Ganges.[68]

It is Shiva, however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of the avatarana story.[69] Told and retold in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and several Puranas, the story begins with a sage, Kapila, whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara. Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld. Only the waters of the Ganges, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their salvation. A descendant of these sons, King Bhagiratha, anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganges's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to receive the Ganges in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. The Ganges descends is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganges Sagar (Ganges delta), where she meets the ocean, sinks to the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.[69] In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the avatarana, the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, "of Bhagiratha").[69]

Redemption of the Dead

 
Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi, 1903. The dead are being bathed, wrapped in cloth, and covered with wood. The photograph has a caption, "Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven."

As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth, she is also considered the vehicle of ascent, from earth to heaven.[70] As the Triloka-patha-gamini, (Sanskrit: triloka = "three worlds", patha = "road", gamini = "one who travels") of the Hindu tradition, she flows in heaven, earth, and the netherworld, and, consequently, is a "tirtha" or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead.[70] It is for this reason that the story of the avatarana is told at Shraddha ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in Vedic rituals after death.[70] Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipper's wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters.[70] The Gangashtakam expresses this longing fervently:[70]

O Mother! ... Necklace adorning the worlds!
Banner rising to heaven!
I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,
Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,
Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.[71]

No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or Mahashmshana.[70] Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.[72] If the death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges.[72] If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar "fortnight of the ancestors" in the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin (September or October), and performing the Shraddha rites.[72]

Hindus also perform pinda pradana, a rite for the dead, in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.[73] Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for each relative.[73] Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the Mahabharata, in one of its popular ślokas, says, "If only (one) bone of a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell honoured in heaven."[74] As if to illustrate this truism, the Kashi Khanda (Varanasi Chapter) of the Skanda Purana recounts the remarkable story of Vahika, a profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest. His soul arrives before Yama, the Lord of Death, to be judged for the afterworld. Having no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to hell. While this is happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of whom flies away with a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below. Blessed by this event, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.[75]

The Purifying Ganges

 
Women and children at a bathing ghat on the Ganges in Banares (Varanasi), 1885.

Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.[76] Regardless of all scientific understanding of its waters, the Ganges is always ritually and symbolically pure in Hindu culture.[76] Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganga.[77] Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away.[77] The swiftly moving Ganga, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain to not be carried away, is especially purifying.[77] What the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.[77]

A popular paean to the Ganga is the Ganga Lahiri composed by a 17th-century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his Hindu Brahmin caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman. Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort. Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous Panchganga Ghat in Varanasi. As he recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises one step until in the end it envelops the lovers and carries them away.[77] "I come to you as a child to his mother", begins the Ganga Lahiri.[78]

I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.
I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest.
I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.
I come undone by disease to you, the perfect physician.
I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of sweet wine.
Do with me whatever you will.[78]

Consort, Shakti, and Mother

Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.[79] As Brahma's partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his kamandalu (water-pot).[79] She is also Vishnu's consort.[79] Not only does she emanate from his foot as Vishnupadi in the avatarana story, but is also, with Sarasvati and Lakshmi, one of his co-wives.[79] In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other. They curse each other to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human worshippers. Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He orders Sarasvati to become the wife of Brahma, Ganga to become the wife of Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own wife. Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him.[80]

 
Shiva, as Gangadhara, bearing the Descent of the Ganges, as the goddess Parvati, the sage Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look on (circa 1740).

It is Shiva's relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known in Ganges mythology.[81] Her descent, the avatarana is not a one-time event, but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.[81] Shiva, is depicted in Hindu iconography as Gangadhara, the "Bearer of the Ganga", with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.[81] The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.[81] Shiva is sometimes called Uma-Ganga-Patiswara ("Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga"), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known consort.[81]

Ganga is the shakti or the moving, restless, rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.[79] As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.[79] The war-god Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the Kashi Khand of the Skanda Purana in these words:[79]

One should not be amazed ... that this Ganges is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?
This Ganges, filled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.
Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers, filled with water.[79]

The Ganga is also the mother, the Ganga Mata (mata="mother") of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.[78] Unlike other goddesses, she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though she might be as a river in nature.[78] She is also a mother to other gods.[82] She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed from the fire-god Agni, which is too hot for this world and cools it in her waters.[82] This union produces Skanda, or Kartikeya, the god of war.[82] In the Mahabharata, she is the wife of Shantanu, and the mother of heroic warrior-patriarch, Bhishma.[82] When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.[82]

The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.[79] As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (avahana) at the beginning and dismissal (visarjana) at the end, required in the worship of other gods.[79] Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.[79]

Ganges in classical Indian iconography

Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was associated with fecundity, its redeeming waters, and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks.[83] A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer, the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form.[84] By the 5th century CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges, now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers of India.[85] Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within.[86] As protector of the sanctum sanctorum, the goddess soon came to be depicted with several characteristic accessories: the makara (a crocodile-like undersea monster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the kumbha (an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.[87]

Central to the goddess's visual identification is the makara, which is also her vahana, or mount. An ancient symbol in India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art.[87] The makara has a dual symbolism. On the one hand, it represents the life-affirming waters and plants of its environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of the unknown which it elicits by lurking in those waters, and real fear which it instils by appearing in sight.[87] The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the makara with Ganga is at the Udayagiri Caves in Central India (circa 400 CE). Here, in the Cave V, flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts, makara and kurma (a turtle or tortoise).[87]

The makara is often accompanied by a gana, a small boy or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the Gupta period relief from Besnagar, Central India, in the left-most frame above.[88] The gana represents both posterity and development (udbhava).[88] The pairing of the fearsome, life-destroying makara with the youthful, life-affirming gana speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself. Although she has provided sustenance to millions, she has also brought hardship, injury, and death by causing major floods along her banks.[89] The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant, who carries a cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for support.[86] (See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.)

The purna kumbha or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography.[90] Appearing first also in the relief in the Udayagiri Caves (5th century), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured.[90] By the 7th century it had become an established feature, as seen, for example, in the Dashavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (7th century), the Trimurti temple, Badoli, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, and at the Lakshmaneshwar temple, Kharod, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh,[90] (9th or 10th century), and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames. Worshipped even today, the full pot is emblematic of the formless Brahman, as well as of woman, of the womb, and of birth.[91] Furthermore, The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's pot, containing the celestial waters.[91]

In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves.[92] However, soon the tree cover had evolved into a chatra or parasol held by an attendant, for example, in the 7th-century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh.[92] (The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame 4, but the rest has broken off.) The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (9th or 10th century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped,[92] and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.[92]

As the iconography evolved, sculptors, especially in central India, were producing animated scenes of the goddess, replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe.[93] A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above, is described in Pal 1997, p. 43 as follows:

A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue. Following the iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully on her composite makara mount and holds a water pot. The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag, and a ... female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol. The fourth figure is a male guardian. Often in such reliefs, the makara's tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water.[86]

Kumbh Mela

 
A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River. Kumbh Mela at Allahabad, 2001.
Main article: Kumbh Mela

Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River. The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 3 years, the Ardh (half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Allahabad,[94] the Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years[95] at four places (Triveni Sangam (Allahabad), Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik). The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Allahabad.[95]

The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks of the river. Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized. Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages.[96][97] Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this. The sadhus are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions. Some called naga sanyasis, may not wear any clothes.[98]

[99]

Irrigation

The Ganges and its all tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have been used for irrigation since ancient times.[100] Dams and canals were common in the Gangetic plain by the 4th century BCE.[101] The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge hydroelectric potential, on the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could easily be harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.[102]

Canals

 
Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar (1860). Photograph by Samuel Bourne.

Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during the 3rd century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the Gangetic plain. Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), an advisor to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya Empire, included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during the war.[101] Firuz Shah Tughlaq had many canals built, the longest of which, 240 km (150 mi), was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River. Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century. It fell into disuse until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal, under British control. The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects.[100]

 
The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Haridwar and its confluences with the Jumna (Yamuna) River in Etawah and with the Ganges in Cawnpore (now Kanpur).

The first British canal in India (which did not have Indian antecedents) was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854.[103] Contemplated first by Col. John Russell Colvin in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley, who balked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the Agra famine of 1837–38, during which the East India Company's administration spent Rs. 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's budget-conscious Court of Directors. In 1839, the Governor General of India, Lord Auckland, with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire Doab region.[104]

The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short-lived. Auckland's successor as Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough, appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, Lord Hardinge, was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the North-Western Provinces, with James Thomason as Lt. Governor, and in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing. A 560 km (350 mi) long canal, with another 480 km (300 mi) of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Haridwar, splitting into two branches below Aligarh, and its two confluences with the Yamuna (Jumna in map) mainstem in Etawah and the Ganges in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map). The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.[105] According to historian Ian Stone:

It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania Canal.

Dams and barrages

A major barrage at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975,[106] It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past Kolkata. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a 42 km (26 mi) long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.[107] Indo-Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh.[106] There is Lav Khush Barrage across the River Ganges in Kanpur.

Tehri Dam was constructed on Bhagirathi River, a tributary of the Ganges. It is located 1.5 km downstream of Ganesh Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is called the Ganges after Devprayag.[108] Construction of the dam in an earthquake-prone area[109] was controversial.[110]

Bansagar Dam was built on the Sone River, a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.[111] Ganges floodwaters along with Brahmaputra waters can be supplied to most of its right side basin area along with central and south India by constructing a coastal reservoir to store water on the Bay of Bengal sea area.

Economy

 
A girl selling plastic containers in Haridwar for carrying Ganges water.

The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds, potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and lakes provides a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Also, the major industrial towns of Unnao and Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.[112]

Tourism

Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to Hinduism—Haridwar, Allahabad (Prayagraj), and Varanasi—attract millions of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges are also popular for river rafting in the town of Rishikesh, attracting adventure seekers in the summer months. Several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and Patna have also developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists.[113][114][115][116]

Ecology and environment

 
Ganges from Space

Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas. Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan foothills and including Rajaji National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and Dudhwa National Park.[117] As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), Bengal tigers (Panthera t. tigris), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), gaurs (Bos gaurus), barasinghas (Rucervus duvaucelii), sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) and Indian lions (Panthera leo leo).[117] In the 21st century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, wild boars, wildcats, and small numbers of Indian wolves, golden jackals, and red and Bengal foxes. Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.[20] The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.[118] The Sundarbans mangroves (Heritiera fomes) also grow in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.[119] Threatened mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis).[117]

 
Lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus)

Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as myna, Psittacula parakeets, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. Ducks and snipes migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.[20] There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus) are considered globally threatened.[117]

The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty. There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal (Shorea robusta) as a climax species.[117]

A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain, which includes the lower Brahmaputra River. The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera, Duabanga grandiflora, and Sterculia vilosa. There are early seral forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal (Shorea robusta) if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.[120] The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these are less than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi).[120] The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a number of other species such as the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) and the large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha).[120]

Fish

 
The catla (Catla catla) is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges

It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage, including several endemics.[121] In a major 2007–2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin (including the river itself and its tributaries, but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins), a total of 143 fish species were recorded, including 10 non-native introduced species.[122] The most diverse orders are Cypriniformes (barbs and allies), Siluriformes (catfish) and Perciformes (perciform fish), each comprising about 50%, 23% and 14% of the total fish species in the drainage.[122]

There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin, but Cyprinidae is the most diverse throughout. In the upper section (roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand) more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80% those, followed by Balitoridae (about 15.6%) and Sisoridae (about 12.2%).[122] Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above 2,400–3,000 m (7,900–9,800 ft) above sea level are generally without fish. Typical genera approaching this altitude are Schizothorax, Tor, Barilius, Nemacheilus and Glyptothorax.[122] About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin (roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar) and more than 55% of these are in family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 10.6%) and Clupeidae (about 8.6%).[122] The lower section (roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal) includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species. About 46% of these are in the family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 11.4%) and Bagridae (about 9%).[122]

The Ganges basin supports major fisheries, but these have declined in recent decades. In the Allahabad region in the middle section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 424.91 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 38.58 metric tons in 2001–2006, and catches of catfish fell from 201.35 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 40.56 metric tons in 2001–2006.[122] In the Patna region in the lower section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 383.2 metric tons to 118, and catfish from 373.8 metric tons to 194.48.[122] Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include catla (Catla catla), golden mahseer (Tor putitora), tor mahseer (Tor tor), rohu (Labeo rohita), walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), pangas catfish (Pangasius pangasius), goonch catfish (Bagarius), snakeheads (Channa), bronze featherback (Notopterus notopterus) and milkfish (Chanos chanos).[20][122]

The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being overfishing (sometimes illegal), pollution, water abstraction, siltation and invasive species.[122] Among the threatened species is the critically endangered Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus).[123] Several fish species migrate between different sections of the river, but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams.[122]

Crocodilians and turtles

 
The threatened gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a large fish-eating crocodilian that is harmless to humans[124]

The main sections of the Ganges River are home to the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), and the Ganges delta is home to the saltwater crocodile (C. porosus). Among the numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the northern river terrapin (Batagur baska; only in the lowermost section of the basin), three-striped roofed turtle (B. dhongoka), red-crowned roofed turtle (B. kachuga), black pond turtle (Geoclemys hamiltonii), Brahminy river turtle (Hardella thurjii), Indian black turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Indian eyed turtle (Morenia petersi), brown roofed turtle (Pangshura smithii), Indian roofed turtle (Pangshura tecta), Indian tent turtle (Pangshura tentoria), Indian flapshell turtle (Lissemys punctata), Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra indica), Indian softshell turtle (Nilssonia gangetica), Indian peacock softshell turtle (N. hurum) and Cantor's giant softshell turtle (Pelochelys cantorii; only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin).[125] Most of these are seriously threatened.[125]

Ganges river dolphin

 
The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.

The river's most famed faunal member is the freshwater Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica),[117] which has been declared India's national aquatic animal.[126]

This dolphin used to exist in large schools near urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers but is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction. Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganges' main tributaries.[e] A recent survey by the World Wildlife Fund found only 3,000 left in the water catchment of both river systems.[127]

The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true freshwater dolphins in the world. The other four are the baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) of the Yangtze River in China, now likely extinct; the Indus River dolphin of the Indus River in Pakistan; the Amazon river dolphin of the Amazon River in South America; and the Araguaian river dolphin (not considered a separate species until 2014[128]) of the Araguaia–Tocantins basin in Brazil. There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes.[120]

Effects of climate change

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:

Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world. ... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows ... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.[129]

In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river were at risk of melting by 2035.[130] The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction, as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer-reviewed finding.[g] In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming (with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin). Many studies have suggested that climate change will affect the water resources in the Ganges river basin including increased summer (monsoon) flow, and peak runoff could result in an increased risk of flooding.[131]

Pollution and environmental concerns

Main article: Pollution of the Ganges
 
Burning ghats in Varanasi; the ashes of the dead are released along the banks of the Ganges.[132]
 
People bathing and washing clothes along the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi

The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels,[133] caused by the 400 million people who live close to the river.[134][135] Sewage from many cities along the river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas.[19][136][137] The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.[136] The World Bank estimates that the health costs of water pollution in India equal three percent of India's GDP.[h] It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to water-borne diseases.[e]

Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a "holy dip" in the Ganges, releases around 200 million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria.[136] According to official standards, water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, yet upstream of Varanasi's ghats the river water already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.[138][139]

After the cremation of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats, the bones and ashes are immersed into the Ganges. However, in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during cholera epidemics, spreading the disease. Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with leprosy or chicken pox, people who have been bitten by snakes, people who have committed suicide, the poor, and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are left to float free, to decompose in the waters. In addition, those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind a lot of half-burned body parts.[140][141]

After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5 million,[138][139] with observed peak values of 100 million per 100 ml.[136] Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection.[136]

Between 1985 and 2000, Rs. 10 billion, around US$226 million, or less than 4 cents per person per year,[142] were spent on the Ganga Action Plan,[19] an environmental initiative that was "the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world".[d] The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a "failure",[143][i][j] a "major failure".[a][b][h]

According to one study,[143]

The Ganga Action Plan, which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm, was delayed for two years. The expenditure was almost doubled. But the result was not very appreciable. Much expenditure was done on political propaganda. The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success. The public of the areas was not taken into consideration. The release of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully. The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted. The continuing customs of burning dead bodies, throwing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked. Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of lakhs of people continued along the riverside. All these made the Action Plan a failure.

The failure of the Ganga Action Plan has also been variously attributed to "environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions",[d] Indian "traditions and beliefs",[k] "corruption and a lack of technical knowledge"[c] and "lack of support from religious authorities".[e]

In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1 billion over the next five years to help save the river.[144] According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs. 70 billion (Rs. 70 billion, approximately US$1.5 billion) is needed to clean up the river.[19]

In November 2008, the Ganges, alone among India's rivers, was declared a "National River", facilitating the formation of a National Ganga River Basin Authority that would have greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river.[145]

In July 2014, the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges-development project titled Namami Gange Programme and allocated ₹ 2,037 crore for this purpose.[146] The main objectives of the Namami Gange project is to improve the water quality by the abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of river Ganga by creating infrastructures like sewage treatment plants, river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness.[147]

In March 2017 the High Court of Uttarakhand declared the Ganges River a legal "person", in a move that according to one newspaper, "could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers".[148] As of 6 April 2017, the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce,[149] that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits,[149] that the ruling is "hardly game changing",[150] that experts believe "any follow-up action is unlikely",[151] and that the "judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter."[152]

The incidence of water-borne and enteric diseases—such as gastrointestinal disease, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid—among people who use the river's waters for bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an estimated 66% per year.[136]

Recent studies by Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country. Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer. According to Deputy Director-General of NCRP A. Nandkumar, the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry.[153]

Apart from that, many NGOs have come forward to rejuvenate the river Ganges. Vikrant Tongad, an Environmental specialist from SAFE Green filed a petition against Simbhaoli Sugar Mill (Hapur UP) to NGT. NGT slapped a fine of Rs. 5 crores to Sugar Mill also, a fine of 25 Lakhs to Gopaljee Dairy for discharging untreated effluents into the Simbhaoli drain.[154]

Water shortages

Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are getting noticeably worse. Some sections of the river are already completely dry. Around Varanasi, the river once had an average depth of 60 metres (200 ft), but in some places, it is now only 10 metres (33 ft).[155]

To cope with its chronic water shortages, India employs electric groundwater pumps, diesel-powered tankers, and coal-fed power plants. If the country increasingly relies on these energy-intensive short-term fixes, the whole planet's climate will bear the consequences. India is under enormous pressure to develop its economic potential while also protecting its environment—something few, if any, countries have accomplished. What India does with its water will be a test of whether that combination is possible.[156]

Mining

Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed for stones and sand for construction work has long been a problem in Haridwar district, Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the first time. This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in Kumbh Mela area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar.[157]

In Art and Literature

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Haberman (2006)
    "The Ganga Action Plan, commonly known as GAP, was launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares (Varanasi) on 14 June 1985, by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who promised, 'We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.' The stated task was 'to improve water quality, permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 kilometers from the Ganges's origin in the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its banks.' The project was designed to tackle pollution from twenty-five cities and towns along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal by intercepting, diverting, and treating their effluents. With the GAP's Phase II, three important tributaries—Damodar, Gomati, and Yamuna—were added to the plan. Although some improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges's water, many people claim that the GAP has been a major failure. The environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta, for example, filed public interest litigation against the project, claiming 'GAP has collapsed.'"
  2. ^ a b Gardner (2003)
    "The Ganges, also known as the Ganga, is one of the world's major rivers, running for more than 2,500 kilometres from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most polluted, primarily from sewage, but also from animal carcasses, human corpses, and soap, and other pollutants from bathers. Indeed, scientists measure fecal coliform levels at thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen in the water are similarly unhealthy. Renewal efforts have centred primarily on the government-sponsored Ganga Action Plan (GAP), started in 1985 intending to clean up the river by 1993. Several western-style sewage treatment plants were built along the river, but they were poorly designed, poorly maintained, and prone to shut down during the region's frequent power outages. The GAP has been a colossal failure, and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985." (p. 166)
  3. ^ a b Sheth (2008)
    "But the Indian government, as a whole, appears typically ineffective. Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typified by the 20-year, $100 million Ganga Action Plan, whose purpose was to clean up the Ganges River. Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure, due to the same problems that have always beset the government: poor planning, corruption, and a lack of technical knowledge. The river, they say, is more polluted than ever." (pp. 67–68)
  4. ^ a b c Singh & Singh (2007)
    "In February 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, an environmental project to improve the river water quality. It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in the water quality of the river. Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may be directly linked with environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions. The bibliography of selected environmental research studies on the Ganga River is, therefore, an essential first step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future."
  5. ^ a b c d Puttick (2008)
    "Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution. The main source of contamination is organic waste—sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Around a billion liters of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each day, along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals (including DDT), industrial pollutants, and toxic chemical waste from the booming industries along the river. The level of pollution is now 10,000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing (let alone drinking). One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases, including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80 percent of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses." (p. 247)
    "There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and other rivers, led by the Indian government's Ganga Action Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement, corruption, and technological mistakes, but also lack of support from religious authorities. This may well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested in the idea of the Ganges' purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the water in ritual, as well as their own authority. There are many temples along the river, conducting a brisk trade in ceremonies, including funerals, and sometimes also the sale of bottled Ganga Jal. The more traditional Hindu priests still believe that blessing Ganga Jal purifies it, although they are now a very small minority given the scale of the problem." (p. 248)
    "Wildlife is also under threat, particularly the river dolphins. They were one of the world's first protected species, given special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. They're now a critically endangered species, although protected once again by the Indian government (and internationally under the CITES convention). Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years, and they have become extinct in the main tributaries, mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation." (p. 275)
  6. ^ Salman & Uprety (2002, pp. 172, 178–187, 387–391)
    Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh on Sharing of the Ganges/Ganga Waters at Farakka.
  7. ^ The IPCC report is based on a non-peer-reviewed work by the World Wildlife Federation. They, in turn, drew their information from an interview conducted by New Scientist with Dr. Hasnain, an Indian glaciologist, who admitted that the view was speculative. See: "Sifting climate facts from speculation". New Scientist. 13 January 2010. and . Thaindian News. 9 January 2010. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2010. On the IPCC statement withdrawing the finding, see: (PDF). IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 20 January 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
  8. ^ a b Bharati (2006)
    "The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the country's gross domestic product. With Indian rivers being severely polluted, interlinking them may actually increase these costs. Also, with the widely recognised failure of the Ganga Action Plan, there is a danger that contaminants from the Gangetic basin might enter other basins and destroy their natural cleansing processes. The new areas that will be river-fed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their streams from the polluted Gangetic basin streams." (p. 26)
  9. ^ Caso & Wolf (2010)
    "Chronology: 1985 *India launches Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan to restore the Ganges River; most deem it a failure by the early 1990s." (p. 320)
  10. ^ Dudgeon (2005)
    "To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia's major rivers, the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in 1985. The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to treat the effluent from all the major towns along the Ganges and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75%. The Ganga Action Plan built upon the existing but weakly enforced, 1974 Water Prevention and Control Act. A government audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited success in meeting effluent targets. Development plans for sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73% of the cities along the Ganges, and only 54% of these were judged acceptable by the authorities. Not all the cities reported how much effluent was being treated, and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river. Test audits of installed capacity indicated poor performance, and there were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities. After 15 yr. of implementation, the audit estimated that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14% of the anticipated sewage treatment capacity. The environmental impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which offset any gains from effluent reductions."
  11. ^ Tiwari (2008)
    "Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning. The failure of the Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated with our traditions and beliefs. The disposal of dead bodies, the immersion of idols, and public bathing are part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation, and under no circumstances its water can become impure. Burning of dead bodies through wood, bursting of crackers during Diwali, putting thousands of tonnes of fuelwood under fire during Holi, immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into rivers and seas, etc. are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment. These and many other rituals need rethinking and modification in the light of contemporary situations." (p. 92)

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Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Ganges
  • Christopher de Bellaigue, "The River" (the Ganges; review of Sunil Amrith, Unruly Waters: How Rains, Rivers, Coasts, and Seas Have Shaped Asia's History; Sudipta Sen, Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River; and Victor Mallet, River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India's Future), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 15 (10 October 2019), pp. 34–36. "[I]n 1951 the average Indian [inhabitant of India] had access annually to 5,200 cubic meters of water. The figure today is 1,400 ... and will probably fall below 1,000 cubic meters – the UN's definition of 'water scarcity' – at some point in the next few decades. Compounding the problem of lower summer rainfall ... India's water table is in freefall [due] to an increase in the number of tube wells ... Other contributors to India's seasonal dearth of water are canal leaks [and] the continued sowing of thirsty crops" (p. 35.)
  • Berwick, Dennison (1987). A Walk Along the Ganges. Dennison Berwick. ISBN 978-0713719680.
  • Cautley, Proby Thomas (1864). Ganges canal. A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals, North-western Provinces. London, Printed for Private circulation.
  • Fraser, James Baillie (1820). Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. Rodwell and Martin, London.
  • Hamilton, Francis (1822). An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. A. Constable and company, Edinburgh.
  • Singh, Indra Bir (1996). "Geological Evolution of the Ganga Plain". Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India. 41: 99–137.

External links

 
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
  • Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909
  • Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga
  • The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin IWMI research report
  • The Ganges: A Journey into India (NPR)
  • Ganga River – The longest River Of India


April 22, 2023
ganges, this, article, about, river, other, uses, disambiguation, ganga, disambiguation, ganga, goddess, jeez, india, ganga, gung, bangladesh, padma, trans, boundary, river, asia, which, flows, through, bangladesh, india, river, rises, western, himalayas, indi. This article is about the river For other uses see Ganges disambiguation Ganga disambiguation and Ganga goddess The Ganges ˈ ɡ ae n dʒ iː z GAN jeez in India Ganga ˈ ɡ ʌ ŋ ɡ e GUNG e in Bangladesh Padma ˈ p ʌ d m e PUD me 5 6 7 8 is a trans boundary river of Asia which flows through Bangladesh and India The 2 525 km 1 569 mi river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand It flows south and east through the Gangetic plain of North India receiving the right bank tributary the Yamuna which also rises in the western Indian Himalayas and several left bank tributaries from Nepal that account for the bulk of its flow 9 10 In West Bengal state India a feeder canal taking off from its right bank diverts 50 of its flow southwards artificially connecting it to the Hooghly river The Ganges continues into Bangladesh its name changing to the Padma It is then joined by the Jamuna the lower stream of the Brahmaputra and eventually the Meghna forming the major estuary of the Ganges Delta and emptying into the Bay of Bengal The Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna system is the second largest river on earth by discharge 11 12 GangesGanga India Padma Bangladesh The Ganges in VaranasiMap of the combined drainage basins of the Ganges yellow Brahmaputra violet and Meghna green EtymologyGanga goddess LocationCountryIndia as Ganga Bangladesh as Padma CitiesUttarakhand Rishikesh Haridwar Uttar Pradesh Fatehgarh Bijnor Kannauj Hardoi Bithoor Kasganj Kanpur Prayagraj Mirzapur Varanasi Ghazipur Ballia Lucknow Gomti tributary Farrukhabad NaroraBihar Begusarai Bhagalpur Patna Vaishali Munger Khagaria KatiharJharkhand SahibganjWest Bengal Murshidabad Palashi Nabadwip Shantipur Kolkata Uttarpara Baranagar Diamond Harbour Haldia Budge Budge Howrah Uluberia BarrackporeDelhi Yamuna tributaryRajshahi Division Rajshahi Pabna IshwardiDhaka Division Dhaka Narayanganj Gazipur Munshiganj FaridpurChittagong Division Chandpur Noakhali Barisal Division BholaPhysical characteristicsSourceConfluence at Devprayag Uttarakhand of the Alaknanda river the source stream in hydrology because of its greater length and the Bhagirathi river the source stream in Hindu tradition The headwaters of the river include Mandakini Nandakini Pindar and the Dhauliganga all tributaries of the Alaknanda 1 locationDevprayag the beginning of the main stem of the GangesMouthBay of Bengal locationGanges DeltaLength2 525 km 1 569 mi 2 Basin size1 999 000 km2 772 000 sq mi 3 Discharge locationMouth of the Ganges Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna Basin size 1 999 000 km2 772 000 sq mi Bay of Bengal 3 average38 129 m3 s 1 346 500 cu ft s 4 to 43 900 m3 s 1 550 000 cu ft s 3 1 389 km3 a 44 000 m3 s Discharge locationGanges Delta Bay of Bengal average18 691 m3 s 660 100 cu ft s 3 Discharge locationFarakka Barrage 4 average16 648 m3 s 587 900 cu ft s minimum180 m3 s 6 400 cu ft s maximum70 000 m3 s 2 500 000 cu ft s Basin featuresTributaries leftRamganga Garra Gomti Ghaghara Gandak Burhi Gandak Koshi Mahananda Brahmaputra Meghna rightYamuna Tamsa also called Tons Karamnasa Sone Punpun Falgu Kiul Chandan Ajoy Damodar RupnarayanCoordinates 25 18 N 83 01 E 25 30 N 83 01 E 25 30 83 01The main stem of the Ganges begins at the town of Devprayag 1 at the confluence of the Alaknanda which is the source stream in hydrology on account of its greater length and the Bhagirathi which is considered the source stream in Hindu Mythology The Ganges is a lifeline to millions of people who live in its basin and depend on it for their daily needs 13 14 It has been important historically with many former provincial or imperial capitals such as Pataliputra 15 Kannauj 15 Kara Munger Kashi Patna Hajipur Delhi Bhagalpur Murshidabad Baharampur Kampilya and Kolkata located on its banks or the banks of tributaries and connected waterways The river is home to approximately 140 species of fish 90 species of amphibians and also reptiles and mammals including critically endangered species such as the gharial and South Asian river dolphin 16 The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus 17 It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism 18 The Ganges is threatened by severe pollution This poses a danger not only to humans but also to animals The levels of fecal coliform bacteria from human waste in the river near Varanasi are more than a hundred times the Indian government s official limit 16 The Ganga Action Plan an environmental initiative to clean up the river has been considered a failure a b 19 which is variously attributed to corruption a lack of will in the government poor technical expertise c poor environmental planning d and a lack of support from religious authorities e Contents 1 Course 2 Geology 3 Hydrology 4 History 5 Religious and cultural significance 5 1 Embodiment of sacredness 5 2 Avatarana Descent of Ganges 5 3 Redemption of the Dead 5 4 The Purifying Ganges 5 5 Consort Shakti and Mother 5 6 Ganges in classical Indian iconography 5 7 Kumbh Mela 6 Irrigation 6 1 Canals 6 2 Dams and barrages 7 Economy 7 1 Tourism 8 Ecology and environment 8 1 Fish 8 2 Crocodilians and turtles 8 3 Ganges river dolphin 8 4 Effects of climate change 9 Pollution and environmental concerns 9 1 Water shortages 9 2 Mining 10 In Art and Literature 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External linksCourse Edit Bhagirathi River at Gangotri Devprayag confluence of Alaknanda right and Bhagirathi left and beginning of the Ganges proper The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges River in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand India The Gandhi Setu Bridge across the Ganges in Patna Bihar A sailboat on the main distributary of the Ganges in Bangladesh the Padma river The Ganges delta in a 2020 satellite image The Ganges at Sultanganj The upper phase of the river Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand The Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology although the Alaknanda is longer and therefore hydrologically the source stream 20 21 The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snow melt from peaks such as Nanda Devi Trisul and Kamet The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh at an elevation of 4 356 m 14 291 ft and being mythologically referred to as residing in the matted locks of Shiva symbolically Tapovan which is a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling just 5 km 3 1 mi away 22 23 Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred The six headstreams are the Alaknanda Dhauliganga Nandakini Pindar Mandakini and Bhagirathi Their confluences known as the Panch Prayag are all along the Alaknanda They are in downstream order Vishnuprayag where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda Nandprayag where the Nandakini joins Karnaprayag where the Pindar joins Rudraprayag where the Mandakini joins and finally Devprayag where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges 20 After flowing for 256 90 km 159 63 mi 23 through its narrow Himalayan valley the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar 20 At Haridwar a dam diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh whereas the river whose course has been roughly southwest until this point now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India The Ganges river follows a 900 km 560 mi arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj Farukhabad and Kanpur Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga which contributes an average annual flow of about 495 m3 s 17 500 cu ft s to the river 24 The Ganges joins the 1 444 km 897 mi long River Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Prayagraj previously Allahabad a confluence considered holy in Hinduism At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges contributing about 58 5 of the combined flow 25 with an average flow of 2 948 m3 s 104 100 cu ft s 24 Now flowing east the river meets the 400 km 250 mi long Tamsa River also called Tons which flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about 187 m3 s 6 600 cu ft s After the Tamsa the 625 km 388 mi long Gomti River joins flowing south from the Himalayas The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about 234 m3 s 8 300 cu ft s Then the 1 156 km 718 mi long Ghaghara River Karnali River also flowing south from the Himalayas of Tibet through Nepal joins The Ghaghara Karnali with its average annual flow of about 2 991 m3 s 105 600 cu ft s is the largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge After the Ghaghara confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the 784 km 487 mi long Son River which contributes about 1 008 m3 s 35 600 cu ft s The 814 km 506 mi long Gandaki River then the 729 km 453 mi long Kosi River join from the north flowing from Nepal contributing about 1 654 m3 s 58 400 cu ft s and 2 166 m3 s 76 500 cu ft s respectively The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge after Ghaghara Karnali and Yamuna 24 The Kosi merges into the Ganges near Kursela in Bihar Along the way between Allahabad and Malda West Bengal the Ganges river passes the towns of Chunar Mirzapur Varanasi Ghazipur Ara Patna Chapra Hajipur Mokama Begusarai Munger Sahibganj Rajmahal Bhagalpur Ballia Buxar Simaria Sultanganj and Farakka At Bhagalpur the river begins to flow south southeast and at Farakka it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first distributary the 408 km 254 mi long Bhagirathi Hooghly which goes on to become the Hooghly River Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls the flow of Ganges diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt free The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Ajay River at Katwa and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own The largest is the Damodar River which is 625 km 388 mi long with a drainage basin of 25 820 km2 9 970 sq mi 26 The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island 27 Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of Murshidabad Nabadwip Kolkata and Howrah After entering Bangladesh the main branch of the Ganges river is known as the Padma The Padma is joined by the Jamuna River the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra Further downstream the Padma joins the Meghna River the converged flow of Surma Meghna River System taking on the Meghna s name as it enters the Meghna Estuary which empties into the Bay of Bengal Here it forms the 1 430 by 3 000 km 890 by 1 860 mi Bengal Fan the world s largest submarine fan 28 which alone accounts for 10 20 of the global burial of organic carbon 29 The Ganges Delta formed mainly by the large sediment laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers is the world s largest delta at about 64 000 km2 25 000 sq mi 30 It stretches 400 km 250 mi along the Bay of Bengal 31 Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges the Brahmaputra and the Surma Meghna river system 31 In full flood only the Amazon is larger 32 Geology EditThe Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate a minor plate within the Indo Australian Plate 33 Its defining geological processes commenced seventy five million years ago when as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana it began a northeastwards drift lasting fifty million years across the then unformed Indian Ocean 33 The subcontinent s subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it gave rise to the Himalayas the planet s highest mountain ranges 33 In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas plate movement created a vast trough which having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries 34 now forms the Indo Gangetic Plain 35 The Indo Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin 36 Hydrology Edit A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries Major left bank tributaries include the Gomti River Ghaghara River Gandaki River and Kosi River major right bank tributaries include the Yamuna River Son River Punpun and Damodar The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated especially in the Ganges Delta region One result is different ways to determine the river s length its discharge and the size of its drainage basin The River Ganges at Kolkata with Howrah Bridge in the background Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur Bangladesh The name Ganges is used for the river between the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the Himalayas and the first bifurcation of the river near the Farakka Barrage and the India Bangladesh Border The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over 2 600 km 1 600 mi long about 2 601 km 1 616 mi 37 2 525 km 1 569 mi 25 38 or 2 650 km 1 650 mi 39 In these cases the river s source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal 25 37 38 39 Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain 40 In some cases the length of the Ganges is given by its Hooghly River distributary which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River resulting in a total length of about 2 704 km 1 680 mi if taken from the source of the Bhagirathi 30 or 2 321 50 km 1 442 51 mi if from Haridwar to the Hooghly s mouth 41 In other cases the length is said to be about 2 304 km 1 432 mi from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border where its name changes to Padma 42 For similar reasons sources differ over the size of the river s drainage basin The basin covers parts of four countries India Nepal China and Bangladesh eleven Indian states Himachal Pradesh Uttarakhand Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh Bihar Jharkhand Punjab Haryana Rajasthan West Bengal and the Union Territory of Delhi 43 The Ganges basin including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins is about 1 080 000 km2 420 000 sq mi of which 861 000 km2 332 000 sq mi is in India about 80 140 000 km2 54 000 sq mi in Nepal 13 46 000 km2 18 000 sq mi in Bangladesh 4 and 33 000 km2 13 000 sq mi in China 3 44 Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about 1 600 000 km2 620 000 sq mi 32 or 1 621 000 km2 626 000 sq mi 31 The combined Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna basin abbreviated GBM or GMB drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal and China 45 The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Transhimalaya in the north to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system Within the Himalaya the Ganges basin spreads almost 1 200 km from the Yamuna Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8 000m in height including Mount Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin 46 The other peaks over 8 000m in the basin are Kangchenjunga 47 Lhotse 48 Makalu 49 Cho Oyu 50 Dhaulagiri 51 Manaslu 52 Annapurna 53 and Shishapangma 54 The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh the entire state of Uttarakhand the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north western portion of the state of West Bengal citation needed The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source Frequently discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna This results in a total average annual discharge of about 38 000 m3 s 1 300 000 cu ft s 31 or 42 470 m3 s 1 500 000 cu ft s 30 In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges Brahmaputra and Meghna are given separately at about 16 650 m3 s 588 000 cu ft s for the Ganges about 19 820 m3 s 700 000 cu ft s for the Brahmaputra and about 5 100 m3 s 180 000 cu ft s for the Meghna 38 Hardinge Bridge Bangladesh crosses the Ganges Padma River It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges as recorded at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh exceeded 70 000 m3 s 2 500 000 cu ft s 55 The minimum recorded at the same place was about 180 m3 s 6 400 cu ft s in 1997 56 The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest Monsoon About 84 of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September Consequently streamflow in the Ganges is highly seasonal The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1 6 as measured at Hardinge Bridge This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region 42 The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and floods Bangladesh in particular frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon 56 In the Ganges Delta many large rivers come together both merging and bifurcating in a complicated network of channels The two largest rivers the Ganges and Brahmaputra both split into distributary channels the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining the Bay of Bengal But this current channel pattern was not always the case Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have often changed course sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill channel The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the Adi Ganga Between the 12th and 16th centuries the Bhagirathi Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant After the 16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges 27 It is thought that the Bhagirathi Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges 30 One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges now joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna was formed very recently about 150 years ago 57 Also near the end of the 18th century the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically significantly altering its relationship with the Ganges In 1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges Padma River The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course an avulsion shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south cutting a new channel This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River It flows south to join the Ganges Padma During ancient times the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining the Meghna River Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra sometimes Old Brahmaputra 58 The site of the old Brahmaputra Meghna confluence in the locality of Langalbandh is still considered sacred by Hindus Near the confluence is a major early historic site called Wari Bateshwar 59 In the rainy season of 1809 the lower channel of the Bhagirathi leading to Kolkata had been entirely shut but in the following year it opened again and was nearly of the same size as the upper channel but both however suffered a considerable diminution owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel 60 History EditThe first European traveller to mention the Ganges was the Greek envoy Megasthenes ca 350 290 BCE He did so several times in his work Indica India again possesses many rivers both large and navigable which having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier traverse the level country and not a few of these after uniting with each other fall into the river called the Ganges Now this river which at its source is 30 stadia broad flows from north to south and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the Gangaridai a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest sized elephants Diodorus II 37 61 In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and East Pakistan now Bangladesh after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage The original purpose of the barrage which was completed in 1975 was to divert up to 1 100 m3 s 39 000 cu ft s of water from the Ganges to the Bhagirathi Hooghly distributary to restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow would be around 1 400 to 1 600 m3 s 49 000 to 57 000 cu ft s thus leaving 280 to 420 m3 s 9 900 to 14 800 cu ft s for the then East Pakistan 62 East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued In 1996 a 30 year treaty was signed with Bangladesh The terms of the agreement are complicated but in essence they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than 2 000 m3 s 71 000 cu ft s then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50 of the water with each receiving at least 1 000 m3 s 35 000 cu ft s for alternating ten day periods However within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water In March 1997 flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever 180 m3 s 6 400 cu ft s Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following but efforts were made to address the problem One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha west of Dhaka This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the Ganges f Religious and cultural significance EditSee also Ganga in Hinduism Embodiment of sacredness Edit Chromolithograph Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges by William Simpson 1867 The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length All along its course Hindus bathe in its waters 63 paying homage to their ancestors and their gods by cupping the water in their hands lifting it and letting it fall back into the river they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks diyas 63 On the journey back home from the Ganges they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals Ganga Jal literally the water of the Ganges 64 The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology 65 Local rivers are said to be like the Ganges and are sometimes called the local Ganges 65 The Godavari River of Maharashtra in Western India is called the Ganges of the South or the Dakshin Ganga the Godavari is the Ganges that was led by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India 65 The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual and is therefore present in all sacred waters 65 Despite this nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river which is thought to remit sins especially at one of the famous tirthas such as Varanasi Gangotri Haridwar or the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad 65 The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindus even their skeptics have agreed upon 66 Jawaharlal Nehru a religious iconoclast himself asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges 66 The Ganga he wrote in his will is the river of India beloved of her people round which are intertwined her racial memories her hopes and fears her songs of triumph her victories and her defeats She has been a symbol of India s age long culture and civilization ever changing ever flowing and yet ever the same Ganga 66 Avatarana Descent of Ganges Edit Descent of Ganga painting by Raja Ravi Varma c 1910 In late May or early June every year Hindus celebrate the karunasiri and the rise of the Ganges from earth to heaven 67 The day of the celebration Ganga Dashahara the Dashami tenth day of the waxing moon of the Hindu calendar month Jyestha brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river 67 A dip in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins dasha Sanskrit ten hara to destroy or ten lifetimes of sins 67 Those who cannot journey to the river however can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water which for the true believer takes on all the attributes of the Ganges 67 The karunasiri is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story 67 In the Vedic version Indra the Lord of Swarga Heaven slays the celestial serpent Vritra releasing the celestial liquid soma or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance 67 In the Vaishnava version of the myth the heavenly waters were then a river called Vishnupadi Sanskrit from the foot of Vishnu 67 As Lord Vishnu as the avatar Vamana completes his celebrated three strides of earth sky and heaven he stubs his toe on the vault of heaven punches open a hole and releases the Vishnupadi which until now had been circling the cosmic egg 68 Flowing out of the vault she plummets down to Indra s heaven where she is received by Dhruva once a steadfast worshipper of Vishnu now fixed in the sky as the Pole star 68 Next she streams across the sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon 68 She then flows down earthwards to Brahma s realm a divine lotus atop Mount Meru whose petals form the earthly continents 68 There the divine waters break up with one stream the Bhagirathi flowing down one petal into Bharatvarsha India as the Ganges 68 It is Shiva however among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon who appears in the most widely known version of the avatarana story 69 Told and retold in the Ramayana the Mahabharata and several Puranas the story begins with a sage Kapila whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara Livid at being disturbed Kapila sears them with his angry gaze reduces them to ashes and dispatches them to the netherworld Only the waters of the Ganges then in heaven can bring the dead sons their salvation A descendant of these sons King Bhagiratha anxious to restore his ancestors undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganges s descent from heaven However since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to receive the Ganges in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall The Ganges descends is tamed in Shiva s locks and arrives in the Himalayas She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi and eventually to Ganges Sagar Ganges delta where she meets the ocean sinks to the netherworld and saves the sons of Sagara 69 In honour of Bhagirath s pivotal role in the avatarana the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi Sanskrit of Bhagiratha 69 Redemption of the Dead Edit Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi 1903 The dead are being bathed wrapped in cloth and covered with wood The photograph has a caption Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth she is also considered the vehicle of ascent from earth to heaven 70 As the Triloka patha gamini Sanskrit triloka three worlds patha road gamini one who travels of the Hindu tradition she flows in heaven earth and the netherworld and consequently is a tirtha or crossing point of all beings the living as well as the dead 70 It is for this reason that the story of the avatarana is told at Shraddha ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism and Ganges water is used in Vedic rituals after death 70 Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipper s wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters 70 The Gangashtakam expresses this longing fervently 70 O Mother Necklace adorning the worlds Banner rising to heaven I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks Drinking your water rolling in your waves Remembering your name bestowing my gaze upon you 71 No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi the Great Cremation Ground or Mahashmshana 70 Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi are cremated on the banks of the Ganges and are granted instant salvation 72 If the death has occurred elsewhere salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges 72 If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges if possible during the lunar fortnight of the ancestors in the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin September or October and performing the Shraddha rites 72 Hindus also perform pinda pradana a rite for the dead in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited 73 Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered according to one story assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for each relative 73 Indeed the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the Mahabharata in one of its popular slokas says If only one bone of a deceased person should touch the water of the Ganges that person shall dwell honoured in heaven 74 As if to illustrate this truism the Kashi Khanda Varanasi Chapter of the Skanda Purana recounts the remarkable story of Vahika a profligate and unrepentant sinner who is killed by a tiger in the forest His soul arrives before Yama the Lord of Death to be judged for the afterworld Having no compensating virtue Vahika s soul is at once dispatched to hell While this is happening his body on earth however is being picked at by vultures one of whom flies away with a foot bone Another bird comes after the vulture and in fighting him off the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below Blessed by this event Vahika on his way to hell is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven 75 The Purifying Ganges Edit Women and children at a bathing ghat on the Ganges in Banares Varanasi 1885 Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying 76 Regardless of all scientific understanding of its waters the Ganges is always ritually and symbolically pure in Hindu culture 76 Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganga 77 Moving water as in a river is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away 77 The swiftly moving Ganga especially in its upper reaches where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain to not be carried away is especially purifying 77 What the Ganges removes however is not necessarily physical dirt but symbolic dirt it wipes away the sins of the bather not just of the present but of a lifetime 77 A popular paean to the Ganga is the Ganga Lahiri composed by a 17th century poet Jagannatha who legend has it was turned out of his Hindu Brahmin caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold the poet finally appeals to Ganga the hope of the hopeless and the comforter of last resort Along with his beloved Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous Panchganga Ghat in Varanasi As he recites each verse of the poem the water of the Ganges rises one step until in the end it envelops the lovers and carries them away 77 I come to you as a child to his mother begins the Ganga Lahiri 78 I come as an orphan to you moist with love I come without refuge to you giver of sacred rest I come a fallen man to you uplifter of all I come undone by disease to you the perfect physician I come my heart dry with thirst to you ocean of sweet wine Do with me whatever you will 78 Consort Shakti and Mother Edit Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism 79 As Brahma s partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his kamandalu water pot 79 She is also Vishnu s consort 79 Not only does she emanate from his foot as Vishnupadi in the avatarana story but is also with Sarasvati and Lakshmi one of his co wives 79 In one popular story envious of being outdone by each other the co wives begin to quarrel While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel Ganga and Sarasvati heap misfortune on each other They curse each other to become rivers and to carry within them by washing the sins of their human worshippers Soon their husband Vishnu arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses He orders Sarasvati to become the wife of Brahma Ganga to become the wife of Shiva and Lakshmi as the blameless conciliator to remain as his own wife Ganga and Sarasvati however are so distraught at this dispensation and wail so loudly that Vishnu is forced to take back his words Consequently in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him 80 Shiva as Gangadhara bearing the Descent of the Ganges as the goddess Parvati the sage Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look on circa 1740 It is Shiva s relationship with Ganga that is the best known in Ganges mythology 81 Her descent the avatarana is not a one time event but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed 81 Shiva is depicted in Hindu iconography as Gangadhara the Bearer of the Ganga with Ganga shown as spout of water rising from his hair 81 The Shiva Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate 81 Shiva is sometimes called Uma Ganga Patiswara Husband and Lord of Uma Parvati and Ganga and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva s better known consort 81 Ganga is the shakti or the moving restless rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth 79 As water this moving energy can be felt tasted and absorbed 79 The war god Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the Kashi Khand of the Skanda Purana in these words 79 One should not be amazed that this Ganges is really Power for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva taken in the form of water This Ganges filled with the sweet wine of compassion was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva the Lord of the Lords Good people should not think this Triple Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers filled with water 79 The Ganga is also the mother the Ganga Mata mata mother of Hindu worship and culture accepting all and forgiving all 78 Unlike other goddesses she has no destructive or fearsome aspect destructive though she might be as a river in nature 78 She is also a mother to other gods 82 She accepts Shiva s incandescent seed from the fire god Agni which is too hot for this world and cools it in her waters 82 This union produces Skanda or Kartikeya the god of war 82 In the Mahabharata she is the wife of Shantanu and the mother of heroic warrior patriarch Bhishma 82 When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body 82 The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition of its divinities holy books and enlightenment 79 As such her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation avahana at the beginning and dismissal visarjana at the end required in the worship of other gods 79 Her divinity is immediate and everlasting 79 Ganges in classical Indian iconography Edit Photograph 1875 of goddess Ganga Gupta period 5th or 6th century CE from Besnagar Madhya Pradesh now in Museum of Fine Arts Boston Goddess Ganga with left hand resting on a dwarf attendant s head from the Rameshwar Temple Ellora Caves Maharashtra 6th century The goddess Ganga stands on her mount the makara with a kumbha a full pot of water in her hand while an attendant holds a parasol over her Terracotta Ahichatra Uttar Pradesh Gupta 5th century now in National Museum New Delhi The goddess Ganga right in tribhanga pose with retinue Pratihara 10th century now in National Museum New Delhi Early in ancient Indian culture the river Ganges was associated with fecundity its redeeming waters and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks 83 A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form 84 By the 5th century CE an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges now a goddess in her own right and a symbol for all rivers of India 85 Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within 86 As protector of the sanctum sanctorum the goddess soon came to be depicted with several characteristic accessories the makara a crocodile like undersea monster often shown with an elephant like trunk the kumbha an overfull vase various overhead parasol like coverings and a gradually increasing retinue of humans 87 Central to the goddess s visual identification is the makara which is also her vahana or mount An ancient symbol in India it pre dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art 87 The makara has a dual symbolism On the one hand it represents the life affirming waters and plants of its environment on the other it represents fear both fear of the unknown which it elicits by lurking in those waters and real fear which it instils by appearing in sight 87 The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the makara with Ganga is at the Udayagiri Caves in Central India circa 400 CE Here in the Cave V flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation two river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts makara and kurma a turtle or tortoise 87 The makara is often accompanied by a gana a small boy or child near its mouth as for example shown in the Gupta period relief from Besnagar Central India in the left most frame above 88 The gana represents both posterity and development udbhava 88 The pairing of the fearsome life destroying makara with the youthful life affirming gana speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself Although she has provided sustenance to millions she has also brought hardship injury and death by causing major floods along her banks 89 The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant who carries a cosmetic bag and on whom she sometimes leans as if for support 86 See for example frames 1 2 and 4 above The purna kumbha or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography 90 Appearing first also in the relief in the Udayagiri Caves 5th century it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured 90 By the 7th century it had become an established feature as seen for example in the Dashavatara temple Deogarh Uttar Pradesh 7th century the Trimurti temple Badoli Chittorgarh Rajasthan and at the Lakshmaneshwar temple Kharod Bilaspur Chhattisgarh 90 9th or 10th century and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames Worshipped even today the full pot is emblematic of the formless Brahman as well as of woman of the womb and of birth 91 Furthermore The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma s pot containing the celestial waters 91 In her earliest depictions at temple entrances the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves 92 However soon the tree cover had evolved into a chatra or parasol held by an attendant for example in the 7th century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh 92 The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above its stem can be seen in frame 4 but the rest has broken off The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod Bilaspur 9th or 10th century where the parasol is lotus shaped 92 and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus 92 As the iconography evolved sculptors especially in central India were producing animated scenes of the goddess replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe 93 A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above is described in Pal 1997 p 43 as follows A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue Following the iconographic prescription she stands gracefully on her composite makara mount and holds a water pot The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag and a female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress s parasol The fourth figure is a male guardian Often in such reliefs the makara s tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water 86 Kumbh Mela Edit A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River Kumbh Mela at Allahabad 2001 Main article Kumbh Mela Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 3 years the Ardh half Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Allahabad 94 the Purna complete Kumbh takes place every twelve years 95 at four places Triveni Sangam Allahabad Haridwar Ujjain and Nashik The Maha great Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 Purna Kumbh Melas or 144 years is held at Allahabad 95 The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks of the river Other activities include religious discussions devotional singing mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages 96 97 Thousands of holy men and women attend and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this The sadhus are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions Some called naga sanyasis may not wear any clothes 98 99 Irrigation EditThe Ganges and its all tributaries especially the Yamuna have been used for irrigation since ancient times 100 Dams and canals were common in the Gangetic plain by the 4th century BCE 101 The Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna basin has a huge hydroelectric potential on the order of 200 000 to 250 000 megawatts nearly half of which could easily be harnessed As of 1999 India tapped about 12 of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1 of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra 102 Canals Edit Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar 1860 Photograph by Samuel Bourne Megasthenes a Greek ethnographer who visited India during the 3rd century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the Gangetic plain Kautilya also known as Chanakya an advisor to Chandragupta Maurya the founder of Maurya Empire included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during the war 101 Firuz Shah Tughlaq had many canals built the longest of which 240 km 150 mi was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century It fell into disuse until 1830 when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal under British control The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects 100 The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Haridwar and its confluences with the Jumna Yamuna River in Etawah and with the Ganges in Cawnpore now Kanpur The first British canal in India which did not have Indian antecedents was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854 103 Contemplated first by Col John Russell Colvin in 1836 it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley who balked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low lying land to reach the drier upland destination However after the Agra famine of 1837 38 during which the East India Company s administration spent Rs 2 300 000 on famine relief the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company s budget conscious Court of Directors In 1839 the Governor General of India Lord Auckland with the Court s assent granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal The Court of Directors moreover considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal which in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine they now deemed to be the entire Doab region 104 The enthusiasm however proved to be short lived Auckland s successor as Governor General Lord Ellenborough appeared less receptive to large scale public works and for the duration of his tenure withheld major funds for the project Only in 1844 when a new Governor General Lord Hardinge was appointed did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley s health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm both in the North Western Provinces with James Thomason as Lt Governor and in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor General Canal construction under Cautley s supervision now went into full swing A 560 km 350 mi long canal with another 480 km 300 mi of branch lines eventually stretched between the headworks in Haridwar splitting into two branches below Aligarh and its two confluences with the Yamuna Jumna in map mainstem in Etawah and the Ganges in Kanpur Cawnpore in map The Ganges Canal which required a total capital outlay of 2 15 million was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie 105 According to historian Ian Stone It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal the Pennsylvania Canal Dams and barrages Edit A major barrage at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975 106 It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh and the tributary Hooghly also known as Bhagirathi continues in West Bengal past Kolkata This barrage which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a 42 km 26 mi long feeder canal and its water flow management has been a long lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh 107 Indo Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh 106 There is Lav Khush Barrage across the River Ganges in Kanpur Tehri Dam was constructed on Bhagirathi River a tributary of the Ganges It is located 1 5 km downstream of Ganesh Prayag the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi Bhagirathi is called the Ganges after Devprayag 108 Construction of the dam in an earthquake prone area 109 was controversial 110 Bansagar Dam was built on the Sone River a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and hydroelectric power generation 111 Ganges floodwaters along with Brahmaputra waters can be supplied to most of its right side basin area along with central and south India by constructing a coastal reservoir to store water on the Bay of Bengal sea area Economy Edit A girl selling plastic containers in Haridwar for carrying Ganges water The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice sugarcane lentils oil seeds potatoes and wheat Along the banks of the river the presence of swamps and lakes provides a rich growing area for crops such as legumes chillies mustard sesame sugarcane and jute There are also many fishing opportunities along the river though it remains highly polluted Also the major industrial towns of Unnao and Kanpur situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution 112 Tourism Edit Tourism is another related activity Three towns holy to Hinduism Haridwar Allahabad Prayagraj and Varanasi attract millions of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation The rapids of the Ganges are also popular for river rafting in the town of Rishikesh attracting adventure seekers in the summer months Several cities such as Kanpur Kolkata and Patna have also developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists 113 114 115 116 Ecology and environment Edit Ganges from Space Human development mostly agriculture has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin More than 95 of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains running along the Himalayan foothills and including Rajaji National Park Jim Corbett National Park and Dudhwa National Park 117 As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus Bengal tigers Panthera t tigris Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis gaurs Bos gaurus barasinghas Rucervus duvaucelii sloth bears Melursus ursinus and Indian lions Panthera leo leo 117 In the 21st century there are few large wild animals mostly deer wild boars wildcats and small numbers of Indian wolves golden jackals and red and Bengal foxes Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta 20 The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion however is nearly extinct 118 The Sundarbans mangroves Heritiera fomes also grow in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta 119 Threatened mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger elephant sloth bear and four horned antelope Tetracerus quadricornis 117 Lesser florican Sypheotides indicus Many types of birds are found throughout the basin such as myna Psittacula parakeets crows kites partridges and fowls Ducks and snipes migrate across the Himalayas during the winter attracted in large numbers to wetland areas 20 There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain The great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps and lesser florican Sypheotides indicus are considered globally threatened 117 The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty There are a few small patches of forest left and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal Shorea robusta as a climax species 117 A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain which includes the lower Brahmaputra River The lower plains contain more open forests which tend to be dominated by Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera Duabanga grandiflora and Sterculia vilosa There are early seral forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal Shorea robusta if forest succession was allowed to proceed In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes 120 The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain despite thousands of years of human settlement remained largely intact until the early 20th century Today only about 3 of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block south of Varanasi remains There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion but over half of these are less than 100 square kilometres 39 sq mi 120 The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains with the addition of a number of other species such as the smooth coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata and the large Indian civet Viverra zibetha 120 Fish Edit The catla Catla catla is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage including several endemics 121 In a major 2007 2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin including the river itself and its tributaries but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins a total of 143 fish species were recorded including 10 non native introduced species 122 The most diverse orders are Cypriniformes barbs and allies Siluriformes catfish and Perciformes perciform fish each comprising about 50 23 and 14 of the total fish species in the drainage 122 There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin but Cyprinidae is the most diverse throughout In the upper section roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80 those followed by Balitoridae about 15 6 and Sisoridae about 12 2 122 Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above 2 400 3 000 m 7 900 9 800 ft above sea level are generally without fish Typical genera approaching this altitude are Schizothorax Tor Barilius Nemacheilus and Glyptothorax 122 About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar and more than 55 of these are in family Cyprinidae followed by Schilbeidae about 10 6 and Clupeidae about 8 6 122 The lower section roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species About 46 of these are in the family Cyprinidae followed by Schilbeidae about 11 4 and Bagridae about 9 122 The Ganges basin supports major fisheries but these have declined in recent decades In the Allahabad region in the middle section of the basin catches of carp fell from 424 91 metric tons in 1961 1968 to 38 58 metric tons in 2001 2006 and catches of catfish fell from 201 35 metric tons in 1961 1968 to 40 56 metric tons in 2001 2006 122 In the Patna region in the lower section of the basin catches of carp fell from 383 2 metric tons to 118 and catfish from 373 8 metric tons to 194 48 122 Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include catla Catla catla golden mahseer Tor putitora tor mahseer Tor tor rohu Labeo rohita walking catfish Clarias batrachus pangas catfish Pangasius pangasius goonch catfish Bagarius snakeheads Channa bronze featherback Notopterus notopterus and milkfish Chanos chanos 20 122 The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being overfishing sometimes illegal pollution water abstraction siltation and invasive species 122 Among the threatened species is the critically endangered Ganges shark Glyphis gangeticus 123 Several fish species migrate between different sections of the river but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams 122 Crocodilians and turtles Edit The threatened gharial Gavialis gangeticus is a large fish eating crocodilian that is harmless to humans 124 The main sections of the Ganges River are home to the gharial Gavialis gangeticus and mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris and the Ganges delta is home to the saltwater crocodile C porosus Among the numerous aquatic and semi aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the northern river terrapin Batagur baska only in the lowermost section of the basin three striped roofed turtle B dhongoka red crowned roofed turtle B kachuga black pond turtle Geoclemys hamiltonii Brahminy river turtle Hardella thurjii Indian black turtle Melanochelys trijuga Indian eyed turtle Morenia petersi brown roofed turtle Pangshura smithii Indian roofed turtle Pangshura tecta Indian tent turtle Pangshura tentoria Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata Indian narrow headed softshell turtle Chitra indica Indian softshell turtle Nilssonia gangetica Indian peacock softshell turtle N hurum and Cantor s giant softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin 125 Most of these are seriously threatened 125 Ganges river dolphin Edit The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P Smit 1894 The river s most famed faunal member is the freshwater Ganges river dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica 117 which has been declared India s national aquatic animal 126 This dolphin used to exist in large schools near urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers but is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before and they have become extinct in the Ganges main tributaries e A recent survey by the World Wildlife Fund found only 3 000 left in the water catchment of both river systems 127 The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true freshwater dolphins in the world The other four are the baiji Lipotes vexillifer of the Yangtze River in China now likely extinct the Indus River dolphin of the Indus River in Pakistan the Amazon river dolphin of the Amazon River in South America and the Araguaian river dolphin not considered a separate species until 2014 128 of the Araguaia Tocantins basin in Brazil There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes 120 Effects of climate change Edit The Tibetan Plateau contains the world s third largest store of ice Qin Dahe the former head of the China Meteorological Administration said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term but issued a strong warning Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world In the short term this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows In the long run the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers including the Indus and the Ganges Once they vanish water supplies in those regions will be in peril 129 In 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC in its Fourth Report stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river were at risk of melting by 2035 130 The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer reviewed finding g In its statement the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin Many studies have suggested that climate change will affect the water resources in the Ganges river basin including increased summer monsoon flow and peak runoff could result in an increased risk of flooding 131 Pollution and environmental concerns EditMain article Pollution of the Ganges Burning ghats in Varanasi the ashes of the dead are released along the banks of the Ganges 132 People bathing and washing clothes along the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels 133 caused by the 400 million people who live close to the river 134 135 Sewage from many cities along the river s course industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas 19 136 137 The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing washing and cooking 136 The World Bank estimates that the health costs of water pollution in India equal three percent of India s GDP h It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one third of deaths can be attributed to water borne diseases e Varanasi a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a holy dip in the Ganges releases around 200 million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day leading to large concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria 136 According to official standards water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100 ml yet upstream of Varanasi s ghats the river water already contains 120 times as much 60 000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml 138 139 After the cremation of the deceased at Varanasi s ghats the bones and ashes are immersed into the Ganges However in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during cholera epidemics spreading the disease Even today holy men pregnant women people with leprosy or chicken pox people who have been bitten by snakes people who have committed suicide the poor and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are left to float free to decompose in the waters In addition those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body leave behind a lot of half burned body parts 140 141 After passing through Varanasi and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river s waters rises from 60 000 to 1 5 million 138 139 with observed peak values of 100 million per 100 ml 136 Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection 136 Between 1985 and 2000 Rs 10 billion around US 226 million or less than 4 cents per person per year 142 were spent on the Ganga Action Plan 19 an environmental initiative that was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world d The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a failure 143 i j a major failure a b h According to one study 143 The Ganga Action Plan which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm was delayed for two years The expenditure was almost doubled But the result was not very appreciable Much expenditure was done on political propaganda The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success The public of the areas was not taken into consideration The release of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted The continuing customs of burning dead bodies throwing carcasses washing of dirty clothes by washermen and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of lakhs of people continued along the riverside All these made the Action Plan a failure The failure of the Ganga Action Plan has also been variously attributed to environmental planning without proper understanding of the human environment interactions d Indian traditions and beliefs k corruption and a lack of technical knowledge c and lack of support from religious authorities e In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US 1 billion over the next five years to help save the river 144 According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates an investment of almost Rs 70 billion Rs 70 billion approximately US 1 5 billion is needed to clean up the river 19 In November 2008 the Ganges alone among India s rivers was declared a National River facilitating the formation of a National Ganga River Basin Authority that would have greater powers to plan implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river 145 In July 2014 the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges development project titled Namami Gange Programme and allocated 2 037 crore for this purpose 146 The main objectives of the Namami Gange project is to improve the water quality by the abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of river Ganga by creating infrastructures like sewage treatment plants river surface cleaning biodiversity conservation afforestation and public awareness 147 In March 2017 the High Court of Uttarakhand declared the Ganges River a legal person in a move that according to one newspaper could help in efforts to clean the pollution choked rivers 148 As of 6 April 2017 update the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce 149 that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits 149 that the ruling is hardly game changing 150 that experts believe any follow up action is unlikely 151 and that the judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others in states outside Uttarakhand who have stakes in the matter 152 The incidence of water borne and enteric diseases such as gastrointestinal disease cholera dysentery hepatitis A and typhoid among people who use the river s waters for bathing washing dishes and brushing teeth is high at an estimated 66 per year 136 Recent studies by Indian Council of Medical Research ICMR say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh Bihar and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer According to Deputy Director General of NCRP A Nandkumar the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry 153 Apart from that many NGOs have come forward to rejuvenate the river Ganges Vikrant Tongad an Environmental specialist from SAFE Green filed a petition against Simbhaoli Sugar Mill Hapur UP to NGT NGT slapped a fine of Rs 5 crores to Sugar Mill also a fine of 25 Lakhs to Gopaljee Dairy for discharging untreated effluents into the Simbhaoli drain 154 Water shortages Edit Along with ever increasing pollution water shortages are getting noticeably worse Some sections of the river are already completely dry Around Varanasi the river once had an average depth of 60 metres 200 ft but in some places it is now only 10 metres 33 ft 155 To cope with its chronic water shortages India employs electric groundwater pumps diesel powered tankers and coal fed power plants If the country increasingly relies on these energy intensive short term fixes the whole planet s climate will bear the consequences India is under enormous pressure to develop its economic potential while also protecting its environment something few if any countries have accomplished What India does with its water will be a test of whether that combination is possible 156 Mining Edit Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed for stones and sand for construction work has long been a problem in Haridwar district Uttarakhand where it touches the plains for the first time This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in Kumbh Mela area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar 157 In Art and Literature Edit The Ganges A painting of the Ganges entering the plains near Haridwar by William Purser with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher s Drawing Room Scrap Book 1838 158 Colgong on the Ganges A painting of the Ganges near Kahalgaon by J M W Turner with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher s Drawing Room Scrap Book 1839 159 See also EditEnvironmental personhood Fair river sharing Ganga Pushkaram Gangaputra Brahmin Ganga Talao Ganga Lake Mongolia List of rivers by discharge List of rivers by length List of rivers of India Mahaweli Ganga National Waterway 1 Pollution of the Ganges River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts Sankat Mochan Foundation Ganga goddess Peninsular River SystemNotes Edit a b Haberman 2006 The Ganga Action Plan commonly known as GAP was launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares Varanasi on 14 June 1985 by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi who promised We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again The stated task was to improve water quality permit safe bathing all along the 2 525 kilometers from the Ganges s origin in the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its banks The project was designed to tackle pollution from twenty five cities and towns along its banks in Uttar Pradesh Bihar and West Bengal by intercepting diverting and treating their effluents With the GAP s Phase II three important tributaries Damodar Gomati and Yamuna were added to the plan Although some improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges s water many people claim that the GAP has been a major failure The environmental lawyer M C Mehta for example filed public interest litigation against the project claiming GAP has collapsed a b Gardner 2003 The Ganges also known as the Ganga is one of the world s major rivers running for more than 2 500 kilometres from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal It is also one of the most polluted primarily from sewage but also from animal carcasses human corpses and soap and other pollutants from bathers Indeed scientists measure fecal coliform levels at thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen in the water are similarly unhealthy Renewal efforts have centred primarily on the government sponsored Ganga Action Plan GAP started in 1985 intending to clean up the river by 1993 Several western style sewage treatment plants were built along the river but they were poorly designed poorly maintained and prone to shut down during the region s frequent power outages The GAP has been a colossal failure and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985 p 166 a b Sheth 2008 But the Indian government as a whole appears typically ineffective Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typified by the 20 year 100 million Ganga Action Plan whose purpose was to clean up the Ganges River Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure due to the same problems that have always beset the government poor planning corruption and a lack of technical knowledge The river they say is more polluted than ever pp 67 68 a b c Singh amp Singh 2007 In February 1985 the Ministry of Environment and Forest Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan an environmental project to improve the river water quality It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in the water quality of the river Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may be directly linked with environmental planning without proper understanding of the human environment interactions The bibliography of selected environmental research studies on the Ganga River is therefore an essential first step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future a b c d Puttick 2008 Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution The main source of contamination is organic waste sewage trash food and human and animal remains Around a billion liters of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each day along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals including DDT industrial pollutants and toxic chemical waste from the booming industries along the river The level of pollution is now 10 000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing let alone drinking One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases including cholera hepatitis typhoid and amoebic dysentery An estimated 80 percent of all health problems and one third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses p 247 There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and other rivers led by the Indian government s Ganga Action Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement corruption and technological mistakes but also lack of support from religious authorities This may well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested in the idea of the Ganges purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the water in ritual as well as their own authority There are many temples along the river conducting a brisk trade in ceremonies including funerals and sometimes also the sale of bottled Ganga Jal The more traditional Hindu priests still believe that blessing Ganga Jal purifies it although they are now a very small minority given the scale of the problem p 248 Wildlife is also under threat particularly the river dolphins They were one of the world s first protected species given special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC They re now a critically endangered species although protected once again by the Indian government and internationally under the CITES convention Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years and they have become extinct in the main tributaries mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation p 275 Salman amp Uprety 2002 pp 172 178 187 387 391 Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the People s Republic of Bangladesh on Sharing of the Ganges Ganga Waters at Farakka The IPCC report is based on a non peer reviewed work by the World Wildlife Federation They in turn drew their information from an interview conducted by New Scientist with Dr Hasnain an Indian glaciologist who admitted that the view was speculative See Sifting climate facts from speculation New Scientist 13 January 2010 and Pachauri calls Indian govt report on melting Himalayan glaciers as voodoo science Thaindian News 9 January 2010 Archived from the original on 28 January 2010 Retrieved 20 January 2010 On the IPCC statement withdrawing the finding see IPCC statement on the melting of Himalayan glaciers PDF IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 20 January 2010 Archived from the original PDF on 15 February 2010 Retrieved 20 January 2010 a b Bharati 2006 The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the country s gross domestic product With Indian rivers being severely polluted interlinking them may actually increase these costs Also with the widely recognised failure of the Ganga Action Plan there is a danger that contaminants from the Gangetic basin might enter other basins and destroy their natural cleansing processes The new areas that will be river fed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their streams from the polluted Gangetic basin streams p 26 Caso amp Wolf 2010 Chronology 1985 India launches Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan to restore the Ganges River most deem it a failure by the early 1990s p 320 Dudgeon 2005 To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia s major rivers the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in 1985 The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to treat the effluent from all the major towns along the Ganges and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75 The Ganga Action Plan built upon the existing but weakly enforced 1974 Water Prevention and Control Act A government audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited success in meeting effluent targets Development plans for sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73 of the cities along the Ganges and only 54 of these were judged acceptable by the authorities Not all the cities reported how much effluent was being treated and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river Test audits of installed capacity indicated poor performance and there were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities After 15 yr of implementation the audit estimated that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14 of the anticipated sewage treatment capacity The environmental impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which offset any gains from effluent reductions Tiwari 2008 Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning The failure of the Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated with our traditions and beliefs The disposal of dead bodies the immersion of idols and public bathing are part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation and under no circumstances its water can become impure Burning of dead bodies through wood bursting of crackers during Diwali putting thousands of tonnes of fuelwood under fire during Holi immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into rivers and seas etc are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment These and many other rituals need rethinking and modification in the light of contemporary situations p 92 References Edit a b Lodrick Deryck O Ahmad Nafis 28 January 2021 Ganges River Encyclopedia Britannica retrieved 2 February 2021 Jain Agarwal amp Singh 2007 a b c d C B Sharma 11 January 2021 Applied Environmental Sciences amp Engineering BFC Publications ISBN 9780313380075 a b Kumar Singh amp Sharma 2005 Salman amp Uprety 2002 p 129 The Ganges Basin known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma is an international river to which India Bangladesh Nepal and China are the riparian states Swain Ashok 2004 Managing Water Conflict Asia Africa and the Middle East Routledge p 54 ISBN 9781135768836 The Ganges is an international river that flows through the territories of India and Bangladesh In the Indian side the Ganges is called the Ganga India s Ganga then becomes Padma for a Bangladeshi India Factfile PDF Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use PCGN p 11 archived PDF from the original on 24 October 2021 PCGN recommended name Ganges Local Names Padma Bangladesh Ganga India Feature type River Subject headings G PDF US Library of Congress Subject Headings thirty fourth edition LCSH 34 PDF 2012 p 23 archived PDF from the original on 21 December 2016 Ganges River India and Bangladesh UF use for Ganga River India and Bangladesh BT broader term Rivers Bangladesh Rivers India NT narrower term Padma River Bangladesh Swain Ashok 2004 Managing Water Conflict Asia Africa and the Middle East Routledge p 54 ISBN 9781135768836 This river originates on the southern slope of the Himalayan range and on its way receives supplies from seven major tributaries Three of them the Gandak Karnali Ghagara and Kosi pass through the Himalayan Hindu Kingdom of Nepal and they supply the major portion of the Ganges flow Salman amp Uprety 2002 pp 129 130 The tributaries that originate in Nepal and China including the Kosi Gandaki Kamala Bagmati Kamali and Mahakali account for about 45 percent of the Ganges flow World of Change Padma River NASA Earth Observatory 31 July 2018 Society National Geographic 1 October 2019 Ganges River Basin National Geographic Society Retrieved 18 May 2020 India s effort to clean up sacred but polluted Ganga River pbs org 16 December 2009 Retrieved 4 July 2012 US TV host takes dig at Ganges Zeenews com 11 February 2020 Retrieved 22 February 2023 a b Ghosh A 1990 An encyclopaedia of Indian archaeology BRILL p 334 ISBN 978 90 04 09264 8 OCLC 313728835 Retrieved 27 April 2011 a b Rice Earle 2012 The Ganges River Mitchell Lane Publishers Incorporated p 25 ISBN 978 1612283685 Alter Stephen 2001 Sacred Waters A Pilgrimage Up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade amp Reference Publishers ISBN 978 0 15 100585 7 retrieved 30 July 2013 Bhattacharji Sukumari Bandyopadhyay Ramananda 1995 Legends of Devi Orient Blackswan p 54 ISBN 978 81 250 0781 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223 33 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 03 15328 7 PMID 14738797 S2CID 208793200 Salman Salman M A Uprety Kishor 2002 Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia s International Rivers A Legal Perspective London The Hague New York Kluwer Law International ISBN 978 0821353523 Alternate copy PDF Retrieved 27 April 2011 Sharma Ramesh C Bahuguna Manju Chauhan Punam 2008 Periphytonic diversity in Bhagirathi Preimpoundment study of Tehri dam reservoir Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering 50 4 255 62 PMID 19697759 Sheth Jagdish N 2008 Chindia Rising Tata McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0070657083 Singh Munendra Singh Amit K 2007 Bibliography of Environmental Studies in Natural Characteristics and Anthropogenic Influences on the Ganga River Environ Monit Assess 129 1 3 421 32 doi 10 1007 s10661 006 9374 7 PMID 17072555 S2CID 39845300 Singh Nirmal T 2005 Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent past and present Bethlehem PA Lehigh University ISBN 978 0934223782 Stone Ian 2002 Canal Irrigation in British India Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy CUP ISBN 978 0521526630 Suvedi Suryaprasada 2005 International watercourses law for the 21st century the case of the river Ganges basin Ashgate ISBN 978 0754645276 Thapar Romila October 1971 The Image of the Barbarian in Early India Comparative Studies in Society and History 13 4 408 36 doi 10 1017 s0010417500006393 JSTOR 178208 S2CID 143480731 Tiwari R C 2008 Environmental Scenario in India in Dutt Ashok K ed Explorations in Applied Geography PHI Learning ISBN 978 8120333840 Wangu Madhu Bazaz 2003 Images of Indian goddesses myths meanings and models Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 8170174165 Wink Andre 2002 From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean Medieval History in Geographic Perspective Comparative Studies in Society and History 44 3 416 45 doi 10 1017 s001041750200021x JSTOR 3879375 S2CID 144649820 Further reading EditMain article Bibliography of Ganges Christopher de Bellaigue The River the Ganges review of Sunil Amrith Unruly Waters How Rains Rivers Coasts and Seas Have Shaped Asia s History Sudipta Sen Ganges The Many Pasts of an Indian River and Victor Mallet River of Life River of Death The Ganges and India s Future The New York Review of Books vol LXVI no 15 10 October 2019 pp 34 36 I n 1951 the average Indian inhabitant of India had access annually to 5 200 cubic meters of water The figure today is 1 400 and will probably fall below 1 000 cubic meters the UN s definition of water scarcity at some point in the next few decades Compounding the problem of lower summer rainfall India s water table is in freefall due to an increase in the number of tube wells Other contributors to India s seasonal dearth of water are canal leaks and the continued sowing of thirsty crops p 35 Berwick Dennison 1987 A Walk Along the Ganges Dennison Berwick ISBN 978 0713719680 Cautley Proby Thomas 1864 Ganges canal A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals North western Provinces London Printed for Private circulation Fraser James Baillie 1820 Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges Rodwell and Martin London Hamilton Francis 1822 An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches A Constable and company Edinburgh Singh Indra Bir 1996 Geological Evolution of the Ganga Plain Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India 41 99 137 External links Edit This article contains Indic text Without proper rendering support you may see question marks or boxes misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India 1909 Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin IWMI research report The Ganges A Journey into India NPR Ganga River The longest River Of India Portal IndiaGanges at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Data from Wikidata 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