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Indo-Aryan languages

The Indo-Aryan languages (or sometimes Indic languages[1][note 1]) are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family. As of the early 21st century, they have more than 800 million speakers, primarily concentrated in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives.[2] Moreover, apart from the Indian subcontinent, large immigrant and expatriate Indo-Aryan–speaking communities live in Northwestern Europe, Western Asia, North America, the Caribbean, Southeast Africa, Polynesia and Australia, along with several million speakers of Romani languages primarily concentrated in Southeastern Europe. There are over 200 known Indo-Aryan languages.[3]

Indo-Aryan
Indic
Geographic
distribution
South Asia
Native speakers
c. 800 million
Linguistic classificationIndo-European
Proto-languageProto-Indo-Aryan
ISO 639-2 / 5inc
Linguasphere59= (phylozone)
Glottologindo1321
Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. Romani, Domari, Kholosi, Luwati, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.
  Chitrali (Dardic)
  Shina (Dardic)
  Kohistani (Dardic)
  Kashmiri (Dardic)
  Sindhi (Northwestern)
  Gujarati (Western)
  Bhili (Western)
  Khandeshi (Western)
  Himachali-Dogri (= W. Pahari, Northern)
  Garhwali-Kumaoni (= C. Pahari, Northern)
  Nepali (= E. Pahari, Northern)
  Eastern Hindi (Central)
  Bengali-Assamese (Eastern)
  Odia (Eastern)
  Halbi (Eastern)
  Sinhala-Maldivian (Southern)
(not shown: Kunar (Dardic), Chinali-Lahuli)

Modern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Old Indo-Aryan languages such as early Vedic Sanskrit, through Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Prakrits).[4][5][6][7] The largest such languages in terms of first-speakers are Hindi–Urdu (c. 329 million),[8] Bengali (242 million),[9] Punjabi (about 120 million),[10] Marathi (112 million), Gujarati (60 million), Rajasthani (58 million), Bhojpuri (51 million), Odia (35 million), Maithili (about 34 million), Sindhi (25 million), Nepali (16 million), Assamese (15 million), Chhattisgarhi (18 million), Sinhala (17 million), and Romani (c. 3.5 million). A 2005 estimate placed the total number of native speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people.[11]

Classification

Theories

 
Classification tree of the Indo-Aryan languages

The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum, where languages are often transitional towards neighboring varieties.[12] Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification.[13] There are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the wave model.[14]

Subgroups

The following table of proposals is expanded from Masica (1991). Note that the table only lists some modern Indo-Aryan languages.

Indo-Aryan subgroups
Model Odia Bengali–
Assamese
Bihari E. Hindi W. Hindi Rajasthani Gujarati Pahari E. Punjabi W. Punjabi Sindhi Dardic Marathi–
Konkani
Sinhala–
Dhivehi
Romani
Hoernlé (1880) E E~W W N W ? W ? S ? ?
Grierson (−1927) E C~E C NW non-IA S non-IA
Chatterji (1926) E Midland SW N NW non-IA S NW
Grierson (1931) E Inter. Midland Inter. NW non-IA S non-IA
Katre (1968) E C NW Dardic S ?
Nigam (1972) E C C (+NW) C ? NW N S ?
Cardona (1974) E C (S)W NW (S)W ?
Turner (−1975) E C SW C (C.)~NW (W.) NW SW C
Kausen (2006) E C W N NW Dardic S Romani
Kogan (2016) E ? C C~NW NW C~NW C NW non-IA S Insular C
Ethnologue (2020)[15] E EC C W EC (E.)~W (C., W.) W NW S W
Glottolog (2020)[16] E Bihari C N NW S Dhivehi-Sinhala C

Anton I. Kogan, in 2016, conducted a lexicostatistical study of the New Indo-Aryan languages based on a 100-word Swadesh list, using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist Sergei Starostin.[14] That grouping system is notable for Kogan's exclusion of Dardic from Indo-Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo-Aryan (43.5%) and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian (39.3%).[17] He also calculated Sinhala–Dhivehi to be the most divergent Indo-Aryan branch. Nevertheless, the modern consensus of Indo-Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features.

Inner–Outer hypothesis

The Inner–Outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan, Dardic and Pahari) representing an older stratum of Old Indo-Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with the newer stratum that is Inner Indo-Aryan. It is a contentious proposal with a long history, with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence. Since its proposal by Rudolf Hoernlé in 1880 and refinement by George Grierson it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate, with the most recent iteration by Franklin Southworth and Claus Peter Zoller based on robust linguistic evidence (particularly an Outer past tense in -l-). Some of the theory's skeptics include Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Colin P. Masica.

Groups

The below classification follows Masica (1991), and Kausen (2006).

Percentage of Indo-Aryan speakers by native language:

  Hindustani (including Hindi and Urdu) (25.4%)
  Bengali (20.7%)
  Punjabi (9.4%)
  Marathi (5.6%)
  Gujarati (3.8%)
  Bhojpuri (3.1%)
  Maithili (2.6%)
  Odia (2.5%)
  Sindhi (1.9%)
  Other (25%)

Dardic

The Dardic languages (also Dardu or Pisaca) are a group of Indo-Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent. Dardic was first formulated by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India but he did not consider it to be a subfamily of Indo-Aryan. The Dardic group as a genetic grouping (rather than areal) has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship: Southworth, for example, says "the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo-Aryan is doubtful" and "the similarities among [Dardic languages] may result from subsequent convergence".[18]: 149 

The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari (e.g. Zoller describes Kashmiri as "an interlink between Dardic and West Pahāṛī"),[19]: 83  as well as non-Indo-Aryan Nuristani; and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in the context of Proto-Indo-Aryan.

Northern Zone

The Northern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as the Pahari ('hill') languages, are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent.

Northwestern Zone

Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of India and Eastern Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken predominantly in the Punjab region and is the official language of the northern Indian state of Punjab; in addition to being the most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. To the south, Sindhi and its variants are spoken; primarily in Sindh. Northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from Shauraseni Prakrit.

Western Zone

Western Indo-Aryan languages, are spoken in the central and western areas within India, such as Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, in addition to contiguous regions in Pakistan. Gujarati is the official language of Gujarat, and is spoken by over 50 million people. In Europe, various Romani languages are spoken by the Romani people, an itinerant community who historically migrated from India. The Western Indo-Aryan languages are thought to have diverged from their northwestern counterparts, although they have a common antecedent in Shauraseni Prakrit.

Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)

Within India, Hindi languages are spoken primarily in the Hindi belt regions and Gangetic plains, including Delhi and the surrounding areas; where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects. Many of these languages, including Braj and Awadhi, have rich literary and poetic traditions. Urdu, a Persianized derivative of Khariboli, is the official language of Pakistan and also has strong historical connections to India, where it also has been designated with official status. Hindi, a standardized and Sanskritized register of Khariboli, is the official language of the Government of India. Together with Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world.

Eastern Zone

The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as Magadhan languages, are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent, including Odisha and Bihar, alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor. Bengali is the seventh most-spoken language in the world, and has a strong literary tradition; the national anthems of India and Bangladesh are written in Bengali. Assamese and Odia are the official languages of Assam and Odisha, respectively. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa[20] and ultimately from Magadhi Prakrit.[21][22][20]

Southern Zone

Marathi-Konkani languages are ultimately descended from Maharashtri Prakrit, whereas Insular Indo-Aryan languages are descended from Elu Prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo-Aryan counterparts.

Insular Indic

Insular Indic languages (of Sri Lanka and Maldives) started developing independently and diverging from the continental Indo-Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE.[14]

Unclassified

The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:

History

Proto-Indo-Aryan

Proto-Indo-Aryan (or sometimes Proto-Indic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic.

Mitanni-Aryan hypothesis

Some theonyms, proper names, and other terminology of the Late Bronze Age Mitanni civilization of Upper Mesopotamia exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate. While what few written records left by the Mittani are either in Hurrian (which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom) or Akkadian (the main diplomatic language of the Late Bronze Age Near East), these apparently Indo-Aryan names suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrians in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. If these traces are Indo-Aryan, they would be the earliest known direct evidence of Indo-Aryan, and would increase the precision in dating the split between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages (as the texts in which the apparent Indicisms occur can be dated with some accuracy).

In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and the Ashvins (Nasatya) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (cf. Sanskrit eka, "one"), tera (tri, "three"), panza (pancha, "five"), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, "nine"), vartana (vartana, "turn", round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian in general or early Iranian (which has aiva).[26] Another text has babru (babhru, "brown"), parita (palita, "grey"), and pinkara (pingala, "red"). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for "warrior" in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha, ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Ṛtasmara "who thinks of Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as Citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu "having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastar "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

Indian subcontinent

Dates indicate only a rough time frame.

Old Indo-Aryan

The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of the Hindu synthesis known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda, but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords.[27]

While Old Indo-Aryan is the earliest stage of the Indo-Aryan branch, from which all known languages of the later stages Middle and New Indo-Aryan are derived, some documented Middle Indo-Aryan variants cannot fully be derived from the documented form of Old Indo-Aryan (on which Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are based), but betray features that must go back to other undocumented variants/dialects of Old Indo-Aryan.[28]

From Vedic Sanskrit, "Sanskrit" (literally "put together", "perfected" or "elaborated") developed as the prestige language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre, etc. Sanskrit of the later Vedic texts is comparable to Classical Sanskrit, but is largely mutually unintelligible with Vedic Sanskrit.[29]

Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, respectively. Inscriptions in Ashokan Prakrit were also part of this early Middle Indo-Aryan stage.

By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan languages. Apabhraṃśa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Śravakacāra of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoption of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors.

The two largest languages that formed from Apabhraṃśa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Assamese, Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.

New Indo-Aryan

Medieval Hindustani

In the Central Zone Hindi-speaking areas, for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by Dehlavi-based Hindustani. Hindustani was strongly influenced by Persian, with these and later Sanskrit influence leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language.[30][31] This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan. Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical, the difference is more sociolinguistic than purely linguistic.[32][33][34] Today it is widely understood/spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia[35] and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers.

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Domari

Domari is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by older Dom people scattered across the Middle East. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan.[36]: 1  Based on the systematicity of sound changes, linguists have concluded that the ethnonyms Domari and Romani derive from the Indo-Aryan word ḍom.[37]

Lomavren

Lomavren is a nearly extinct mixed language, spoken by the Lom people, that arose from language contact between a language related to Romani and Domari[38] and the Armenian language.

Romani

The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages.[39] Romani varieties, which are mainly spoken throughout Europe, are noted for their relatively conservative nature; maintaining the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, alongside consonantal endings for nominal case. Indeed, these features are no longer evident in most other modern Central Indo-Aryan languages. Moreover, Romani shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person, which corresponds to Dardic languages, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further indication that proto-Romani speakers were originally situated in central regions of the subcontinent, before migrating to northwestern regions. However, there are no known historical sources regarding the development of the Romani language specifically within India.

Research conducted by nineteenth-century scholars Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) demonstrated that the Romani language is most aptly designated as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), as opposed to Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA); establishing that proto-Romani speakers could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, coupled with its reduction to a two-way nominative-oblique case system. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation, due to the fact that Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally employed three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this aspect today.

It is suggested that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. During this process, most of the neuter nouns became masculine, while several became feminine. For example, the neuter aggi "fire" in Prakrit morphed into the feminine āg in Hindi, and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have additionally been cited as indications that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, possibly as late as the tenth century.

Sindhic migrations

Kholosi, Jadgali, and Luwati represent offshoots of the Sindhic subfamily of Indo-Aryan that have established themselves in the Persian gulf region, perhaps through sea-based migrations. These are of a later origin than the Rom and Dom migrations which represent a different part of Indo-Aryan as well.

Indentured labourer migrations

The use by the British East India Company of indentured labourers led to the transplanting of Indo-Aryan languages around the world, leading to locally influenced lects that diverged from the source language, such as Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani.

Phonology

Consonants

Stop positions

The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five places of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romani, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantisation in many positions (> [f, x]). [40] /q x ɣ f/ are restricted to Perso-Arabic loanwords in most IA languages but they occur natively in Khowar.[41] According to Masica (1991) some dialects of Pashayi have a /θ/ which is unusual for IA languages. Domari which is spoken in the Middle East and had high contact with Middle Eastern languages has /q ħ ʕ ʔ/ and emphatic consonants from loanwords.

Stops Languages
/p/ // /ʈ/ ~ /t/ /ʈ͡ʂ/ /t͡ʃ/ ~ /t͡ɕ/ /t͡s/ /k/ /q/
                Khowar, Shina, Bashkarik, Kalasha
                Gawarbati, Phalura, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai
                Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (parts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi)
                Hindustani, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Sinhala, Odia, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari), Sanskrit,[42] Prakrit, Pali, Maithili, Magahi, Bhojpuri
                Romani, Domari, Kholosi
                Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)
                Rajasthani's S. Mewari
                Assamese
                Chittagonian
                Sylheti

Nasals

Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurashtri, and Sindhi have been analysed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.[43]

In languages that lack phonemic nasals at some places of articulation, they can still occur allophonically from place assimilation in a nasal + stop culture, e.g. Hindi /nɡ/ > [ŋɡ].

Nasals Languages
/m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/
          Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurashtri, Sindhi, Saraiki
          Sinhala
          Nepali,[44] Kalami, Odia, Dhundhari, Pashayi, Marwari
          Dhivehi[45]
          Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani (Marwari)
          Nepali, Sylheti, Assamese, Bengali
          Urdu, Romani, Domari

Aspiration and breathy-voice

Most Indo-Aryan languages have contrastive aspiration (/ʈ/ ~ /ʈʰ/), and some retain historical breathy voice on voiced consonants (/ɖ/ ~ /ɖʱ/). Sometimes both phenomena are analysed as a single aspiration contrast. The places and manners of articulation which allow contrastive aspiration vary by language; e.g. Sindhi permits phonemic /mʱ/, but the phonemic status of this sound in Hindi is uncertain, and many "Dardic" languages lack aspirated retroflex sibilants despite having unaspirated equivalents.[46]

In languages that have lost breathy-voice, the contrast has often been replaced with tone.

Regional developments

Some of these are mentioned in Masica (1991:104–105).

  • Implosives: Languages in the Sindhic subfamily, as well as Saraiki, western Marwari dialects, and some dialects of Gujarati have developed implosive consonants from historical intervocalic geminates and word-initial stops. Sindhi has a full implosive series except for the dental implosive: /ɠ ʄ ᶑ ɓ/. It has been claimed that Wadiyari Koli has the dental implosive too. Other languages have less complete implosive series, e.g. Kacchi has just /ᶑ ɓ/.
  • Prenasalized stops: Sinhala and Maldivian (Dhivehi) have a series of prenasalized stops covering all places except for palatal: /ᵐb ⁿd ᶯɖ ᵑɡ/.
  • Palatalization: Kashmiri (natively) and some Romani dialects (from contact with Slavic languages) have contrastive palatalisation.
  • Voiceless lateral In Gawarbati, some Pashai dialects, partly Bashkarik and some Shina dialects have /ɬ/ from clusters of tr kr or sometimes pr; dr gr and br merged with /l/ in these languages.
  • Lateral affricates: Bhadarwahi has an unusual series of lateral retroflex affricates (/ʈ͡ꞎ ɖ͡ɭ ɖ͡ɭʱ/ derived from historical /Cɾ/ clusters.

Vowels

Vowel typologies are varied across Indo-Aryan due to diachronic mergers and (in some cases) splits, as well as different accounts by linguists for even the widely-spoken languages. Vowel systems per Masica (1991:108–113) are listed below. Many languages also have phonemic nasal vowels.

Vowels Languages
16 /iː i eː e ɨː ɨ əː ə aː a ɔː ɔ oː o uː u/ Kashmiri
14 /ɪ iː ʊ uː e eː ə~ɐ əː o oː æ~ɛ a aː ɔ/ Maithili
13 /iː i eː e æː æ aː a ə oː o uː u/ Sinhala
10 /i ɪ e ɛ · a ə · ɔ o ʊ u/ Hindustani, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kacchi, Hindko, Rajasthani (most varieties)
9 /i ɪ e æ~ɛ · a ə · o ʊ u/ W. Pahari (Dogri, Rudhari, Mandeali, Pangwali, Khashali, Churahi), Saraiki
/i ɪ e · a ə · ɔ o ʊ u/ W. Pahari (Shodochi, Surkhuli)
/i ɪ e ɛ · a · ɔ o ʊ u/ W. Pahari (Jaunsari, Shoracholi, Kullui)
8 /i e ɛ · a ə · ɔ o u/ Gujarati
/i e ɛ a · ɒ ɔ o u/ Assamese
/i ɪ e · a ə · o ʊ u/ Halbi, Bhatri, W. Pahari (Garhwali, Chameali, Gaddi)
7 /i e æ · a · ɔ o u/ Bengali
6 /i e a · ɔ o u/ Odia, Bishnupriya Manipuri
/i e · a ə · o u/ Marathi, Nepali, Lambadi, Sadri/Sadani
5 /i e · a · o u/ Romani (European dialects)

Sylheti language being a tonal, still classified as the Indo-Aryan language. The vowels of Sylheti language listed below.[47]

Vowels Languages
5 /i e · a · ɔ u/ Sylheti

Charts

The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, mostly following Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

Romani
p t (ts) k
b d (dz) ɡ ɡʲ
tʃʰ
m n
(f) s ʃ x (fʲ)
v (z) ʒ ɦ
ɾ l
j
Shina
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ ɖʐ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
(f) s ʂ ɕ
z ʐ ʑ ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
w j
Kashmiri
p ʈ ts k t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ
b ɖ ɡ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ
m n ɲ
s ʃ
z ɦ ɦʲ
ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ
w j
Saraiki
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
ɳʱ
s (ʃ) (x)
(z) (ɣ) ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ
w j
Punjabi
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
m n ɳ ŋ
(f) s ʃ
(z) ɦ
ɾ l ɽ ɭ
[w] [j]
Nepali
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ dz ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ
m n ŋ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l
ɾʱ lʱ
[w] [j]
Sylheti[48]
ʈ
b ɖ ɡ
m n ŋ
ɸ s  ʃ  x
z ɦ
r l
Sindhi[49]
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
ɳʱ
(f) s (ʃ) (x)
(z) (ɣ) ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ
w j
Marwari
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ
m n ɳ
s ɦ
ɾ l ɽ ɭ
w j
Hindustani
p ʈ (q) k
b ɖ (ɣ) ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ (x)
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n (ɳ)
(f) s (ʂ) ʃ (ʒ)
(z) ɦ
[r] ɾ l ɽ
ɽʱ
ʋ

[w]

j
Assamese
p t k
b d g
ɡʱ
m n ŋ
s x
z ɦ
ɹ l
[w]
Bengali
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n [ɳ] [ɲ] ŋ
[ɸ] [β] [s] [z] ʃ [ʒ] [x] ɦ
[r] ɾ l ɽ
[w] [j]
Gujarati
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
ɳʱ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l ɭ
ɾʱ lʱ
w j
Marathi
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ dz ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
ɳʱ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l ɭ
ɾʱ lʱ
w j
Odia
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
s ɦ
ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ
[ɽʱ]
[w] [j]
Sinhala
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ
m n ɲ ŋ
s ɦ
ɾ l
w j

Sociolinguistics

Register

In many Indo-Aryan languages, the literary register is often more archaic and utilises a different lexicon (Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic) than spoken vernacular. One example is Bengali's high literary form, Sādhū bhāśā, as opposed to the more modern Calita bhāśā (Cholito-bhasha).[50] This distinction approaches diglossia.

Language and dialect

In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In one general colloquial sense, a language is a "developed" dialect: one that is standardised, has a written tradition and enjoys social prestige. As there are degrees of development, the boundary between a language and a dialect thus defined is not clear-cut, and there is a large middle ground where assignment is contestable. There is a second meaning of these terms, in which the distinction is drawn on the basis of linguistic similarity. Though seemingly a "proper" linguistics sense of the terms, it is still problematic: methods that have been proposed for quantifying difference (for example, based on mutual intelligibility) have not been seriously applied in practice; and any relationship established in this framework is relative.[51]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" also refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent, thus also including non-Indo-Aryan languages. See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). "Indic languages". In Britain, David (ed.). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–307. ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6. Retrieved 4 October 2021.

References

  1. ^ Munshi, S (2009). "Indo-Aryan languages". In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Language of the World. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 522-528.
  2. ^ "Overview of Indo-Aryan languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
  3. ^ Various counts depend on where the line is drawn between a "dialect" and a "language".[citation needed] Glottolog 4.1 lists 224 languages.
  4. ^ Burde, Jayant (2004). Rituals, Mantras, and Science: An Integral Perspective. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-81-208-2053-1. The Aryans spoke an Indo-European language sometimes called the Vedic language from which have descended Sanskrit and other Indic languages ... Prakrit was a group of variants which developed alongside Sanskrit.
  5. ^ Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. ... a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct continuations of R̥gvedic Sanskrit, the main base of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from R̥gvedic and in some regards even more archaic.
  6. ^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia, Volume 7. International Learnings Systems. 1968. Most Aryan languages of India and Pakistan belong to the Indo-Aryan family, and are descended from Sanskrit through the intermediate stage of Prakrit. The Indo-Aryan languages are by far the most important numerically and the territory occupied by them extends over the whole of northern and central India and reaches as far south as Goa.
  7. ^ Donkin, R. A. (2003). Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans. American Philosophical Society. p. 60. ISBN 9780871692481. The modern, regional Indo-Aryan languages developed from Prakrt, an early 'unrefined' (prakrta) form of Sanskrit, around the close of the first millennium A.D.
  8. ^ Standard Hindi first language: 260.3 million (2001), as second language: 120 million (1999). Urdu L1: 68.9 million (2001–2014), L2: 94 million (1999): Ethnologue 19.
  9. ^ Bengali or Bangla-Bhasa, L1: 242.3 million (2011), L2: 19.2 million (2011), Ethnologue
  10. ^ "Världens 100 största språk 2010" [The world's 100 largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyclopedin (in Swedish). Government of Sweden publication. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
  11. ^ Bryant, Edwin Francis; Patton, Laurie L. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Routledge. pp. 246–247. ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6.
  12. ^ Masica (1991), p. 25.
  13. ^ Masica (1991), pp. 446–463.
  14. ^ a b c Kogan, Anton I. (2016). "Genealogical classification of New Indo-Aryan languages and lexicostatistics" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationship. 14 (4): 227–258. doi:10.31826/jlr-2017-143-411. S2CID 212688418.
  15. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (23rd ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
  16. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Indo-Aryan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  17. ^ Kogan, Anton I. (2005). Dardskie yazyki. Geneticheskaya kharakteristika [Dardic language. Genetic characteristic] (in Russian). Moskva: Vostochnaya literatura.
  18. ^ Southworth, Franklin C. (2005). Linguistic archaeology of South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33323-7.
  19. ^ Zoller, Claus Peter (2016). "Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan, and northern India as an ancient linguistic area". Acta Orientalia. 77: 71–132.
  20. ^ a b Ray, Tapas S. (2007). "Eleven: "Oriya"". In Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
  21. ^ Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003). "The historical context and development of Indo-Aryan". The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge language family series. London: Routledge. pp. 46–66. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
  22. ^ Claus, Peter J.; Diamond, Sarah; Mills, Margaret Ann (2003). "Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India". South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 203.
  23. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Tharuic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  24. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kuswaric". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  25. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Chinali–Lahul Lohar". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  26. ^ Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301–17
  27. ^ Parpola, Asko (2015). The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press.
  28. ^ Oberlies, Thomas (2007). "Chapter Five: Aśokan Prakrit and Pāli". In Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 179. ISBN 9781135797119.
  29. ^ Gombrich, Richard (14 April 2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8.
  30. ^ Kulshreshtha, Manisha; Mathur, Ramkumar (24 March 2012). Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4614-1137-6.
  31. ^ Nunley, Robert E.; Roberts, Severin M.; Wubrick, George W.; Roy, Daniel L. (1999). The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-080180-7. ... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...
  32. ^ . South Asian Voice. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
  33. ^ . University of California, Davis. Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  34. ^ "Ethnologue Report for Hindi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
  35. ^ Zwartjes, Otto (2011). Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550–1800. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-9027283252.
  36. ^ *Matras, Y. (2012). A grammar of Domari. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton (Mouton Grammar Library).
  37. ^ "History of the Romani language".
  38. ^ . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015. Encyclopædia Iranica
  39. ^ "Romani (subgroup)". SIL International. n.d. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
  40. ^ Masica (1991:94–95)
  41. ^ Cardona, Jain (2003), p. 932.
  42. ^ In Sanskrit, probably /cɕ/ is a more correct representation. Sometimes, only for representation, /c/ is also used.
  43. ^ Masica (1991:95–96)
  44. ^ Only some speakers have a /ɳ/
  45. ^ Unclear status of /ɲ/
  46. ^ Masica (1991:101–102)
  47. ^ Mahanta, Shakuntala; Gope, Amalesh (1 September 2018). "Tonal polarity in Sylheti in the context of noun faithfulness". Language Sciences. 69: 81. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2018.06.010. ISSN 0388-0001. S2CID 149759441.
  48. ^ Gope, Amalesh; Mahanta, Shakuntala (2015). An Acoustic Analysis of Sylheti Phonemes (PDF). ICPhS 2015. Glasgow. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  49. ^ Pandey, Anshuman (10 September 2010). "Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script in ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  50. ^ Masica 1991, p. 57.
  51. ^ Masica 1991, pp. 23–27.

Further reading

  • Morgenstierne, Georg. "Early Iranic Influence upon Indo-Aryan." Acta Iranica, I. série, Commemoration Cyrus. Vol. I. Hommage universel (1974): 271-279.
  • John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
  • Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
  • Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
  • Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
  • Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
  • Ernst Kausen, 2006. Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen (Microsoft Word, 133 KB)
  • Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
  • Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
  • Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
  • Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
  • Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
  • Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.

External links

  • , 25 October 2009
  • Colin P.Masica
  • Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), 7 February 2003.

indo, aryan, languages, sometimes, indic, languages, note, branch, indo, iranian, languages, indo, european, language, family, early, 21st, century, they, have, more, than, million, speakers, primarily, concentrated, india, pakistan, bangladesh, nepal, lanka, . The Indo Aryan languages or sometimes Indic languages 1 note 1 are a branch of the Indo Iranian languages in the Indo European language family As of the early 21st century they have more than 800 million speakers primarily concentrated in India Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Sri Lanka and Maldives 2 Moreover apart from the Indian subcontinent large immigrant and expatriate Indo Aryan speaking communities live in Northwestern Europe Western Asia North America the Caribbean Southeast Africa Polynesia and Australia along with several million speakers of Romani languages primarily concentrated in Southeastern Europe There are over 200 known Indo Aryan languages 3 Indo AryanIndicGeographicdistributionSouth AsiaNative speakersc 800 millionLinguistic classificationIndo EuropeanIndo IranianIndo AryanProto languageProto Indo AryanISO 639 2 5incLinguasphere59 phylozone Glottologindo1321Present day geographical distribution of the major Indo Aryan language groups Romani Domari Kholosi Luwati and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map Pashayi Dardic Chitrali Dardic Shina Dardic Kohistani Dardic Kashmiri Dardic Punjabi Northwestern Sindhi Northwestern Rajasthani Western Gujarati Western Bhili Western Khandeshi Western Himachali Dogri W Pahari Northern Garhwali Kumaoni C Pahari Northern Nepali E Pahari Northern Western Hindi Central Eastern Hindi Central Bihari Eastern Bengali Assamese Eastern Odia Eastern Halbi Eastern Marathi Konkani Southern Sinhala Maldivian Southern not shown Kunar Dardic Chinali Lahuli Modern Indo Aryan languages descend from Old Indo Aryan languages such as early Vedic Sanskrit through Middle Indo Aryan languages or Prakrits 4 5 6 7 The largest such languages in terms of first speakers are Hindi Urdu c 329 million 8 Bengali 242 million 9 Punjabi about 120 million 10 Marathi 112 million Gujarati 60 million Rajasthani 58 million Bhojpuri 51 million Odia 35 million Maithili about 34 million Sindhi 25 million Nepali 16 million Assamese 15 million Chhattisgarhi 18 million Sinhala 17 million and Romani c 3 5 million A 2005 estimate placed the total number of native speakers of the Indo Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people 11 Contents 1 Classification 1 1 Theories 1 1 1 Subgroups 1 1 2 Inner Outer hypothesis 1 2 Groups 1 2 1 Dardic 1 2 2 Northern Zone 1 2 3 Northwestern Zone 1 2 4 Western Zone 1 2 5 Central Zone Madhya or Hindi 1 2 6 Eastern Zone 1 2 7 Southern Zone 1 2 8 Insular Indic 1 2 9 Unclassified 2 History 2 1 Proto Indo Aryan 2 1 1 Mitanni Aryan hypothesis 2 2 Indian subcontinent 2 2 1 Old Indo Aryan 2 2 2 Middle Indo Aryan Prakrits 2 2 3 New Indo Aryan 2 2 3 1 Medieval Hindustani 2 3 Outside the Indian subcontinent 2 3 1 Domari 2 3 2 Lomavren 2 3 3 Romani 2 3 4 Sindhic migrations 2 3 5 Indentured labourer migrations 3 Phonology 3 1 Consonants 3 1 1 Stop positions 3 1 2 Nasals 3 1 3 Aspiration and breathy voice 3 1 4 Regional developments 3 2 Vowels 3 3 Charts 4 Sociolinguistics 4 1 Register 4 2 Language and dialect 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksClassification EditTheories Edit Classification tree of the Indo Aryan languages The Indo Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum where languages are often transitional towards neighboring varieties 12 Because of this the division into languages vs dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary The classification of the Indo Aryan languages is controversial with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification 13 There are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo Aryan with some scholars suggesting the wave model 14 Subgroups Edit The following table of proposals is expanded from Masica 1991 Note that the table only lists some modern Indo Aryan languages Indo Aryan subgroups Model Odia Bengali Assamese Bihari E Hindi W Hindi Rajasthani Gujarati Pahari E Punjabi W Punjabi Sindhi Dardic Marathi Konkani Sinhala Dhivehi RomaniHoernle 1880 E E W W N W W S Grierson 1927 E C E C NW non IA S non IAChatterji 1926 E Midland SW N NW non IA S NWGrierson 1931 E Inter Midland Inter NW non IA S non IAKatre 1968 E C NW Dardic S Nigam 1972 E C C NW C NW N S Cardona 1974 E C S W NW S W Turner 1975 E C SW C C NW W NW SW CKausen 2006 E C W N NW Dardic S RomaniKogan 2016 E C C NW NW C NW C NW non IA S Insular CEthnologue 2020 15 E EC C W EC E W C W W NW S WGlottolog 2020 16 E Bihari C N NW S Dhivehi Sinhala CAnton I Kogan in 2016 conducted a lexicostatistical study of the New Indo Aryan languages based on a 100 word Swadesh list using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist Sergei Starostin 14 That grouping system is notable for Kogan s exclusion of Dardic from Indo Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo Aryan 43 5 and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian 39 3 17 He also calculated Sinhala Dhivehi to be the most divergent Indo Aryan branch Nevertheless the modern consensus of Indo Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features Inner Outer hypothesis Edit Main article Inner Outer hypothesis The Inner Outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of Indo Aryan languages with Outer Indo Aryan generally including Eastern and Southern Indo Aryan and sometimes Northwestern Indo Aryan Dardic and Pahari representing an older stratum of Old Indo Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with the newer stratum that is Inner Indo Aryan It is a contentious proposal with a long history with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence Since its proposal by Rudolf Hoernle in 1880 and refinement by George Grierson it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate with the most recent iteration by Franklin Southworth and Claus Peter Zoller based on robust linguistic evidence particularly an Outer past tense in l Some of the theory s skeptics include Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Colin P Masica Groups Edit The below classification follows Masica 1991 and Kausen 2006 harvcoltxt error no target CITEREFKausen2006 help Percentage of Indo Aryan speakers by native language Hindustani including Hindi and Urdu 25 4 Bengali 20 7 Punjabi 9 4 Marathi 5 6 Gujarati 3 8 Bhojpuri 3 1 Maithili 2 6 Odia 2 5 Sindhi 1 9 Other 25 Dardic Edit Main article Dardic languages The Dardic languages also Dardu or Pisaca are a group of Indo Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent Dardic was first formulated by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India but he did not consider it to be a subfamily of Indo Aryan The Dardic group as a genetic grouping rather than areal has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship Southworth for example says the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo Aryan is doubtful and the similarities among Dardic languages may result from subsequent convergence 18 149 The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari e g Zoller describes Kashmiri as an interlink between Dardic and West Pahaṛi 19 83 as well as non Indo Aryan Nuristani and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in the context of Proto Indo Aryan Kashmiri Kashmiri Kishtwari Poguli Shina Brokskad Kundal Shahi Shina Ushojo Kalkoti Palula Savi Chitrali Kalasha Khowar Kohistani Bateri Chilisso Gowro Indus Kohistani Kalami Tirahi Torwali Wotapuri Katarqalai Pashayi Kunar Dameli Gawar Bati Nangalami Shumashti Northern Zone Edit Main article Northern Indo Aryan languages The Northern Indo Aryan languages also known as the Pahari hill languages are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent Eastern Pahari Nepali Jumli Doteli Central Pahari Garhwali Kumaoni Western Pahari Himachali Dogri Kangri Bhadarwahi Churahi Bhateali Bilaspuri Chambeali Gaddi Pangwali Mandeali Mahasu Pahari Jaunsari Kullui Pahari Kinnauri Hinduri Sarazi Sirmauri Northwestern Zone Edit Northwestern Indo Aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of India and Eastern Pakistan Punjabi is spoken predominantly in the Punjab region and is the official language of the northern Indian state of Punjab in addition to being the most widely spoken language in Pakistan To the south Sindhi and its variants are spoken primarily in Sindh Northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from Shauraseni Prakrit Punjabi Eastern Punjabi Punjabi Doabi Majhi Malwai Puadhi Sansi Western Punjabi Lahnda Saraiki Hindko Pahari Pothwari Inku Sindhi Sindhi Jadgali Kutchi Luwati Memoni Khetrani Kholosi Western Zone Edit Western Indo Aryan languages are spoken in the central and western areas within India such as Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in addition to contiguous regions in Pakistan Gujarati is the official language of Gujarat and is spoken by over 50 million people In Europe various Romani languages are spoken by the Romani people an itinerant community who historically migrated from India The Western Indo Aryan languages are thought to have diverged from their northwestern counterparts although they have a common antecedent in Shauraseni Prakrit Rajasthani Standard Rajasthani Bagri Marwari Mewati Dhundari Harauti Mewari Shekhawati Dhatki Malvi Nimadi Gujari Goaria Loarki Bhoyari Kanjari Od Gujarati Gujarati Jandavra Saurashtra Aer Vaghri Parkari Koli Kachi Koli Wadiyara Koli Bhil Kalto Vasavi Wagdi Gamit Vaagri Booli Northern Bhil Bauria Bhilori Magari Central Bhil Bhili proper Bhilali Chodri Dhodia Dhanki Dubli Bareli Palya Bareli Pauri Bareli Rathwi Bareli Pardhi Khandeshi Lambadi Domaaki Domari Romani Carpathian Romani Balkan Romani Vlax Romani Northern Romani Sinte Romani Finnish Kalo Baltic Romani Central Zone Madhya or Hindi Edit Main article Hindi languages Within India Hindi languages are spoken primarily in the Hindi belt regions and Gangetic plains including Delhi and the surrounding areas where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects Many of these languages including Braj and Awadhi have rich literary and poetic traditions Urdu a Persianized derivative of Khariboli is the official language of Pakistan and also has strong historical connections to India where it also has been designated with official status Hindi a standardized and Sanskritized register of Khariboli is the official language of the Government of India Together with Urdu it is the third most spoken language in the world Western Hindi Hindustani including Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu Khariboli Braj Haryanvi Bundeli Kannauji Parya Eastern Hindi Bagheli Chhattisgarhi Surgujia Awadhi Fiji Hindi Caribbean HindustaniEastern Zone Edit Main article Eastern Indo Aryan languages The Eastern Indo Aryan languages also known as Magadhan languages are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent including Odisha and Bihar alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world and has a strong literary tradition the national anthems of India and Bangladesh are written in Bengali Assamese and Odia are the official languages of Assam and Odisha respectively The Eastern Indo Aryan languages descend from Magadhan Apabhraṃsa 20 and ultimately from Magadhi Prakrit 21 22 20 Bihari Bhojpuri Caribbean Hindustani Fiji Hindi Magahi Khortha Maithili Angika Bajjika Dehati Sadanic Nagpuri Sadri Kurmali Panchpargania Tharu 23 Kochila Tharu Buksa Majhi Musasa Kumhali Kuswaric 24 Danwar Bote Darai Halbic Halbi Kamar Bhunjia Nahari Odia Baleswari Kataki Ganjami Sundargadi Sambalpuri Desia Bodo Parja Bhatri Reli Kupia Bengali Assamese Bishnupriya Manipuri Hajong Chittagonian Chakma Noakhailla Tanchangya Rohingya Sylheti Bengali Gauda Bengali Bangali Rarhi Varendri Sundarbani Manbhumi Dhakaiya Kutti Dobhashi Kamarupic Assamese Kamrupi Goalpariya Rangpuri Surjapuri Rajbanshi Southern Zone Edit Marathi Konkani languages are ultimately descended from Maharashtri Prakrit whereas Insular Indo Aryan languages are descended from Elu Prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo Aryan counterparts Marathi Konkani Marathic Marathi Varhadi Andh Berar Deccan Marathi Phudagi Katkari Varli Kadodi Konkanic Konkani Canarese Konkani Maharashtrian Konkani Insular Indic Edit Insular Indic languages of Sri Lanka and Maldives started developing independently and diverging from the continental Indo Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE 14 Insular Indo Aryan Sinhala Maldivian Dhivehi MahlUnclassified Edit The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo Aryan Chinali Lahul Lohar 25 Chinali Lahul Lohar BadeshiHistory EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message Early Indo European migrations from the Pontic Caspian steppe Proto Indo Aryan Edit Main article Proto Indo Aryan language Proto Indo Aryan or sometimes Proto Indic is the reconstructed proto language of the Indo Aryan languages It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre Vedic Indo Aryans Proto Indo Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo Aryan 1500 300 BCE which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni Aryan Despite the great archaicity of Vedic however the other Indo Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic Mitanni Aryan hypothesis Edit Main article Indo Aryan superstrate in Mitanni Some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the Late Bronze Age Mitanni civilization of Upper Mesopotamia exhibit an Indo Aryan superstrate While what few written records left by the Mittani are either in Hurrian which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom or Akkadian the main diplomatic language of the Late Bronze Age Near East these apparently Indo Aryan names suggest that an Indo Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrians in the course of the Indo Aryan expansion If these traces are Indo Aryan they would be the earliest known direct evidence of Indo Aryan and would increase the precision in dating the split between the Indo Aryan and Iranian languages as the texts in which the apparent Indicisms occur can be dated with some accuracy In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni the deities Mitra Varuna Indra and the Ashvins Nasatya are invoked Kikkuli s horse training text includes technical terms such as aika cf Sanskrit eka one tera tri three panza pancha five satta sapta seven na nava nine vartana vartana turn round in the horse race The numeral aika one is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo Aryan proper as opposed to Indo Iranian in general or early Iranian which has aiva 26 Another text has babru babhru brown parita palita grey and pinkara pingala red Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice vishuva which was common in most cultures in the ancient world The Mitanni warriors were called marya the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well note mista nnu miẓḍha Sanskrit miḍha payment for catching a fugitive M Mayrhofer Etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindoarischen Heidelberg 1986 2000 Vol II 358 Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara artassumara as Ṛtasmara who thinks of Ṛta Mayrhofer II 780 Biridashva biridasṷa biriiasṷa as Pritasva whose horse is dear Mayrhofer II 182 Priyamazda priiamazda as Priyamedha whose wisdom is dear Mayrhofer II 189 II378 Citrarata as Citraratha whose chariot is shining Mayrhofer I 553 Indaruda Endaruta as Indrota helped by Indra Mayrhofer I 134 Shativaza sattiṷaza as Sativaja winning the race price Mayrhofer II 540 696 Subandhu as Subandhu having good relatives a name in Palestine Mayrhofer II 209 735 Tushratta tṷiseratta tusratta etc as tṷaiasaratha Vedic Tvastar whose chariot is vehement Mayrhofer Etym Wb I 686 I 736 Indian subcontinent Edit See also Linguistic history of India Dates indicate only a rough time frame Proto Indo Aryan before 1500 BCE reconstructed Old Indo Aryan ca 1500 300 BCE early Old Indo Aryan includes Vedic Sanskrit ca 1500 to 500 BCE late Old Indo Aryan Epic Sanskrit Classical Sanskrit ca 200 CE to 1300 CE Mitanni Indo Aryan ca 1400 BCE Middle Indo Aryan or Prakrits ca 300 BCE to 1500 CE early Buddhist texts ca 6th or 5th century BCE early Middle Indo Aryan e g Ashokan Prakrits Pali Gandhari ca 300 BCE to 200 BCE middle Middle Indo Aryan e g Dramatic Prakrits Elu ca 200 BCE to 700 CE late Middle Indo Aryan e g Abahattha ca 700 CE to 1500 CE Early Modern Indo Aryan Late Medieval India e g early Dakhini and emergence of the Dehlavi dialectOld Indo Aryan Edit The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent the foundational canon of the Hindu synthesis known as the Vedas The Indo Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords 27 While Old Indo Aryan is the earliest stage of the Indo Aryan branch from which all known languages of the later stages Middle and New Indo Aryan are derived some documented Middle Indo Aryan variants cannot fully be derived from the documented form of Old Indo Aryan on which Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are based but betray features that must go back to other undocumented variants dialects of Old Indo Aryan 28 From Vedic Sanskrit Sanskrit literally put together perfected or elaborated developed as the prestige language of culture science and religion as well as the court theatre etc Sanskrit of the later Vedic texts is comparable to Classical Sanskrit but is largely mutually unintelligible with Vedic Sanskrit 29 Middle Indo Aryan Prakrits Edit Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit vernacular dialects Prakrits continued to evolve The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardhamagadhi Prakrit respectively Inscriptions in Ashokan Prakrit were also part of this early Middle Indo Aryan stage By medieval times the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo Aryan languages Apabhraṃsa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo Aryan with early Modern Indo Aryan spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production the Sravakacara of Devasena dated to the 930s is now considered to be the first Hindi book The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent in the 13th 16th centuries Under the flourishing Turco Mongol Mughal Empire Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoption of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors The two largest languages that formed from Apabhraṃsa were Bengali and Hindustani others include Assamese Sindhi Gujarati Odia Marathi and Punjabi New Indo Aryan Edit Medieval Hindustani Edit Main article Hindustani language See also History of Hindustani In the Central Zone Hindi speaking areas for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha but this was replaced in the 19th century by Dehlavi based Hindustani Hindustani was strongly influenced by Persian with these and later Sanskrit influence leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language 30 31 This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947 when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical the difference is more sociolinguistic than purely linguistic 32 33 34 Today it is widely understood spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia 35 and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers Outside the Indian subcontinent Edit Domari Edit Main article Domari language Domari is an Indo Aryan language spoken by older Dom people scattered across the Middle East The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan 36 1 Based on the systematicity of sound changes linguists have concluded that the ethnonyms Domari and Romani derive from the Indo Aryan word ḍom 37 Lomavren Edit Main article Lomavren language Lomavren is a nearly extinct mixed language spoken by the Lom people that arose from language contact between a language related to Romani and Domari 38 and the Armenian language Romani Edit Main article Romani language The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo Aryan languages 39 Romani varieties which are mainly spoken throughout Europe are noted for their relatively conservative nature maintaining the Middle Indo Aryan present tense person concord markers alongside consonantal endings for nominal case Indeed these features are no longer evident in most other modern Central Indo Aryan languages Moreover Romani shares an innovative pattern of past tense person which corresponds to Dardic languages such as Kashmiri and Shina This is believed to be further indication that proto Romani speakers were originally situated in central regions of the subcontinent before migrating to northwestern regions However there are no known historical sources regarding the development of the Romani language specifically within India Research conducted by nineteenth century scholars Pott 1845 and Miklosich 1882 1888 demonstrated that the Romani language is most aptly designated as a New Indo Aryan language NIA as opposed to Middle Indo Aryan MIA establishing that proto Romani speakers could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000 The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case coupled with its reduction to a two way nominative oblique case system A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation due to the fact that Romani has only two genders masculine and feminine Middle Indo Aryan languages named MIA generally employed three genders masculine feminine and neuter and some modern Indo Aryan languages retain this aspect today It is suggested that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA During this process most of the neuter nouns became masculine while several became feminine For example the neuter aggi fire in Prakrit morphed into the feminine ag in Hindi and jag in Romani The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have additionally been cited as indications that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period possibly as late as the tenth century Sindhic migrations Edit Kholosi Jadgali and Luwati represent offshoots of the Sindhic subfamily of Indo Aryan that have established themselves in the Persian gulf region perhaps through sea based migrations These are of a later origin than the Rom and Dom migrations which represent a different part of Indo Aryan as well Indentured labourer migrations Edit The use by the British East India Company of indentured labourers led to the transplanting of Indo Aryan languages around the world leading to locally influenced lects that diverged from the source language such as Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani Phonology EditConsonants Edit Stop positions Edit The normative system of New Indo Aryan stops consists of five places of articulation labial dental retroflex palatal and velar which is the same as that of Sanskrit The retroflex position may involve retroflexion or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip or merely retraction The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position blade in contact with hard palate Widely transcribed as tʃ Masica 1991 94 claims cʃ to be a more accurate rendering Moving away from the normative system some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates ts instead of palatal though some among them retain tʃ in certain positions before front vowels esp i before j or when geminated Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments t ɾ t gt tʃ and in Kashmiri The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven barring borrowed q while a reduction to the inventory involves ts gt s which has happened in Assamese Chittagonian Sinhala though there have been other sources of a secondary ts and Southern Mewari Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romani which have lost the characteristic dental retroflex contrast and in Chittagonian which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantisation in many positions gt f x 40 q x ɣ f are restricted to Perso Arabic loanwords in most IA languages but they occur natively in Khowar 41 According to Masica 1991 some dialects of Pashayi have a 8 which is unusual for IA languages Domari which is spoken in the Middle East and had high contact with Middle Eastern languages has q ħ ʕ ʔ and emphatic consonants from loanwords Stops Languages p t ʈ t ʈ ʂ t ʃ t ɕ t s k q Khowar Shina Bashkarik Kalasha Gawarbati Phalura Shumashti Kanyawali Pashai Marathi Konkani certain W Pahari dialects Bhadrawahi Bhalesi Padari Simla Satlej maybe Kulu Kashmiri E and N dialects of Bengali parts of Dhaka Mymensingh Rajshahi Hindustani Punjabi Dogri Sindhi Gujarati Sinhala Odia Standard Bengali dialects of Rajasthani except Lamani NW Marwari S Mewari Sanskrit 42 Prakrit Pali Maithili Magahi Bhojpuri Romani Domari Kholosi Nepali dialects of Rajasthani Lamani and NW Marwari Northern Lahnda s Kagani Kumauni many West Pahari dialects not Chamba Mandeali Jaunsari or Sirmauri Rajasthani s S Mewari Assamese Chittagonian SylhetiNasals Edit Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops and among modern languages and dialects Dogri Kacchi Kalasha Rudhari Shina Saurashtri and Sindhi have been analysed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals m n ɳ ɲ ŋ with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal stop cluster ɲj gt ɲ and ŋɡ gt ŋ though there are other sources as well 43 In languages that lack phonemic nasals at some places of articulation they can still occur allophonically from place assimilation in a nasal stop culture e g Hindi nɡ gt ŋɡ Nasals Languages m n ɳ ɲ ŋ Dogri Kacchi Kalasha Rudhari Shina Saurashtri Sindhi Saraiki Sinhala Nepali 44 Kalami Odia Dhundhari Pashayi Marwari Dhivehi 45 Gujarati Hindi Kashmiri Marathi Punjabi Rajasthani Marwari Nepali Sylheti Assamese Bengali Urdu Romani DomariAspiration and breathy voice Edit Most Indo Aryan languages have contrastive aspiration ʈ ʈʰ and some retain historical breathy voice on voiced consonants ɖ ɖʱ Sometimes both phenomena are analysed as a single aspiration contrast The places and manners of articulation which allow contrastive aspiration vary by language e g Sindhi permits phonemic mʱ but the phonemic status of this sound in Hindi is uncertain and many Dardic languages lack aspirated retroflex sibilants despite having unaspirated equivalents 46 In languages that have lost breathy voice the contrast has often been replaced with tone Regional developments Edit Some of these are mentioned in Masica 1991 104 105 Implosives Languages in the Sindhic subfamily as well as Saraiki western Marwari dialects and some dialects of Gujarati have developed implosive consonants from historical intervocalic geminates and word initial stops Sindhi has a full implosive series except for the dental implosive ɠ ʄ ᶑ ɓ It has been claimed that Wadiyari Koli has the dental implosive too Other languages have less complete implosive series e g Kacchi has just ᶑ ɓ Prenasalized stops Sinhala and Maldivian Dhivehi have a series of prenasalized stops covering all places except for palatal ᵐb ⁿd ᶯɖ ᵑɡ Palatalization Kashmiri natively and some Romani dialects from contact with Slavic languages have contrastive palatalisation Voiceless lateral In Gawarbati some Pashai dialects partly Bashkarik and some Shina dialects have ɬ from clusters of tr kr or sometimes pr dr gr and br merged with l in these languages Lateral affricates Bhadarwahi has an unusual series of lateral retroflex affricates ʈ ꞎ ɖ ɭ ɖ ɭʱ derived from historical Cɾ clusters Vowels Edit Vowel typologies are varied across Indo Aryan due to diachronic mergers and in some cases splits as well as different accounts by linguists for even the widely spoken languages Vowel systems per Masica 1991 108 113 are listed below Many languages also have phonemic nasal vowels Vowels Languages16 iː i eː e ɨː ɨ eː e aː a ɔː ɔ oː o uː u Kashmiri14 ɪ iː ʊ uː e eː e ɐ eː o oː ae ɛ a aː ɔ Maithili13 iː i eː e aeː ae aː a e oː o uː u Sinhala10 i ɪ e ɛ a e ɔ o ʊ u Hindustani Punjabi Sindhi Kacchi Hindko Rajasthani most varieties 9 i ɪ e ae ɛ a e o ʊ u W Pahari Dogri Rudhari Mandeali Pangwali Khashali Churahi Saraiki i ɪ e a e ɔ o ʊ u W Pahari Shodochi Surkhuli i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u W Pahari Jaunsari Shoracholi Kullui 8 i e ɛ a e ɔ o u Gujarati i e ɛ a ɒ ɔ o u Assamese i ɪ e a e o ʊ u Halbi Bhatri W Pahari Garhwali Chameali Gaddi 7 i e ae a ɔ o u Bengali6 i e a ɔ o u Odia Bishnupriya Manipuri i e a e o u Marathi Nepali Lambadi Sadri Sadani5 i e a o u Romani European dialects Sylheti language being a tonal still classified as the Indo Aryan language The vowels of Sylheti language listed below 47 Vowels Languages5 i e a ɔ u SylhetiCharts Edit The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo Aryan languages mostly following Masica 1991 106 107 though here they are in IPA Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords square brackets indicate those with very low functional load The arrangement is roughly geographical Romani p t ts tʃ k pʲ tʲ kʲb d dz dʒ ɡ bʲ dʲ ɡʲpʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰm n nʲ f s ʃ x fʲ sʲv z ʒ ɦ vʲ zʲɾ l lʲj Shina p t ʈ ts tʃ tʂ kb d ɖ dʒ ɖʐ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ kʰm n ɳ ɲ ŋ f s ʂ ɕz ʐ ʑ ɦɾ l ɽw j Kashmiri p t ʈ ts tʃ k pʲ t ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ kʲb d ɖ dʒ ɡ bʲ d ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ pʲʰ t ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰm n ɲ mʲ nʲs ʃ sʲz ɦ zʲ ɦʲɾ l ɾʲ lʲw j wʲSaraiki p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱɓ ɗ ʄ ɠm n ɳ ɲ ŋmʱ nʱ ɳʱs ʃ x z ɣ ɦɾ l ɽɾʱ lʱ ɽʱw jwʱ Punjabi p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰm n ɳ ɲ ŋ f s ʃ z ɦɾ l ɽ ɭ w j Nepali p t ʈ ts kb d ɖ dz ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱm n ŋmʱ nʱs ʃ ɦɾ lɾʱ lʱ w j Sylheti 48 t ʈb d ɖ ɡm n ŋɸ s ʃ xz ɦr lSindhi 49 p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱɓ ɗ ʄ ɠm n ɳ ɲ ŋmʱ nʱ ɳʱ f s ʃ x z ɣ ɦɾ l ɽɾʱ lʱ ɽʱw jwʱ Marwari p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱɓ ɗ ɗ ɠm n ɳmʱ nʱs ɦɾ l ɽ ɭw jwʱ Hindustani p t ʈ tʃ q kb d ɖ dʒ ɣ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ x kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱm n ɳ f s ʂ ʃ ʒ z ɦ r ɾ l ɽɽʱʋ w j Assamese p t kb d gpʰ tʰ kʰbʱ dʱ ɡʱm n ŋs xz ɦɹ l w Bengali p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱm n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɸ b s z ʃ ʒ x ɦ r ɾ l ɽ w j Gujarati p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱm n ɳmʱ nʱ ɳʱs ʃ ɦɾ l ɭɾʱ lʱw j Marathi p t ʈ ts tʃ kb d ɖ dz dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱm n ɳmʱ nʱ ɳʱs ʃ ɦɾ l ɭɾʱ lʱw jwʱ Odia p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡpʰ t ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰbʱ d ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱm n ɳs ɦɾ l ɽ ɭ ɽʱ w j Sinhala p t ʈ tʃ kb d ɖ dʒ ɡᵐb ⁿ d ᶯɖ ᵑɡm n ɲ ŋs ɦɾ lw jSociolinguistics EditRegister Edit In many Indo Aryan languages the literary register is often more archaic and utilises a different lexicon Sanskrit or Perso Arabic than spoken vernacular One example is Bengali s high literary form Sadhu bhasa as opposed to the more modern Calita bhasa Cholito bhasha 50 This distinction approaches diglossia Language and dialect Edit In the context of South Asia the choice between the appellations language and dialect is a difficult one and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity In one general colloquial sense a language is a developed dialect one that is standardised has a written tradition and enjoys social prestige As there are degrees of development the boundary between a language and a dialect thus defined is not clear cut and there is a large middle ground where assignment is contestable There is a second meaning of these terms in which the distinction is drawn on the basis of linguistic similarity Though seemingly a proper linguistics sense of the terms it is still problematic methods that have been proposed for quantifying difference for example based on mutual intelligibility have not been seriously applied in practice and any relationship established in this framework is relative 51 See also EditIndo Aryans Iranic languages Indo Aryan migration Proto Vedic Continuity The family of Brahmic scripts Linguistic history of India Indo Aryan loanwords in Tamil Languages of Bangladesh Languages of India Languages of Maldives Languages of Nepal Languages of Pakistan Languages of Sri Lanka Languages of South AsiaNotes Edit In modern and colloquial context the term Indic also refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent thus also including non Indo Aryan languages See e g Reynolds Mike Verma Mahendra 2007 Indic languages In Britain David ed Language in the British Isles Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 293 307 ISBN 978 0 521 79488 6 Retrieved 4 October 2021 References Edit Munshi S 2009 Indo Aryan languages In Keith Brown Sarah Ogilvie eds Concise Encyclopedia of Language of the World Amsterdam Elsevier p 522 528 Overview of Indo Aryan languages Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 8 July 2018 Various counts depend on where the line is drawn between a dialect and a language citation needed Glottolog 4 1 lists 224 languages Burde Jayant 2004 Rituals Mantras and Science An Integral Perspective Motilal Banarsidass Publishers p 3 ISBN 978 81 208 2053 1 The Aryans spoke an Indo European language sometimes called the Vedic language from which have descended Sanskrit and other Indic languages Prakrit was a group of variants which developed alongside Sanskrit Jain Danesh Cardona George 26 July 2007 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge p 163 ISBN 978 1 135 79711 9 a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct continuations of R gvedic Sanskrit the main base of Classical Sanskrit rather they descend from dialects which despite many similarities were different from R gvedic and in some regards even more archaic Chamber s Encyclopaedia Volume 7 International Learnings Systems 1968 Most Aryan languages of India and Pakistan belong to the Indo Aryan family and are descended from Sanskrit through the intermediate stage of Prakrit The Indo Aryan languages are by far the most important numerically and the territory occupied by them extends over the whole of northern and central India and reaches as far south as Goa Donkin R A 2003 Between East and West The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans American Philosophical Society p 60 ISBN 9780871692481 The modern regional Indo Aryan languages developed from Prakrt an early unrefined prakrta form of Sanskrit around the close of the first millennium A D Standard Hindi first language 260 3 million 2001 as second language 120 million 1999 Urdu L1 68 9 million 2001 2014 L2 94 million 1999 Ethnologue 19 Bengali or Bangla Bhasa L1 242 3 million 2011 L2 19 2 million 2011 Ethnologue Varldens 100 storsta sprak 2010 The world s 100 largest languages in 2010 Nationalencyclopedin in Swedish Government of Sweden publication Retrieved 30 August 2013 Bryant Edwin Francis Patton Laurie L 2005 The Indo Aryan Controversy Evidence and Inference in Indian History Routledge pp 246 247 ISBN 978 0 7007 1463 6 Masica 1991 p 25 Masica 1991 pp 446 463 a b c Kogan Anton I 2016 Genealogical classification of New Indo Aryan languages and lexicostatistics PDF Journal of Language Relationship 14 4 227 258 doi 10 31826 jlr 2017 143 411 S2CID 212688418 Eberhard David M Simons Gary F Fennig Charles D eds 2020 Ethnologue Languages of the World 23rd ed Dallas Texas SIL International Hammarstrom Harald Forkel Robert Haspelmath Martin eds 2017 Indo Aryan Glottolog 3 0 Jena Germany Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Kogan Anton I 2005 Dardskie yazyki Geneticheskaya kharakteristika Dardic language Genetic characteristic in Russian Moskva Vostochnaya literatura Southworth Franklin C 2005 Linguistic archaeology of South Asia Routledge ISBN 0 415 33323 7 Zoller Claus Peter 2016 Outer and Inner Indo Aryan and northern India as an ancient linguistic area Acta Orientalia 77 71 132 a b Ray Tapas S 2007 Eleven Oriya In Jain Danesh Cardona George eds The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge p 445 ISBN 978 1 135 79711 9 Cardona George Jain Dhanesh eds 2003 The historical context and development of Indo Aryan The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge language family series London Routledge pp 46 66 ISBN 0 7007 1130 9 Claus Peter J Diamond Sarah Mills Margaret Ann 2003 Afghanistan Bangladesh India South Asian folklore an encyclopedia Routledge p 203 Hammarstrom Harald Forkel Robert Haspelmath Martin eds 2017 Tharuic Glottolog 3 0 Jena Germany Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Hammarstrom Harald Forkel Robert Haspelmath Martin eds 2017 Kuswaric Glottolog 3 0 Jena Germany Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Hammarstrom Harald Forkel Robert Haspelmath Martin eds 2017 Chinali Lahul Lohar Glottolog 3 0 Jena Germany Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Paul Thieme The Aryan Gods of the Mitanni Treaties JAOS 80 1960 301 17 Parpola Asko 2015 The Roots of Hinduism The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization Oxford University Press Oberlies Thomas 2007 Chapter Five Asokan Prakrit and Pali In Cardona George Jain Danesh eds The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge p 179 ISBN 9781135797119 Gombrich Richard 14 April 2006 Theravada Buddhism A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo Routledge p 24 ISBN 978 1 134 90352 8 Kulshreshtha Manisha Mathur Ramkumar 24 March 2012 Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity A Case Study Springer Science amp Business Media p 16 ISBN 978 1 4614 1137 6 Nunley Robert E Roberts Severin M Wubrick George W Roy Daniel L 1999 The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 080180 7 Hindustani is the basis for both languages Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values South Asian Voice Archived from the original on 11 November 2007 Retrieved 26 February 2008 Hindi Urdu Language Instruction University of California Davis Archived from the original on 3 January 2015 Retrieved 3 January 2015 Ethnologue Report for Hindi Ethnologue Retrieved 26 February 2008 Zwartjes Otto 2011 Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia Africa and Brazil 1550 1800 John Benjamins Publishing ISBN 978 9027283252 Matras Y 2012 A grammar of Domari Berlin De Gruyter Mouton Mouton Grammar Library History of the Romani language GYPSY ii Gypsy Dialects Encyclopaedia Iranica Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 25 March 2015 Encyclopaedia Iranica Romani subgroup SIL International n d Retrieved 15 September 2013 Masica 1991 94 95 Cardona Jain 2003 p 932 sfnp error no target CITEREFCardona Jain2003 help In Sanskrit probably cɕ is a more correct representation Sometimes only for representation c is also used Masica 1991 95 96 Only some speakers have a ɳ Unclear status of ɲ Masica 1991 101 102 Mahanta Shakuntala Gope Amalesh 1 September 2018 Tonal polarity in Sylheti in the context of noun faithfulness Language Sciences 69 81 doi 10 1016 j langsci 2018 06 010 ISSN 0388 0001 S2CID 149759441 Gope Amalesh Mahanta Shakuntala 2015 An Acoustic Analysis of Sylheti Phonemes PDF ICPhS 2015 Glasgow Retrieved 11 November 2022 Pandey Anshuman 10 September 2010 Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script in ISO IEC 10646 PDF Retrieved 11 November 2022 Masica 1991 p 57 Masica 1991 pp 23 27 Further reading EditMorgenstierne Georg Early Iranic Influence upon Indo Aryan Acta Iranica I serie Commemoration Cyrus Vol I Hommage universel 1974 271 279 John Beames A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India to wit Hindi Panjabi Sindhi Gujarati Marathi Oriya and Bangali Londinii Trubner 1872 1879 3 vols Cardona George Jain Dhanesh eds 2003 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 77294 5 Madhav Deshpande 1979 Sociolinguistic attitudes in India An historical reconstruction Ann Arbor Karoma Publishers ISBN 0 89720 007 1 ISBN 0 89720 008 X pbk Chakrabarti Byomkes 1994 A comparative study of Santali and Bengali Calcutta K P Bagchi amp Co ISBN 81 7074 128 9 Erdosy George 1995 The Indo Aryans of ancient South Asia Language material culture and ethnicity Berlin Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 014447 6 Ernst Kausen 2006 Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen Microsoft Word 133 KB Kobayashi Masato amp George Cardona 2004 Historical phonology of old Indo Aryan consonants Tokyo Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Tokyo University of Foreign Studies ISBN 4 87297 894 3 Masica Colin 1991 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Misra Satya Swarup 1980 Fresh light on Indo European classification and chronology Varanasi Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan Misra Satya Swarup 1991 1993 The Old Indo Aryan a historical amp comparative grammar Vols 1 2 Varanasi Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan Sen Sukumar 1995 Syntactic studies of Indo Aryan languages Tokyo Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa Tokyo University of Foreign Studies Vacek Jaroslav 1976 The sibilants in Old Indo Aryan A contribution to the history of a linguistic area Prague Charles University External links EditThe Indo Aryan languages 25 October 2009 The Indo Aryan languages Colin P Masica Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo Aryan languages Rajesh Bhatt 7 February 2003 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indo Aryan languages amp oldid 1134803921, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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